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10-30-2013

Addressing “This Woeful Imbalance”: Efforts to Improve Women’s Representation at CIA, 1947-2013

Brent Durbin Smith College, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Durbin, Brent, "Addressing “This Woeful Imbalance”: Efforts to Improve Women’s Representation at CIA, 1947-2013" (2013). Government: Faculty Publications, Smith College, Northampton, MA. https://scholarworks.smith.edu/gov_facpubs/20

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30 October 2013 Smith College – Northhampton, MA Table of Contents

Symposium Partners...... 4

Typists to Trailblazers: Defining the Roles of Women in the Early Years of the CIA...... 6

Addressing “This Woeful Imbalance”: Efforts to Improve Women’s Representation at CIA, 1947-2013...... 16

Women’s History Timeline...... 28

Excerpts from the Center for the Study of Intelligence Publication about “The Petticoat Panel”...... 30

Excerpts from the final reportfrom the Panel on Career Service for Women, 1953...... 33

Memo on the Department of Justice Task Force on Sex Discrimination, 1977...... 34

Memo on the limited career opportunities for women, 1984...... 36

Excerpts from the Glass Ceiling Study, 1992...... 37

Excerpts from an Interview of Four Senior Women in the Directorate of Operations, 2000s...... 39

Excerpts from the final report of the Director’s Advisory Group on Women in Leadership, 2013...... 41

Women Recipients of the CIA Trailblazer Award...... 44

The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 3 The Center for Mission Diversity and Inclusion (CMDI) serves as CIA’s primary resource for employees seeking information, advice, or assistance on a wide range of diversity programs and issues, such as anti-discrimination laws, disability accommodations, dispute resolution, employee resource groups, and community outreach. The name of the Center connects the concepts of diversity and inclusion to the CIA’s national security mission. CMDI’s founda- Symposium Partners tional principle is that accomplishing CIA’s national security mission requires inclusion of diverse viewpoints and expertise in decision-making at all levels of the organization. CMDI offers the guidance Agency leaders need to leverage the diverse viewpoints and experiences from across their workforce and to create inclusive, barrier-free workplaces that enable each officer to contribute. In addition, CMDI initiates barrier analysis of data to drive CIA toward deeper understanding of workplace dynamics related to diversity. CMDI expands the experience of CIA as a partner and protector of our nation’s diverse population by engaging with more public communities in outreach and liaison efforts.

The Information Review and Release Group (IRRG) of CIA’s Information Man- agement Services is responsible for executing the Agency’s Historical Review Program (HRP). This program seeks to identify and declassify collections of documents that detail the Agency’s analysis and activities relating to histori- cally significant topics and events. HRP’s goals include increasing the usabili- ty and accessibility of historical collections. HRP also develops release events and partnerships to highlight each collection and make it available to the Mission broadest audience possible. Smith College educates women of promise for lives of distinction. A college of and for the world, Smith links the power of the liberal arts to excellence in The mission of HRP is to: research and scholarship, developing leaders for society’s challenges.

• Promote an accurate, objective understanding of the information and intel- Values ligence that has helped shape major US foreign policy decisions. • Smith is a community dedicated to learning, teaching, scholarship, discovery, creativity and critical thought. • Broaden access to lessons learned, presenting historical material that gives greater understanding to the scope and context of past actions. • Smith is committed to access and diversity, recruiting and supporting talented, ambitious women of all backgrounds. • Improve current decision-making and analysis by facilitating reflection on the impacts and effects arising from past foreign policy decisions. • Smith educates women to understand the complexity of human history and the variety of the world’s cultures through engagement with social, • Showcase CIA’s contributions to national security and provide the Ameri- political, aesthetic and scientific issues. can public with valuable insight into the workings of its government. • Smith prepares women to fulfill their responsibilities to the local, national • Demonstrate the CIA’s commitment to the Open Government Initiative and and global communities in which they live and to steward the resources its three core values: Transparency, Participation, and Collaboration. that sustain them.

4 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 5 accept that these terms were not mutually needs. This was the period when the exclusive but reflective of the views and cultural and patriotic icon of “Rosie the customs of the early 1950s and ’60s and Riveter” took hold, shaping the career characteristic of the social paradox that aspirations and dreams of young women defined these generations. across the country.

The “white gloves” anecdote comes from For the government, there was little time Carla, a former employee of 39 years to waste on the slow inefficiency of estab- whose experience illustrates the dynamic lishing a new intelligence bureaucracy. shift of cultural norms during that time. The early professionals in the American Entering in 1965 as a GS-4 secretary, intelligence community—the men and she eventually retired as a Senior Intelli- women of the OSS—were to a great de- Typists and Trailblazers: gence Service (SIS) executive. Although gree, all trailblazers. Under the urgency her experience is not typical, it is also far and pressures of war, each new employee Defining the Roles of Women from unique. In the nascent years of the in OSS was expected to maximize their tal- Agency, several women challenged social ents and skills, often with scant training or in the Early Years of the CIA expectations, broke gender barriers, and background in the operational theatre. For set examples for generations of younger the first time these ranks included women Jackie Benn Porter • Historical Review Program women to follow. Although the majority of who took active roles in a range of duties women in these early years could be as support officers, intelligence analysts, described as “typists”—secretaries, admin- specialists, and operational officers. When I came in, in 1965 the first assumption was that any female you istrative assistants, and stenographers— met in the hallway was a secretary or a clerk. And the other big differ- there was also a small but formidable After the war, and upon the creation of ence was when I came on board, we wore hats and white gloves every group of trailblazers, made up largely by OSS’s successor—the Central Intelligence day. The gloves were inspected as you entered the office to be sure that women who served in the Agency’s pre- Group (CIG) which, in 1947, would become your palms were white. I’m not sure what would’ve happened if they cursor, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). the Central Intelligence Agency—many 1 hadn’t been white because I was too petrified to change that. Both typists and trailblazers shaped wom- returning OSS officers continued their – Carla, Directorate of Operations en’s roles within the Agency, but it was this careers. This included many OSS women latter group who laid the groundwork for who came to the CIA as highly decorated future generations to shatter glass ceilings. intelligence and operations officers. How- ever, as was the case of even the most During my career…I wore many faces. I was a tour director, a buyer, It Started With the War experienced of the OSS’s female officers, someone’s girlfriend, a photographer, an art collector, even a young such as Virginia Hall, an unquestionable teenage boy. It helped to have an innocent-looking open face, a sense The nation’s need for a centralized intel- heroine of the war, their ranks and salaries of humor, stamina, and the fearlessness of the very young.2 ligence entity became especially acute did not reflect prior accomplishments as it – Elizabeth Swanek, Directorate of Operations during the Second World War, the greatest did for men. and bloodiest war of the twentieth cen- tury. The creation of the OSS was the first Inequality, But Less So At CIA It might come as a surprise to know that early years of the Agency, to what time in American history that intelligence both of these statements are the actual extent could women develop and advance efforts were concentrated in a centralized By 1953, disparities in pay and position experiences of two female employees who in their careers while contributing to the government organization. WWII directly between male and female employees worked for the CIA during the same time larger mission? What did these women impacted civilians, altering cultural and were so glaring that DCI Allen Dulles or- period. Typist and trailblazer; passive and leave the present-day CIA? To understand social duties and expectations. As men left dered an internal study to survey the posi- aggressive; subordinate and leader; sup- their roles and later impact—within the to fight battles in Europe and the Pacific, tion of Agency women within career fields. port and operational—how does one make backdrop of sweeping changes in women’s women entered the paid workforce, for “The Petticoat Panel” was comprised of sense of these contrasting roles? In the rights in the past half-century—we must the first time, to meet the nation’s military several of the Agency’s most accomplished

6 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 7 female employees, including a number of By 1980, the CIA was still primarily a male stemmed from more of a career redlining, detecting surveillants on foot. I always OSS veterans, and their conclusions were agency with women only accounting for one that was convenient, discriminatory, put that down to women [being] more summarized in a report entitled “Career 35% of its workforce. A recent 2009 report and based on assumptions than actual sensitive [to] who’s near or in their Employment of Women in the Central estimates that the percentage has steadily facts. Even in the 1950s and 1960s, many space, for physical protection. You Intelligence Agency,” which provided a climbed to 44%.6 While the Petticoat Pan- women were just as skilled and qualified know, somebody moves in on you, statistical analysis of women at the CIA el’s findings were telling, they illustrated (and sometimes more so) than their male you’re going to want to know. But compared to women in other government only one side of the story of a particular counterparts to perform duties requiring they were great at picking up surveil- agencies. It was not a pretty picture. The moment in history. It did not predict the high levels of training and operational lants on foot and in stores. Because panel concluded that, while the CIA “has progressive direction the workforce would fluency. For example, on one occasion, a surveillants don’t shop well; they just offered at least equivalent opportunities take in future years, however, it estab- female employee recalled that when she can’t fake it.10 to career women [as other employers]…it lished sex discrimination existed and was first applied for employment in the 1960s, has not, in common with other employers, extensive. In the words of a former female Another interviewee, Meredith, agreed taken full advantage of the womanpower officer, the Petticoat Panel, and later on, She could fly an airplane, speak the and elaborated: resources available to it.”3 The report also the Glass Ceiling Study “put in hardcopy mandarin dialect of Chinese, and revealed gross inequities; particularly that under CIA seal the statistics that proved [was] a college graduate, but was I always said if I ever wrote a book, I the median grade for female employees the discrimination.”7 only asked ‘Can you type?’ She could would start it with, ‘You could tell‘em was GS-5 and not a single woman ranked elicit no responses from the inter- by their socks.’ You would always above GS-14. By comparison, men aver- To illustrate the prevailing views of women viewer on where she might work in know surveillants in [REDACTED] at aged GS-9 and 10% of the male workforce in the workforce, the 1953 study included the Agency, what she might do, and the time by the socks and the shoes. was above GS-14. Additionally, only 19% several comments from Agency officials. what kind of work was open to her.8 We digress here, but with all [REDACT- of CIA women were in GS-7 slots or higher Although they must be appreciated in ED] having such horrible clothes and compared to nearly 69% of male employ- context of the times, the comments are The prevailing view of the Directorate of horrible shoes and socks, the surveil- ees. No women held senior executive posi- revealing. They indicate the deep-root- Operations (DO) in the 1960s and 1970s lants had good ones. That would nev- tions, no woman held an office higher than ed gender bias that prevailed within the was that women were at a disadvan- er occur to my husband to look at it.11 branch chief, and only 7% of branch chiefs early Agency. While the statistical data tage as case officers in certain parts of were women. exposes the extent of discrimination, these the world—namely the Near East, Latin In some cases, female operations officers comments give color to the worldview and America, Africa, and Asia—because those took advantage of male discriminatory Despite these inequalities, the Panel also cultural constraints of the 1950s. However, societies regarded women as “second-class views, using their assumptions to position reported that CIA women were still in by viewing the comments in light of what citizens” and “Women in these countries sel- themselves to gain access to valuable higher grades compared to women em- that era’s trailblazers accomplished, we dom have access to information of value.”9 resources and intelligence. As Patricia ployed in other areas of the government.4 can start to appreciate the paradoxical na- bluntly put it, “the biggest advantage Moreover, women made up 39% of the ture of women’s roles in the early decades The reverse of this view was actually more for women in recruiting… was that men, Agency’s workforce whereas female of the CIA and throughout other industries accurate. It became apparent that female foreign men, will tell women darn near employees of other government agencies where women, before now, had few roles. operations officers had particular advan- anything.”12 Adding to this, Carla shared averaged 25%. On average, CIA wom- tages in the field, and even exceeded an especially illustrative story whilst work- en earned higher salaries than all other The committee expectations when the targets harbored ing in the field: working women. While the Career Ser- concluded this “Women are not the same negative stereotypes of women. vice Board (CSB) commended the Panel statement “seems qualified to perform In an internal interview, four former DO fe- I got credit for a recruitment, but I for its findings, it refused to implement questionable,” the duties in those male officers were asked about their views never actually had to pitch the guy… any immediate corrective policies, stat- but added that positions which they on women’s capabilities, strengths, and Anyway, I was sort of the ‘Dumb Dora’ ing “…the status of women in the Agency “there are specific do not now occupy.” weaknesses in the field. One of them, Patri- personality to survive, and ‘Golly!’ does not call for urgent corrective action, positions requir- cia, remarked that on overseas missions, ‘Gee!’ and ‘Wow!’ And this [REDACT- but rather for considered and deliberate ing traits or specialized training which ED]…he would seek me out. ‘Oh, could improvement primarily through the edu- women are unlikely to possess.” These [women] were terrific because they we talk?’ He would tell me, ‘I just love cation of supervisors.”5 “traits” and “specialized training” were not had no preconceived notions and talking to you because you’re not very elaborated upon, indicating that this view they inevitably… were much better at bright.’ And I would just sit like this

8 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 9 [makes an innocent expression]… the steadily increased from 4% in 1961 to 32% the knee down in a hunting accident, and significant time overseas. Elizabeth Swanek recruitment ended because he told thirty years later in 1991 when the pro- used a wooden prosthetic. Such a disability worked as a field operative in southern me about a plot to go bomb the em- gram was renamed Career Service Train- would have sidelined lesser souls, but Hall Germany almost immediately after joining bassy in [REDACTED] and we arrested ing (CST). During the 1960s and 1970s, used it to enhance her cover. Such was the Agency in the 1950s. him and his gang of merry men as women remained a small minority in the her dedication and aplomb. Her value as they crossed the border. He just told operations field. A 1978 study found that a spy was reflected by Gestapo flyers that “Women are undesirable me everything and I got tons of intel only 8% of the DO workforce was women.19 read “The woman who limps is one of the candidates for long-range out of him…because I was just a wom- However, while this group was small, it most dangerous Allied agents in France… employment because they an who wasn’t very bright.13 was illustrious and founded on the legacy We must find and destroy her.”21 frequently interrupt or terminate of the women of the OSS. their employment for marriage DCI Allen Dulles apparently also appreci- Hall entered the CIA after the war, but by or family reasons.” ated women’s advantages in the field. In “Women can’t work under the 1963, she held only a GS-14 rank, even a 1971 memo from the Chief of the Office pressures of urgency and special though she had been awarded the Distin- of Personnel’s Recruitment Division, Dulles considerations inherent in much guished Service Cross and had spent more Having a family and working abroad was said to have publicly remarked in the of the Agency’s work.” time behind enemy lines than several of posed difficult but not insurmountable mid-50s that women were “fine spies.”14 her male contemporaries — including DCIs obstacles to female officers. Balancing One of the women who may have inspired Richard Helms and William Colby.22 To our work and personal life was, and still is, a Dulles to have made such a declaration One of the most decorated OSS officers in modern day sensibilities, it is remarkable challenge for any Agency employee who could have been Elizabeth Swanek, who intelligence history was Virginia Hall Goil- that an officer as heroic and celebrated is duty-bound to both the mission and their joined the CIA in 1951. She had a military lot. Hall spent considerable time behind as Virginia Hall was still a victim of dis- family. While women may have been background in signals communications enemy lines and contributed significantly crimination, and more susceptible than men to this problem, and medical training before entering grad- to US intelligence collection efforts during “Women are absent faced the conve- documents, oral histories, and other evi- uate school to study political science and the Second World War. Her story is perhaps for illness or family nient and clear- dence suggest that many Agency women Russian. Upon graduation, she was imme- one of the most well-known in the Agency responsibilities more ly self-serving frequently sacrificed time with their fami- diately recruited by the CIA and sent to the and her portrait is on display at CIA Head- often than men.” assumption from lies to pursue the greater aims of the CIA’s Office of Special Operations in Germany.15 quarters. After receiving degrees from Rad- male higher-ups mission. Notes interviewee Meredith: Swanek worked alongside two male col- cliffe and Barnard colleges, Hall began that women could not perform effectively leagues to “assess, select, and train candi- her career in government service at the in the field. Every facet of Hall’s OSS career I felt so compelled—we were talking dates to infiltrate the Soviet Union,” — most US Embassy in Warsaw. At the outbreak of was unquestionable evidence to the con- before this, about sacrifices women— of whom were former Soviet citizens and war in 1939, she quit the State Department trary, and her contemporaries knew it. and, yeah, men, too—were willing to defectors.16 She took part in every aspect and volunteered for Great Britain’s intelli- undergo at the time to have opportu- of the training process including “survival gence service. During her first tour in Vichy At the time of these statements, the com- nities to do that. I was in [REDACTED] techniques, parachute jumps, drop-zone France, she organized resistance networks, mittee reported that “a fairly large num- [for my] first tour and got pregnant familiarization and wireless transmission.”17 made a daring escape across the Pyrenees ber of women” served overseas. Women and came back to Washington a Swanek would eventually go on to open a in 1942, and then joined the OSS before were needed in various field positions from couple weeks before the baby was station by herself and be awarded the CIA returning to France in 1944. As she was operations to support and administration. born, [knowing] it was going to have Career Intelligence Medal. already well known to the Nazis, Hall was Examples in the records are numerous. to be a cesarean. Went in, worked up forced to use elaborate disguises. Dyeing 1963 JOT graduate and intelligence until the day the baby was born, had Accomplished, Awarded, her hair gray, the thirty-eight-year-old Hall officer Diana spent her first seven years the baby, had the cesarean, and was and, if Female, Ignored presented herself as an elderly milkmaid, in field operations, several of which were back on the street in wearing layers of tattered clothing to dis- abroad.23 Jeanne Vertefeuille, who came [REDACTED] in seven “Women won’t travel.” At least as early as 1961, women had guise her slender figure, and mastering a to the CIA in 1954 and later helped to un- days. And I wasn’t been participating in the annual Junior slow, shuffling old woman’s walk.20 Hall’s cover Aldrich Ames as a mole, spent her the only one that was doing that—all Officer Training (JOT) program, a training most defining characteristic, and one that early years on two different tours of duty of us, you really felt like you couldn’t course designed for future operations offi- makes her story more remarkable, was in Africa.24 All four of the women profiled take off and do that.25 cers.18 The portion of female JOT graduates the fact she had lost her lower leg from in the RYBAT Sisterhood interview spent

10 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 11 Susan related her own personal struggles careers, be forced to make difficult choices. “Women are more ing numerous women had neither the encouragement in trying to balance an Agency career However, many women seemed equally emotional and less intelligence nor the opportunity to pursue “command with family life: torn between family and career and did objective in their operations and positions” and “professional careers.” In a not just default back to the home when con- approach to problems eventually was 2002 interview, she implied that men were Talking about sacrifices: once I tast- fronted with a tough decision. Recalls Carla: than men. They are not appointed to the reason why women were not in more ed this drug of being a case officer… sufficiently aggressive.” Brussels after the leadership positions: The motherhood that I insisted on I think the key was we took those war to run coun- became kind of secondary, the wife- sacrifices. I often tell the younger terintelligence operations and to identify [it] was very difficult…for a woman to hood that I thought I was in love with officers, male and female, it’s not true Nazi refugees. After the war, Page planned get into a position where she really my husband became secondary. that opportunity only knocks once, to return to Baltimore to restart a career in commands. No matter how capable When I went on [my] first tour it was but that particular opportunity only music, but was recruited back to the new- she is, she will not be able to because a separated tour, and that almost knocks once. And you have to make ly-formed CIA where she quickly rose to be- she is female… Say what you like, cost our marriage… But for me to be a conscious decision—particularly come a top operations executive and then it is still just a man’s world and it is sitting here as a senior female case women—okay, here’s your chance.28 Chief of Station in Athens. Eloise Page chal- going to keep on being so for a good officer of this Agency—every single lenged her contemporaries’ assumptions long time.33 one of us had to make sacrifices. For The prevailing cultural attitude of the that women were too emotionally insecure men, it’s the same, too. But for us, the 1950s and 1960s that women were emo- and passive to excel in high-pressure posi- The committee agreed with this statement, sacrifices we made were tainted with tionally volatile was used to justify discrim- tions, but she clearly experienced sex dis- adding: kind of huge, huge guilts: leaving our ination against women for decades. It was crimination of those times despite her many husbands, leaving our children, and abetted by Sigmund Freud’s then popular accomplishments. Page told McIntosh in a It is probably offensive to many men not being a housewife at home. Now, but now discredited theories regarding later interview that women did “face an up- to find a woman occupying positions things have changed. But even now, “women and ‘hysteria.’” It is logical to con- hill battle against older Agency chiefs who superior or even equivalent to theirs. for any female to get up to wherever clude that decades of such discrimination “became feudal barons and could never It is also probable that many women they want, they’ve got to think they would have impacted the morale of those consider women as their equals.” However, prefer to work for men. In part, this have choices. And they’ve got to it targeted. In 1981, an internal report she added, “Our new career women are preference comes from a traditional make those choices.26 concluded that female Agency employees proving them wrong. Historically, I suppose attitude toward women which will be had to overcome both institutional and you could say that the women of OSS pre- affected only through a slow evolu- Sacrificing family life for career was a se- “personal” barriers—specifically, “self-limit- pared the groundwork for their sisters who tion of sociological change.34 rious issue not only for women but also for ing behaviors which result from encounters came after them in CIA.”31 In 1975, Page managers and supervisors under pressure with institutional obstacles” which have was the highest-ranking female employee By the 1960s, such changes were starting to equalize gender disparities in the work- an adverse effect on “self-image.”29 Eloise at the CIA at GS-18. to take place. Evangeline Cawley was force. After the Petticoat Panel presented its Page, while looking back over her humble so respected as a collection requirements findings, a Director of Training commented beginnings as General William Donovan’s Another case-in-point was when Mary expert, that a recommendation for her to that hiring women between the ages of 21 secretary, recounted to Elizabeth McIntosh Elizabeth Hutchison who received a PhD in be promoted to GS-15 read: “Her stature and 28 was exceptionally costly. Recall- for her book Sisterhood of Spies that she archeology, was fluent in French, German, among colleagues is reflected in the fact ing the advice Frances Perkins—who had had to grow out of her initial timidity: Greek, and Spanish, and was a member that several senior officers, including GS-15 served as Franklin Roosevelt’s Secretary of of the Navy WAVES (Women Accepted branch chiefs, have expressed the desire labo—gave him: “Don’t hire a woman ex- I was in total awe of [Donovan] and of for Volunteer Emergency Service) during to work under her supervision as the best cept between the ages of 28 and 35. When all the men in authority in those early WWII, was only offered a secretarial posi- means of mastering the most complex she is 28 she knows whether she is going days, but I learned quickly. After tion by Richard Helms during a job inter- collections tasks and techniques.”35 Cawley to be in Government either as a married about six months I was able to stand view in 1946. When she pluckily replied had served in woman or whether she is not going to get up to the general, and later to male that it would be a waste of her abilities, the Women’s “Men dislike working under married usually…You will waste money colleagues in CIA.30 Helms hired her as one of the first female Army Corps the supervision of women on training and recruiting the 21-to-30- reports officers.32 Hutchison acknowledged, (WAC) during and are reluctant to accept year-olds.”27 It remained true that female Page subsequently worked very close however, that her case was more the WWII and en- them on an equal basis as employees would at some point in their with Donovan in organizing and outlin- exception than the rule and that typically, tered the CIG professional associates.”

12 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 13 in 1946 as a Requirements Officer for the as it had been in the past when, inciden- and served as deputy chief, chief of op- mere fact that the CIA even sponsored Office of Reports and Estimates Staff. Her tally, it had more merit.” Though it was not erations, and a senior case officer in her a panel to look at sexual inequality in personnel folder included the note that she entirely socially acceptable, the reality station. During the 1960s, Plummer had 1953 is indicative of a relatively progres- was “at the nerve center of all clandestine of the 1950s and 1960s was that many returned to headquarters to become chief sive and dynamic organization—one that operations against the Soviet target.”36 women faced increasing responsibilities of a regional operational unit, served as a was ahead of its time when compared to support themselves and/or dependent counterintelligence officer in another divi- with the treatment of women in business Cawley was not unique; evidence reveals family members. Adelaide Hawkins was sion, took another overseas assignment as or industry. While roadblocks, glass ceil- that there were several women in the a single mother of three and additionally a chief of operations until her mandatory ings, and misogynistic presumptions were early years of the Agency who command- supported her two ailing parents while she retirement in 1968 at the age of 60. While widespread in the country, and therefore ed the respect of their male colleagues. worked at the CIA.40 Herma Plummer, one dealing with family responsibilities, Herma existed in the workplace, CIA women A Career Intelligence Medal recommen- of the most prominent female DO officers Plummer excelled in counterintelligence, were inspired by their OSS forebears, and dation for Adelaide Hawkins, one of the in the earliest years of the Agency, held analysis, and espionage, and established relished their important and, at times, Agency’s best early cryptanalysts, stated: a series of secretarial jobs to support her a reputation among her colleagues as an all-consuming assignments supporting “Through the years, she has always had ailing mother, as her sole caregiver, before excellent intelligence/counterintelligence and running operations while protecting the ability to work with and supervise men joining the OSS.41 officer, asset handler, and manager.42 colleagues and country. All the while, they of equal ability without the slightest trace continued to plan full-time careers in the of resentment…She is highly regarded as “The economic responsibilities Consequences of “The Petticoat Panel” Agency and made lasting contributions to an accomplished authority in the cryptan- of women are not as great as its mission. Nora Slatkin, once appointed to alytic field.”37 those of men. Women should not After the findings of the 1953 Panel, the the CIA’s third highest office as Executive be employed in higher paying “woman question” lay dormant for nearly Director, aptly described the central narra- Mary Hutchison, beginning as a reports positions and deprive men of these two decades. Finally, after several law- tive of the history of women at the CIA: officer, served in a supervisory position opportunities. Women should not suits and new federal policies dealing with throughout most of her Agency career be employed at all when men are in Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO), “We have had problems at CIA, and and was well respected.38 As Chief of the need of employment.” sexual equality issues once again came some women have left the agency Clerical Training Branch, Dorothy Emily to the forefront in the early 1970s. In 1972, in frustration… But for every woman Knoelk taught supervisory techniques to Herma Plummer’s story is yet another re- Executive Director William Colby estab- who left, there were hundreds more mostly male employees from GS-5 to GS-14 markable example of the fortitude, inno- lished a Women’s Advisory Panel. Two who stayed, excelled, and changed during the mid-to-late-1950s and was not- vation, and dedication of the OSS genera- years later, the numbers of women in GS-9 the Agency in the process. These ed as having excellent leadership qualities tion. Born to Polish Jewish parents, Herma positions or higher had shown a gradual are women who have traveled the by her rating officer.39 Oddly, all of these escaped Europe before the outbreak of increase—a “marked improvement”—due world, dined with ambassadors, women served on the Petticoat Panel. war in the late 1930s. During the war, she to Colby’s initiatives.43 Conditions contin- briefed princes and presidents, run Despite the glowing reviews and recom- worked for Allen Dulles in the OSS. She was ued to improve throughout the decade. In clandestine operations, and pio- mendations within their personnel folders, assigned to a counterespionage unit as 1977, the federal government mandated neered new technologies.”45 their report’s concurrence that men dislike an intelligence officer. Within a short time, the elimination of “masculine” pronouns or working under the supervision of women Herma became a division chief supervis- the addition of “and her” in government The early CIA was in many ways an “old gives further evidence that they person- ing ten research analysts who handled op- records unless referring to specific bodies.44 boys’ club”—one that reflected the unfair ally dealt with discrimination, and had erational reports, trained and dispatched tenor of the times—but it was also home to inculcated it to the extent they accepted personnel to the field, and covered “all It is understandable why the “woman the some of the strongest and most accom- some of it as an immutable state of being. aspects of their activity for [REDACTED].” question” remained unanswered for so plished women in the government. In later The variance of experience and opinions Later on, she assisted William Donovan at long. CIA historians agree that during the years, it would respond to the changing confirms the fact that gender issues were the Nuremberg war crime trials. After the founding years of the Agency, pressing climate for equal opportunity by training, complex and often contradictory in the OSS was dissolved, Herma was transferred matters relating to the Cold War along inspiring, and promoting many women early years of the Agency. to the War Department and then CIG, with bureaucratic and organizational is- who now serve as leaders in CIA and else- where she entered as a GS-12 specialist in sues in setting up a stable and permanent where in the Intelligence Community. The panel offered that this particular belief counterespionage. Eventually, Plummer intelligence community took precedence was “not offered as frequently at present was promoted to a GS-14 in June of 1950 over sexual equality in the workplace. The Note that the footnotes for this article are not includ- ed here for reasons of space. The full version, with footnotes, can be found on the Typist to Trailblazer Mi- crosite: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ 14 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce historical-collection-publications. 15 reaucracy has attempted to keep up with French resistance and British Special evolving national mores regarding the role Operations Executive in occupied France, of women workers. spying on the Germans from under her cover as a milkmaid. After the war she This essay seeks to draw out some high- joined CIA as one of its first female opera- lights from the collection and place these tions officers.4 in their broader social and institutional contexts. It seeks to show, largely through The best known female OSS officer, how- the evidence available in the Typist to ever, was surely Julia McWilliams, later Trailblazer documents, just how far the known worldwide by her married name Agency has come in its treatment of wom- Julia Child. (She met her husband, Paul en employees, and also some of the chal- Child, while both were serving with OSS in Addressing “This Woeful Imbalance”: lenges that remain. Ceylon, present-day Sri Lanka.) Following her graduation from Smith College, McWil- Efforts to Improve Women’s Representation at CIA, Joining the Fight: Women in the liams worked in advertising before joining Wartime OSS OSS at the outset of the war. (She would lat- 1947-2013 er recall that, at over 6 feet, “I was too tall When the United States stood up its first in- to get into WACs or WAVES.”5) McWilliams Brent Durbin • Smith College dependent intelligence agency, the Office served as a researcher under Donovan as of Strategic Services (OSS), women played well as in the OSS Emergency Sea Rescue The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agency in both personal and bureaucrat- a limited but important role. At the orga- Equipment Section, where she may have was founded during a period of unparal- ic terms. As such, the collection will be of nization’s peak, approximately 4,500 of presaged her future culinary skills as part leled social change in the United States, great interest to scholars and others inter- OSS’s 13,000 employees (35%) were wom- of a team tasked with developing a shark including new roles for women in the ested in a variety of topics. For example, en1, the majority of whom spent the war repellant. She later posted to Ceylon and American workforce. The fevered national the collection provides detailed personnel as “invisible apron strings” in the words of then China, earning the Emblem of Merito- mobilization for World War II had created records of several female employees, OSS director William Donovan. “They were rious Civilian Service as head of the Regis- a new labor force of “Rosies” who stepped particularly from the early years of the the ones at home who patiently filed secret try of the OSS Secretariat.6 She was hardly into traditionally male-dominated indus- agency, and thus reveals the experienc- reports, encoded and decoded messag- an “invisible apron string,” flashing the wit tries. Breaking out of their traditional roles es of individual women in a cross-section es, answered telephones, mailed checks that would help make her famous after as school teachers and secretaries, these of CIA positions. Perhaps the greatest and kept the records.”2 Some however, the war. “If you don’t send Registry that women took the opportunity to demon- contributions from the collection involve earned high plaudits in less traditional report we need,” she once wrote to OSS strate their competence in almost every internal CIA efforts to understand and female roles, as cryptanalysts, overseas Headquarters from her station in Ceylon, sector of the economy, including U.S. na- rectify persistent discrimination against unit contacts, and spies. One cryptanalyst, “I shall fill the next Washington pouch with tional intelligence. The present collection of women employees. The most notable of Adelaide Hawkins, had joined the OSS’s itching powder and virulent bacteriologi- documents released by the CIA’s Historical these studies include the 1953 “Petticoat precursor, the Office of the Coordinator of cal diseases, and change all the numbers, Review Program, From Typist to Trailblaz- Panel” report, the Glass Ceiling Report of Information (COI), four days before Pearl as well as translating the material into er: The Evolving View of Women in the 1991-1992, and the 2013 Director’s Adviso- Harbor. Following distinguished service Singhalese, and destroying the English CIA’s Workforce, provides an account of ry Group on Women in Leadership. While during the war—and despite entering her version.”7 There is no record of any rebuke these women and those who followed a few of the collection’s documents were service with no more than a high-school or reprimand for this or other missives, such them at CIA. previously available in unclassified form education—Hawkins would go on to be- was the liberty afforded to high-perform- (the 2013 report in particular), the Typist to come chief of CIA’s Cryptanalysis Section ing women in the freewheeling OSS (or at Covering the entire history of U.S. central Trailblazer collection provides a valuable before her retirement in 1973.3 least the indomitable McWilliams). Many intelligence (three documents even pre- context for understanding the full trajec- years later, Julia Child was asked if she date CIA’s founding in September 1947), tory of women’s experience at CIA. Taken OSS also included one of America’s most saw OSS as a career opportunity, a way to these files recount both the challenges and together, these documents show how an famous and successful wartime spies, break out of the social constraints on women the accomplishments of women at the insular and at times very traditional bu- Virginia Hall. Hall worked alongside the in 1940’s America. Her response indicates

16 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 17 just how rigid those constraints were, even income.11 Average General Schedule (GS) status with increasing age, with every age Sixty percent of DD/P women were desig- for a well-connected graduate of Smith: salary grades were higher for CIA women group earning more on average than the nated as “clerical,” with another 18 percent “I wasn’t thinking in career terms,” she than for other federally employed wom- previous group, up to age 62, where mean in “supervisory or intermediate” positions, responded. “There weren’t many careers en in each of twelve age categories, with grade tops out at GS-14 for men. These dis- leaving only 22 percent in the “profession- to have. There wasn’t anything [else] more than half of CIA’s female employees crepancies cannot be attributed solely to al” category.20 Only 15 percent of all DD/P really open.”8 at GS-6 or higher, compared with less than the different types of jobs held by men and operations officers were women, including 15 percent in other agencies.12 women in the early CIA; the study further 25 percent of those assigned to HQ and a Following the war, most women found notes that “the grades held by women are mere 7 percent of those overseas.21 Why that their employment liberation had been Despite these relatively positive num- generally lower than the grades held by would women seek employment in an or- temporary, and that once again, “there bers, glass ceilings were still very much men in the same categories of jobs.”17 ganization that so clearly felt their sex was weren’t many careers to have.” As soldiers the reality in the early CIA. In May 1953, a limitation? In her interviews with scores returned from overseas, the U.S. govern- newly appointed Director of Central Intelli- Employment and earnings gaps between of women who worked at CIA, McIntosh ment partnered with industry leaders to gence (DCI) Allen Dulles was asked at an men and women were felt equally in the found that many of these women “theo- replace women workers with men. De- employee event whether he was “going overt and covert divisions of the agency. rized that the intrigue and excitement were spite women having demonstrated their to do something about the professional On the covert side, the Committee stud- worth the occasional discrimination they competence and interest in historically discrimination against women” at CIA. ied the experience of women both at CIA encountered with the ‘old boy net.’”22 male-dominated areas of employment, Dulles responded that he thought “women headquarters and in field offices of the old prejudices returned, including at the have a very high place in this work, and if Office of the Deputy Director (Plans) (DD/P, Discrimination against women in foreign newly minted CIA. there is discrimination, we’re going to see it later renamed the Directorate of Opera- officer positions was scarcely limited to stopped.”13 The DCI duly asked his Inspec- tions [1973-2005] and the National Clan- CIA. At the U.S. State Department, it was Setting the Mold: Women in the tor General to generate a study of women’s destine Service [2005-present]). It found not until 1922—134 years after the depart- Early CIA employment at the agency. This “Panel on that 45 percent of employees at HQ were ment’s founding—that Lucile Atcherson Career Service for Women,” whose mem- women—a higher portion than on the was appointed as its first female foreign Labor discrimination against women in bers were all accomplished women at the overt side of the agency—while only 28 service officer.23 It took another 11 years post-war America took on two distinct agency, came to be known by a more percent of field employees were women.18 before Franklin Roosevelt named former forms. Glass walls served to limit female informal title: “The Petticoat Panel.” Allen Dulles would later explain why he congresswoman Ruth Bryan Owen to be workers’ access to certain male-domi- felt that “overseas assignments for women Minister to Denmark, making her the first nated industries altogether (e.g., police, The Petticoat Panel’s final report was are more limited.” woman to serve as head of a U.S. diplo- longshoremen), while glass ceilings lim- released in November 1953, and demon- matic mission. Even by the period 1961- ited women’s potential for advancement strated the degree of discrimination facing One reason for this is the ingrained 1971, women made up only 7 percent of where they did work.9 Perhaps owing to women at CIA. For example, by 1953, prejudice in many countries of the new Foreign Service recruits, and female the number of women who had served in barely a quarter (27 percent) of women at world against women as “managers” officers found their opportunities for promo- OSS, as well as to an abundance of clerical CIA were employed at GS-9 or above, with of men—in their jobs, that is. An agent tion limited.24 This was due in part to a ban and administrative jobs deemed suitable only 5 percent having attained the “Offi- brought up in this tradition may not on married women serving in the foreign for women, glass walls do not seem to cer” level of GS-12 or above.14 No women feel comfortable taking orders from a service, a restriction that lasted until 1972: have governed hiring at CIA in the early were appointed to the top four GS grades woman, and we cannot change his unlike their male counterparts, married years. By 1953, nearly 40 percent of CIA (GS-15 to GS-18), a status obtained by 3.2 mind for him in this regard.19 women could not be considered for em- employees were women, compared with percent of male employees.15 Different ployment in the service, and single female only 25 percent in the federal government promotion tracks for men and women are This perspective would return as an oft- officers were required to quit on the day of and 30 percent in the broader U.S. work- starkly demonstrated in the Petticoat Panel cited excuse for the relative dearth of CIA their marriage. force.10 On average, these women were report by a chart tracking average salary women in overseas positions, although its also better remunerated than women em- grades by age for both sexes.16 For women, proponents seldom provide hard evidence The record of the U.S. Federal Bureau of ployed elsewhere: more than 90 percent the average salary grade flattens out at to support their contentions. Investigation (FBI) was even worse. When of CIA women earned salaries in excess of GS-7 for employees aged 30-34, and never J. Edgar Hoover became director in 1924, $3000 per annum, compared with just 7 climbs above this level. Male employees As in other parts of CIA, women in DD/P only three women were serving as special percent of other American women earning faced a much more consistent rise in GS served primarily in low-level positions. agents, the Bureau’s intrepid crime-fighters

18 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 19 who would later earn fame under the un- CIA in Changing Times are limited in their operational potential.”31 nal memo includes “18 tables and listings” intentionally apt moniker “G-men.” Hoover The report also found that women account- providing data on “Agency performance demanded the resignation of two of these The civil rights revolutions of the 1960s ed for only “about 10% of the intake” into in general and in detail with respect to women during his first month in office; the generated new, hard-won opportunities the agency’s Career Training Program, employment, distribution, and advance- third resigned four years later. From 1928 for women in the U.S. workforce. The Equal whose participants usually went on to the ment of women and blacks throughout to 1972—the remaining term of Hoover’s Pay Act of 1963 prohibited discrimination Clandestine Service. the Agency, over a period of time, and in directorship—no women were appointed in federal employment. In 1967, Lyndon comparison with other agencies.” Unfortu- as special agents. Only after two women Johnson amended an earlier Executive Following new legal mandates, the nately, these have not been included as employees filed a discrimination law- Order to outlaw sex discrimination. Title agency did establish an Office of Equal part of the Typist to Trailblazer release.) suit did FBI accede to appointing female VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act banned job Employment Opportunity (EEO) charged agents once more.25 discrimination on the basis of “race, color, with assessing and promoting the hiring of Slow movement on EEO issues was not for religion, sex or national origin,”29 and cre- female and minority employees. Among lack of support from CIA leadership. In Overseas, women faced similar challenges ated the Equal Employment Opportunity other duties, EEO screened films (including November 1972, DCI Colby—described breaking into male-dominated national Commission (EEOC) to enforce these prohi- the intriguingly titled “What’s the Matter by McIntosh as “an outspoken supporter security organizations. In the British Foreign bitions. The Equal Employment Opportuni- with Alice?,” produced by the U.S. Civil of equality for women in government”34— Office, for example, diplomatic and consul- ty Act of 1972 strengthened enforcement Service Commission) and gathered data held a lunch with several female employ- ar posts were reserved for men until 1946, of Title VII provisions. One part of the Civil regarding the position of women and mi- ees at which the conversation focused, at and, as in the U.S. foreign service, married Service Reform Act of 1978 created new norities in CIA employment. A March 1972 least in part, on the status of women at the women were not allowed to serve until programs to bring more women into gov- memorandum from the Deputy Director of agency.35 These discussions led eventual- 1972.26 At the U.K.’s Secret Intelligence Ser- ernment service. Personnel for Recruitment and Placement ly to plans for a “Women’s Panel” at CIA vice (SIS, or MI6), only one “minor Station” noted that DCI William Colby had taken to consider these issues. While the details overseas was headed by a woman officer These revolutionary reforms changed a direct interest in EEO issues, requesting of this panel and its membership are not in May 1946, although regional direc- America’s formal, de jure approach to that directorate- and organization-lev- included in the present document release, tors were under instructions “to consider women’s employment discrimination; de el employment data be prepared so he the included records do suggest some of where, both at home and abroad, women facto change would come far more slowly. could discuss with each of his deputies EEO the work undertaken by the agency’s new could be employed as officers.”27 Women Several CIA reports document the agen- developments in their areas.32 The memo- Women’s Advisory Panel. in Britain’s domestic intelligence agency, cy’s efforts to advance a new approach randum also included recommendations MI5, also worked under a different set of to its women workers. A 1971 report by for improving the hiring and promotion of For example, a study conducted for the rules than their male equivalents. When the agency’s Recruitment Division noted blacks and women in the agency. Nota- Panel in 1973 employed statistical tech- Stella Rimington reported there for work in that they had received “few if any specific bly, it found that the Clandestine Service niques (the chi-square goodness-of-fit test) 1969, she found her opportunities limited. directives either encouraging or discour- had been active in this area, having to demonstrate what most at CIA must “It soon became clear to me that a strict aging the recruitment of professional “developed a series of mechanisms to up- have known already: that women were sex discrimination policy was in place at women.” Even so, the authors observed grade the role of women and to heighten overrepresented in lower salary grades MI5,” she would later write. “Men were that CIA recruiters and interviewers had their sense of participation in its work.”33 and underrepresented in higher grades, recruited as what were called ‘officers’ and “developed a ‘feel’ as to which components These included appointing women “to var- and that this was true in each of the four women had their own career structure, a of the Agency, a) positively encourage the ious panels and boards” and to Personnel directorates (Intelligence, Operations, Sci- second-class career, as ‘assistant officers,’” professional woman, b) tend to discourage Management Committees, as well as spe- ence and Technology, and Management far from the “sharp-end intelligence-gath- the professional woman, and c) are appar- cifically reviewing the careers of women and Services) as well as in the agency as ering operations.”28 Rimington, a single ently indifferent as to whether candidates employees to find opportunities for positive a whole.36 The study showed that these hir- mother of two, would go on to serve as the for their positions are male or female.”30 The reassignment and additional training. ing and promotion discrepancies could not first publicly acknowledged Director-Gener- Clandestine Service (CS) was apparently While the author suggested that “[t]here be due to chance (it’s hard to believe any- al of the organization, from 1992-1996, and among the components that “tend to dis- may be appropriate application of this one thought they were), and, importantly, has since become a successful author of courage” women, as the report goes on to technique in other directorates,” there is no that they remained “highly pronounced” numerous spy novels featuring female MI5 note that “there has apparently been some evidence provided to evaluate whether across the higher professional levels of agent Liz Carlyle. resistance by the CS to accept many wom- these efforts were effective at improving the agency, and thus were not merely en on the theory, real or fancied, that they the status of women in the CS. (The origi- caused by the preponderance of wom-

20 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 21 en in low-level clerical grades. While the for lack of the opportunity to move out of the agency’s Deputy Director of EEO and assigned to responsible positions,” her actual employment numbers included in dead-end jobs.” The paper also suggested Federal Women’s Program Coordinator, career at CIA had been “damaged primar- the report remain classified, these findings making a more personal appeal to agency met with members of the Justice Depart- ily by unwitting, subliminal, unconscious suggest that little significant progress had supervisors based on their hopes for their ment task force and identified several discriminatory procedures which have been made in employment sex equality at own daughters. “What kind of careers do specific questions it had with regard to become institutionalized by practice” in CIA since the Petticoat Panel study twenty you want for them [your daughters]?,” the agency. Two months later, Schneider the DO.43 Thompson was hardly alone in years earlier. it proposed asking. “Do you want to see requested a meeting with Michael Mala- her experience of discrimination. In 1977, their opportunities limited to the GS-07 or nick, Acting Deputy Director for Adminis- there was a demonstrable glass ceiling for On May 10, 1977, the Deputy Director of GS-08 level where the majority of women tration, so she could be prepared to “tell women at the GS-13 and GS-14 grades. CIA, E. Henry Knoche, met with the Fed- in the Agency remain today?” The Board DOJ what procedures the Agency will be While 18 percent of GS-12 employees at eral Women’s Program Board (FWPB), a recognized that more conservative mem- using to comply with sex discrimination CIA were women—not a great percentage group created to advise agency leaders bers of the agency might be resistant to laws and regulations.”40 already—77 percent fewer women were “on issues concerning women in the CIA any changes perceived to grow out of the appointed to level GS-14 than to GS-12, a and to enhance the employment of wom- “women’s liberation movement.” Noting Records from this meeting, which occurred remarkable drop-off that reflected the dif- en in the CIA.”37 Knoche expressed his that equal treatment in employment was on January 4, 1978, are not included in ficulty women found achieving promotion intention to “address the problems of wom- a legal requirement for federal agencies, the document release. Yet one note ap- into the agency’s more senior positions. By en in…discussions with Agency manag- it concluded one statement with a sim- pended to the file indicates how some in comparison, there were actually 6 percent ers,”38 and requested that the Board send ple observation: “Women’s lib is open to the directorate felt CIA was doing just fine more men at GS-14 than GS-12 in 1977.44 him “themes” that he could use as talking debate, the law of the land is not.” Other on EEO issues: points for these discussions. These arrived themes addressed the inclusion of women Agency leaders continued to try to on May 27 in a memorandum that in- on promotion panels; the goal of uphold- I don’t see it as a “problem”…rather a change this institutional culture through- cluded ten concise statements addressing ing fairness and justice in management response to the Justice Task Force that out the late 1970s. When DCI Turner the roles and challenges of women in the decisions; the possible public image prob- our hands are clean and have been met with members of the Congressional agency workforce. lems tied up in EEO (“a potential trouble for some time. Others may need to Women’s Caucus in July 1978, he was spot for any government agency”); and redo regulations, et al, but we have both welcomed as “the first Administra- This document provides a remarkable the latest research showing that “there are been working on [the] whole matter at tion member of his rank to appear before window into how social and attitudinal only minor variations in intelligence and least since 1973.41 the Women’s Caucus,” and questioned changes were affecting women and aptitudes between the sexes.” about CIA practices regarding women, managers in CIA and the broader fed- Of course, “working on” improving em- especially in recruiting.45 Remarkably, eral workforce, at least as perceived by A routing slip attached to the FWPB docu- ployment opportunities for women at CIA one high-profile member of the Caucus, the Federal Women’s Program Board. For ment indicates that DCI Stansfield Turner was not the same thing as achieving a Pat Schroeder of Colorado, noted that she example, the Board recognized that man- was sufficiently interested in these themes measure of equality. The newly released had interviewed for a job with the agen- agers committed to the “cultural standards to ask for a copy to be sent to his office as documents include a detailed account of cy in the 1960s. Despite being a college of the past” held outdated beliefs about well. This attention to EEO issues was in one sex discrimination complaint brought graduate who could fly an airplane and why women might want to work in the first line with that of the man who appointed by Harritte T. Thompson, an officer in speak Mandarin, she reported that her place. “[M]any young women today are Turner, President Jimmy Carter. On Au- the Directorate of Operations (DO).42 The interviewer at the time merely wanted not making motherhood a full-time career,” gust 26, 1977, Carter had issued a memo- included report documents in detail how to know, “Can you type?”46 (Of course, the memorandum noted. “Unlike many randum “requesting the Attorney General Thompson, who had received numerous female members of Congress knew what women in the past, they are not simply and all the Federal agencies to cooperate positive performance reviews, was passed it was like to work in an unequal institu- looking for a way to support themselves in eliminating sex discrimination from the over for promotion from GS-14 on sever- tion: in 1978, only 21 of Congress’s 535 until they get married.” As a consequence, laws and policies of the United States.”39 al occasions, even when she had been members—4 percent—were women, and managers should see the great potential This mandate included the creation of a assigned to jobs designated at the GS-15 all three female senators had been ap- in developing and promoting female and Department of Justice Task Force on Sex and GS-16 levels. The investigation into pointed rather than elected, two to serve non-white employees: “Among the women Discrimination, for which Congress had her case found that, while Thompson had out the remaining terms of their deceased and minorities in the CIA are untapped already passed appropriations. In October served under one supervisor who “was husbands.47) reservoirs of talent and ability lying idle 1977, CIA representative Edith Schneider, blatantly biased against women being

22 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 23 The day after his visit to Capitol Hill, DCI Given the long and difficult history of of women reported experiencing sexual Deputy Director for Human Resources and Turner wrote to CIA’s Deputy Director, efforts to increase women’s representa- harassment (compared with less than 10 to expand the role and scope of the Office Frank Carlucci, explaining that the Wom- tion at the agency, it is not surprising that percent of men), and more than 50 per- of Equal Employment Opportunity. For en’s Caucus had been “in general favor- the “woeful imbalance” persisted into the cent of black employees reported racial example, James Hirsch, Deputy Director ably impressed with Agency efforts and 1990s. In March 1991, DCI William Web- harassment in their work at the agency.58 for Science and Technology, felt that the progress” on equal employment, and that ster initiated, at the suggestion of women same objectives could be achieved under he would like to explore their suggestions, members in the Senior Intelligence Service It fell to Webster’s successor, DCI Robert the existing organizational setup, and that especially in three areas: hiring more (SIS, a professional level above the General Gates, to review the Glass Ceiling Study “more layering” was hardly justified.63 women recruiters, recruiting “from the Schedule/GS ranks), a study “to determine and implement any required changes. In E. Page Moffett, Deputy Director of science/engineering department faculty if career advancement barriers exist for April 1992, Gates issued a memorandum Congressional Affairs, worried about the of women’s colleges,” and in general im- Agency professional employees, particu- to all CIA employees encouraging them to requisite costs associated with such proving “the recruiting approach made to larly women and minorities.”52 CIA hired read the report, and noting that “[o]ur em- changes, noting that “‘[i]n this era of tight- women.”48 Turner’s interest in these efforts two outside consulting firms to collect both ployees are our greatest resource, and we ened budget restraints, additional posi- remained acute, and, after receiving a quantitative and qualitative data— must create an environment that provides tions will be very difficult to find.”64 response from his Deputy Director for Ad- including employee surveys, focus groups, opportunities for each employee to devel- ministration about recruiting, he followed and in-depth interviews—on employment op his or her potential regardless of gen- Over the next several months, senior CIA up with a detailed memorandum indicat- discrimination at the agency. Their final der or ethnicity.”59 In August, a follow-on leaders continued to discuss the results of ing that he “would like to see our recruiters report, The Glass Ceiling Study, was pub- report, Intelligence Excellence Through the Glass Ceiling Study in Executive Com- with specific goals tailored to our shortages lished in January 1992. It found that “glass Diversity, was produced by a task force mittee (EXCOM) meetings.65 Through this and specific guidance as to where in their ceilings do in fact exist for the gender and charged with proposing reforms in re- process, many of the report’s recommen- geographical areas they are most likely to racial/ethnic groups studied.”53 For exam- sponse to the original Glass Ceiling Study.60 dations were implemented. On several find the type of women we need.”49 ple, while the percentage of female em- controversial topics, such as assignments ployees had increased to over 40 percent This implementation report was generally and promotions, guidance was given to Despite Turner’s attentions, the overall overall, women accounted for only well received by agency leaders, al- the directorates to develop plans that ad- numbers for female employees at CIA 10 percent of SIS positions.54 (These num- though the agency’s deputy directors were hered to “common Agency principles” but changed little during his tenure. By 1980, bers were not so different from those in skeptical that certain reforms would be that “could be implemented according to women still represented only 35 percent the broader federal government, where in desirable or even possible. For example, local needs.”66 of agency employees overall, and only 1991 women made up approximately the report recommended several changes 18 percent of those employees graded at 12 percent of the equivalent Senior to the assignments process, such as includ- Breaking the Mold: The Modern CIA GS-12 or above—the same percentage as Executive Service.55) Importantly, the Glass ing women and minority employees on all in 1977.50 Turner’s successor as DCI, Wil- Ceiling Study showed specific differences selection panels, reporting for each assign- Due in part to initiatives such as the Glass liam Casey, fared no better during the first in how women and men perceived the ment “what consideration was given to Ceiling Study, the overall percentage of Reagan Administration, leading Casey’s performance evaluation and promotion female and minority applicants,”61 provid- women employees at CIA came to exceed DDCI John McMahon to write in Decem- system at the agency. For example, both ing “shadowing” assignments to women 40 percent throughout the 1990s, and by ber 1983 that he was both “appalled” and women and minority employees were and minority officers, and tracking the 2000 the figure was 44 percent.67 Even so, “embarrassed” by the statistics on agency more likely to feel they received insuffi- record of each directorate for assignments the underrepresentation of women persist- women in senior grades. He noted that, cient feedback from their superiors, com- of women and minorities. Frank Ruocco, ed at the highest levels of the agency. In while by this point 37 percent of CIA pared with their white male colleagues. Deputy Director of Administration, echoed 2002, just over 20 percent of SIS positions employees were female, only 5 percent of These groups were also more likely to the sentiments of several colleagues when were held by women—more than double GS-15 employees were women. In a mem- feel that they were hired at lower grades he commented that such changes would the number from 1991, but still far short orandum to the CIA Executive Director, than appropriate, and women especially “impose a degree of administrative over- of equal representation.68 Ten years later, he laid down instructions to “scratch your were more likely to feel that “networking” load on the Agency which…would create overall female employment at CIA was 46 head and those of the Deputies to see what and “politics” were important aspects of a bloated and inefficient bureaucracy pro- percent, and SIS representation of women immediate remedial action can be taken the assignment process.57 The study also ducing few real benefits.”62 Several deputy had climbed to 31 percent.69 A November to address this woeful imbalance.”51 found disturbing levels of sexual and racial directors were also skeptical of the report’s 2011 Washington Post article noted that harassment at CIA: nearly 50 percent proposals to create a new position of “five of the agency’s highest-ranking jobs”

24 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 25 were then held by women, including the lish clear promotion criteria from GS-15 to day-to-day management of the agency.77 Note that the footnotes for this article are not included positions of Executive Director and Director SIS,” and “Expand the pool of nominees for The Directorate of Science and Technol- here for reasons of space. The full version, with foot- notes, can be found on the Typist to Trailblazer of the Directorate of Intelligence.70 Despite promotion to SIS,” reflected improvements ogy has had at least two female Depu- Microsite: https://www.cia.gov/library/publica- 78 these gains, in April 2012, Director of the in women’s advancement at the agency. ty Directors. A woman is scheduled to tions/historical-collection-publications. CIA (DCIA) David Petraeus was left to Previously, female employees had encoun- become Deputy Director of the agency in observe that “we still are not where we tered significant glass ceilings at GS-8 (per the coming months, as President Obama should be in terms of the number of wom- FWPB in 1977) or GS-12 (per both FWPB has named Avril Haines to replace retiring en reaching the point where they would and the Glass Ceiling Study in 1991); the DDCIA Michael Morrell. While the chief be considered competitive for promotion DAG study’s focus on GS-13 and higher is position at CIA has remained the province to SIS.”71 itself a statement of CIA’s progress in de- of men—as has leadership of the National veloping better representation of women Clandestine Service, which is often consid- In a further attempt to remedy this imbal- through the middle-officer ranks. ered first-among-equals across the agency ance, Petraeus tasked a new body, the Di- directorates—there are signs that this could rector’s Advisory Group (DAG), to “answer What Next? change. Women currently serve as top the overarching question of why women leaders elsewhere in the U.S. intelligence at CIA from the GS-13 level and above are For many fans of spy films and television, community, including at the National not achieving promotions and positions of women have become the face of the CIA. Reconnaissance Office (Betty J. Sapp), the greater responsibility in proportion to their The award-winning series Alias (ABC, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency overall representation in the workforce.”72 2001-2006) and Homeland (Showtime, (Letitia Long), and, until recently, at the The group would be headed by former 2011-present), for example, are centered Department of Homeland Security (Janet Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, and on fictional female operations officers. Napolitano, who left office in July 2013 to would consist of other outside advisors and The feature filmZero Dark Thirty (2012) head the University of California). In 2012, experts as well as CIA representatives. portrayed the killing of Osama bin Lad- Jane Harman, the former Democratic en largely through the story of “Maya,” ranking member on the U.S. House of Rep- DAG submitted surveys to CIA employ- a composite character based on what resentatives Permanent Select Committee ees in September 2012, and followed up former DCIA Michael Hayden has called on Intelligence, was frequently mentioned with focus groups, interviews, and even a the “band of sisters” at the heart of that as a possible replacement for outgoing blog regarding their activities.73 Like the operation.76 (Hayden noted that “[m]ost of Director of the CIA David Petraeus. Perhaps 1991 Glass Ceiling Study and previous the people who briefed me on Osama bin most important, the initiatives undertaken investigations into the status of women at Laden were women officers of the CIA.”) at CIA to recognize and promote its female CIA, DAG found significant discrepancies employees have finally created a substan- in employment, but also that there was While these characters hardly embody tial group of accomplished, long-serving “no single reason why CIA women are the experience of most women at CIA (or, women leaders at the agency. Not only do not achieving promotions and positions of in the cases of Alias and Homeland, of these women represent the great strides greater responsibility,” and that “organiza- any actual employees at CIA), the rep- made by the agency in its treatment of tional and societal challenges factor into resentative image of a female CIA officer female employees, they also suggest the the issues affecting women.”74 To improve is far closer to reality now than at any deep pool of talent that CIA failed to utilize the status and development potential of time in the agency’s history. Even though in its early years due to sex discrimination. women at the agency, the group provid- the number of women in senior agency The documents included in the Typist to ed ten recommendations that covered a leadership still lags overall, in 2013 two Trailblazer release provide ample evi- range of human resources topics. Several of CIA’s core directorates are headed by dence of both the agency’s progress and of these, such as “Provide actionable and women: Fran P. Moore at the Directorate of its failings on these counts. timely feedback to all employees,” and Intelligence, and Susan M. Gordon at the “Provide relevant demographic data to Directorate of Support (formerly Adminis- panels,”75 had also been recommended tration). A woman, Meroe Park, serves as in earlier studies. Others, including “Estab- Executive Director of CIA, responsible for

26 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 27 1965 1988 2006 Labor laws Benazir Bhutto Nancy Pelosi restricting womens’ becomes prime becomes the work hours & minister of Pakistan. first woman conditions are She is the first Speaker of repealed; jobs once woman leader of a the House. available only Muslim country in to men are now modern history. Timeline opened to women. 1916 1947 1963 Jeanette Rankin becomes the The Central Intelligence Agency is founded The Equal Pay Act is passed, making 1990 first woman to serve in the U.S. as the nation’s first peacetime intelligence it illegal to pay men more than 1967 Dr. Antonia Novello becomes Congress when elected U.S. agency when President Harry Truman signs women for doing the same job. President Johnson’s Executive the first woman (and first Representative of Montana. the National Security Act of 1947. Order 11375 broadens affirmative Latino) U.S. Surgeon General. action policy of 1965 to include discrimination based on gender. Women serve in combat for the first time in the Gulf War. 1923 Alexandra Kollontai 1969 is appointed the Golda Meir becomes the first woman prime minister of Israel. 1997 Soviet ambassador Madeleine to Sweden, The Federal Women’s Program is established to advise on Albright becomes becoming the first matters affecting the employment and advancement of first woman U.S. woman ambassador women. Purview is placed under each agency’s Director Secretary of State. in modern history. of Equal Employment Opportunity.

? 1958 1979 1982 1993 First woman The British House of Lords Margaret More women Janet Reno to become 1939-1945 admits women as members Thatcher is the than men is the first Director of World War II for the first time. first woman to graduate woman to the Central become prime with bachelor become U.S. Intelligence minister of degrees for Attorney Agency. Great Britain. the first time. General.

1987 1953 ? Congress proclaims March as First woman The Panel on Career Service for Women 1966 National Women’s History Month. (aka “The Petticoat Panel”) submits their elected Indira Gandhi final report to the CIA Career Service Board. President of becomes the the United first prime 1981 States. minister of India. Sandra Day 1933 O’Connor is the Frances Perkins becomes the first 1960 first woman 1999 woman appointed to a presidential Sirimavo Bandaranaike appointed Nancy Ruth Mace is the first woman Cabinet when President Roosevelt is elected prime to the U.S. to graduate from the Citadel. names her the U.S. Secretary of Labor. minister of Sri Lanka Supreme Court. and becomes the first woman in history to 1978 head a government. President Carter tasks all Federal 1941-1945 agencies and departments to “initiate 1998 WWII opens up a wide range a comprehensive review of any The Supreme Court of jobs to women. Seven regulations, guidelines, programs rules that employers million women enter the or policies which result in unequal are liable for sexual treatment based on sex.” harassment. workforce, including two 1964 million in heavy industry. Title VII of the Civil The Pregnancy Discrimination Act bans Rights Act prohibits employment discrimination against employment pregnant women. Women cannot be discrimination 1994 fired or denied a promotion because Aldrich Ames is based on race, they are or may become pregnant. arrested, thanks to a color, religion, 1920 task force that was led national origin, The 19th Amendment by Jeanne Vertefeuille and sex. gives American women and Sandra Grimes. the right to vote. 1972 DCI William Colby establishes the Women’s Advisory Panel. 1992 The CIA completes the Glass Ceiling Study. In 1991, Senior Title IX bans sex Intelligence Service (SIS) women recommended the Agency Significant dates in Significant dates in Significant dates in discrimination in “determine if career advancement barriers exist for Agency American Women’s History Global Women’s History Agency History schools. professional employees, particularly women and minorities.” 1950s Excerpts

30 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 31 32 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 33 1970s Excerpts

34 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 35 1980s Excerpts 1990s Excerpts

36 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 37 2000s Excerpts

Four Senior Intelligence Service Officers reflect on their careers in the Directorate of Operations (now the National Clandestine Service). They offer some insight on the obstacles they faced, the personal sacrifices they made, and the “lessons learned” they give to younger generations of intelligence officers.

38 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 39 2010s Excerpts

40 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 41 [The report] the DAG members came up with isn’t a generic re-telling of where the Agency is, or just another study to put on the shelf…The most important point I want to make here is that the recommendations will benefits not just women of our workforce, but the entire workforce. These recommendations are about developing and managing all of our people in a way that optimizes talent. – DCIA John Brennan

42 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Evolving View of Women in the CIA’s Workforce 43 The Collection:

The Historical Review Program and the Information Review Division of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Information Management Services has reviewed, redacted, and released this collection of documents related to the evolving view of women in the CIA, ranging from the 1950s to the 2010s. The collection contains more than 100 documents and over 1,200 pages CIA Trailblazer Award of material, most of them being released for the first time. The Typist to Trailblazer documents and the other Historical Review Program declassified collections can be accessed at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ historical-collection-publications. The CIA Trailblazer Award was established as part of the celebration of the Agency’s 50th anniversary. The document collection is ordered chronologically, with undated documents During the ceremony on 18 September 1997, located at the bottom of the list. Documents include memos, performance evaluations, and studies and reports on workforce diversity and career DCIA George Tenet described the Trailblazers opportunity. Those documents marked with an asterisk (*) denote collection as officers who, by their actions, example, and highlights. A few photos, some of which are already available from the CIA’s innovations or initiative, have taken the CIA in public website, can be found at the bottom of the document list. important new directions and helped shape the Agency’s history. DCIA Michael Hayden The microsite also contains an annotated bibliography and a PDF of this booklet. held a CIA Trailblazers ceremony in 2007 for the 60th anniversary, and announced that one or two new Trailblazers would be honored each following year as part of the Agency’s annual birthday celebration.

The following women are among the officers who have received this honor: CIA Trailblazer Award

Helene Boatner Patricia L. Brannen Janet V. Dorigan Agnes D. Greene Agency Disclaimer Patsy Hallums Bonnie Hershberg All statements of facts, opinion, and analysis expressed in this booklet are Eloise R. Page those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect official positions or views Carol A. Roehl of the Central Intelligence Agency or any other US Government entity, past or present. Nothing in the contents should be construed as asserting or implying Betty Crawford Villemarette U.S. Government endorsement of an article’s statements or interpretations.

44 From Typist to Trailblazer: The Historical Review Program— part of CIA Information Management Services—identifies, collects, and produces historically significant collections of declassified documents.

These collections, centered on a theme or event, are supplemented with supporting analysis, essays, and photographs, showcased in this booklet. Additional booklets are available for purchase through the Government Printing Office at https://bookstore.gpo. gov/catalog/1581. Each collection is also highlighted through an accompanying microsite the includes: video, audio, additional photographs, and links to declassified documents. These microsites can be found at https://foia.cia.gov.

All of our Historical Collections are available on the CIA Library Publication page located at https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/historical-collection-publications.