U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice

APRIL 2001 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE JOURNAL ChallengingChallenging thethe RussianRussian MafiaMafia The Changing Federal Role in MystiqueMystique Indian Country byby JamesJames O.O. FinckenauerFinckenauer andand ElinElin WaringWaring by Kim Baca

Gambling in the United States by Charles Wellford

and At-A-Glance Gang Prevention Program Evaluated by Finn-Aage Esbensen How Battered Women Cope by Mary Ann Dutton Police Dissatisfaction With Defense and Control Tactics by Robert J. Kaminski and Jeffrey A. Martin Using Sales Taxes to Combat Drug Use by Peter Finn, et al. BUILDING Director’s Message KNOWLEDGE TO MEET THE CHALLENGE OF CRIME AND JUSTICE This issue of the NIJ Journal discusses three diverse topics— Russian organized crime, the Federal role in Indian Country justice, National Institute of Justice and pathological gambling. In the cover story, Distinguished Professor James O. Finckenauer and Elin Waring report the findings of a 4-year The NIJ Journal is published by the National Institute investigation into the operations of the Russian mafia in the United of Justice, the research arm of the U.S. Department of States. The investigation was conducted by a consortium of law enforce- Justice, to announce the Institute’s policy-relevant research ment organizations in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Their results and initiatives. The Attorney General has deter- research describes the historical context and the types of crime in which mined that publication of this periodical is necessary in Russian criminals in the United States have been implicated. It also com- the transaction of the public business required by law of the Department of Justice. pares Russian organized crime to the Sicilian mafia. Opinions or points of view expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the Unlike other population groups living in the United States, American official position of the U.S. Department of Justice. Indians are experiencing increases in serious crime and victimization rates. Kim Baca explains how the Federal Government is rethinking its Subscription information approach to crime and justice in Indian Country and discusses the e-mail [email protected] In the subject line, put “NIJ Journal impact of programs already in place. One key aspect of the Justice Subscription” Department’s efforts to improve conditions has been the combined phone 301–519–5500 funding of Federal agencies, but the article explores a more significant 800–851–3420 component—the encouragement of a government-to-government mail NCJRS relationship that better appreciates tribal leaders’ decisionmaking roles. P.O. Box 6000 Rockville, MD 20849–6000 In this issue’s third article, Charles Wellford points out that between World Wide Web address one-half and two-thirds of the 1.8 million pathological gamblers in http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/journals the United States today have committed some type of crime, such as Contact NIJ theft, embezzlement, domestic violence, or child abuse and neglect, National Institute of Justice to feed their money-dependent habit. Because the last major study 810 7th Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20531, U.S.A. of gambling was conducted almost 25 years ago, Congress mandated a new study to look at the current state of gambling in the United States, NIJ Journal Editorial Board emerging trends, and any relationships to crime trends. Wellford’s article David Boyd, Deputy Director NIJ discusses this study and its findings, which were published by the Director, Office of Science and Technology National Research Council in the book-length report, Pathological Sally T. Hillsman, Deputy Director NIJ Gambling: A Critical Review. Director, Office of Research and Evaluation Cheryl A. Crawford The three features this month have little in common with one another. Acting Director, Office of Development and Instead, they illustrate the breadth of the issues and the variety of Communications challenges that face criminal justice professionals. The articles also Patrick M. Clark Lee Mockensturm demonstrate the NIJ Journal’s commitment to publish stories that A. Trent DePersia Sharla P. Rausch explore the changing face of crime and justice. James O. Finckenauer Gerald P. Soucy A. Elizabeth Griffith Edwin Zedlewski Editor Jolene Hernon Production by: Palladian Partners, Inc. Amy Benavides, Managing Editor Catharine Rankin, Assistant Editor Contents features 2 Challenging the Russian Mafia Mystique James O. Finckenauer and Elin Waring 8 The Changing Federal Role in Indian Country Kim Baca 14 When It’s No Longer A Game: Pathological Gambling in the United States Charles Wellford at-a-glance 19 Recent Research Findings • Gang Prevention Program Evaluated Finn-Aage Esbensen • How Battered Women Cope Mary Ann Dutton • Police Dissatisfaction With Defense and Control Tactics Robert J. Kaminski and Jeffrey A. Martin • Using Sales Taxes to Combat Drug Use Peter Finn, et al. departments 23 New & Noteworthy 26 Events

Pathological Gambling in the United States About one-half to two-thirds of the 1.8 million pathological gamblers in the United States have committed a crime to obtain gambling money. Because pathological gambling has been linked to thefts, embezzlement, domestic vio- lence, and child abuse and neglect, a congressionally- mandated study was conducted to look at the current state of gambling and emerging trends. See “When It’s No Longer a Game: Pathological Gambling in the United States,” page 14. Photo source: Tom Broad.

The Changing Federal Role in Indian Country

In spite of the nationwide decrease in crime, American Indians living on or near reservations are experiencing dramatically increased serious crime and victimization rates. As a result, the Federal government is altering its approach to Indian Country justice by encouraging tribal efforts to fight crime using traditional methods of social control. See “The Changing Federal Role in Indian Country,” page 8. Photo source: Kenny Blackbird.

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 1 Challenging the Broad Tom Photo source: Russian Mafia Mystique by James O. Finckenauer and Elin Waring about the author he tall man with dark hair James O. Finckenauer is the Director of NIJ’s International Center. He is on leave from and eyes sweeps out of a his position as Distinguished Professor of Criminal Justice at Rutgers, the State University T Lincoln Navigator wearing of New Jersey. Elin Waring is an Associate Professor of Sociology at Lehman College and a long, black leather coat, an impec- the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. Finckenauer and Waring coauthored cably tailored suit, and a scar that Russian Mafia in America (Northeastern University Press, 1998). everyone knows not to mention. He runs his organization with an iron fist and demands absolute loyalty of law enforcement organizations heritage, including the state-run, from his “family.” His English has in New York, New Jersey, and centrally planned Soviet command only a slight Russian accent, and Pennsylvania created the Tri-State economy, which resulted in short- he has influential friends in the Joint Soviet-Emigre Organized ages and, therefore, widespread U.S. Congress, courts, and law Crime Project (TSP) in 1992. bribery and thievery. (See “Studying Russian Crime and enforcement—friends over whom For instance, theft of state property Criminals,” page 4.) Drawing on he has considerable influence. This or use of it for personal profit was information collected by TSP and godfather stereotype is often the not viewed as wrong. This belief several other research initiatives, the perception that Americans have stemmed from the centuries old about criminals who have arrived research reported here describes distinction between stealing from a here from the former Soviet Union the historical context, the types of peasant, which would be considered and the so-called “Russian Mafia.” crime in which Russian criminals wrong, and stealing from the czar It is almost entirely inaccurate. in the United States have been and nobility, which was not regard- implicated, the extent to which these ed as wrong. This belief carried Following the collapse of the Soviet activities fit definitions and under- over into the Soviet period, with Union in 1991, movies and television standings of organized crime, and the state taking the role occupied shows featured depictions of crimi- most importantly, whether what is by aristocrats. nals from the former Soviet Union as seen is mafia-like. (See “Defining the newest type of “romantic” gang- Organized Crime,” page 5.) For In this atmosphere, three tiers of ster, and newspapers and magazines purposes of simplicity, all persons organized crime developed in the published chilling articles about in question will be referred to as Soviet Union. The first tier was 1 “Russian godfathers.” Although a Russians. high-level government and party few serious works have begun to bureaucrats; the second was shadow appear, such as Russian Organized economy operators who produced Crime: The New Threat? edited by Historical Context goods off the books; and the third Phil Williams and Red Mafiya by of Russian Crime was professional criminals, includ- Robert I. Friedman, what is known ing the vory v zakone (thieves in The use of bribery, black markets, is still more anecdotal than empirical law). The roots of the vory v zakone and other schemes to survive in are usually traced to the Soviet in nature. 2 Soviet society is well documented. prison system, and most notably to It was in response to this absence of This connive-to-survive attitude the Stalinist gulags. They are distin- solid information that a consortium is borne out of the shared Soviet guished by being completely com- mitted to a life of crime. They fol- low only their own rules and laws and reject any involvement with or Many moral compromises were made and distinctions obligation to the legitimate world. These tiers were, in part, the result between right and wrong were blurred so average of an economy where the govern- ment could not provide people with Soviet citizens could feed and clothe their families. the basic necessities, and the elite and loyal Communist Party mem- Due to the unpredictability of the economy, informal bers were lavishly rewarded. Many moral compromises were made and distinctions between right practices, such as bartering and deal making, and wrong were blurred so average Soviet citizens could feed and clothe became the means that Soviets used to get what their families. Due to the unpre- dictability of the economy, informal they needed and to do what they wanted. National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 3 Studying Russian Crime and Criminals

The study of organized crime is a This joint intelligence, investigative, quantity of written materials, includ- difficult and often risky undertaking. and prosecutorial effort set about to ing a mailed questionnaire and Many of the methods commonly accomplish three goals—to identify in-depth interviews with a variety employed in criminological research, the participants, to describe their of individuals, including: such as survey research and self- criminal activities, and to analyze Writers and journalists who had report studies, are either inappro- the markets in which the criminal studied and written about Soviet priate or not applicable. Thus, the activities occur. organized crime. opportunity presented to Finckenauer TSP generated considerable source and Waring to affiliate with the Residents and businesspersons material, and the authors pursued a Tri-State Joint Soviet-Emigre in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn, cooperative agreement with TSP as Organized Crime Project (TSP) which is alleged to be the cen- the primary data source. The project provided unprecedented access ter of Russian criminal activities provided data on the types of offend- to a wide range of information and in the United States. ing by Russians who had come to the sources. In return for unrestricted Key community figures in attention of the participating agen- access,1 the researchers agreed the large emigre communities cies. The information came in seven not to compromise the investigative in Brighton Beach and forms—indictments, newspaper and techniques employed nor to disclose Philadelphia. magazine articles, telephone records, any information pertinent to active general undercover observation Law enforcement professionals criminal cases. reports, surveillance reports, confi- (both in the United States and The agencies in the consortium dential informant interviews, and vari- the former U.S.S.R.). were the New York State Organized ous other reports—and included 404 Crime Task Force, the New York separate documents in a variety of 1. The authors had complete access to State Commission of Investigation, formats and lengths. Although each investigative reports, memos, infor- mation from other agencies, and the Pennsylvania Crime Commission, of the seven source types had defi- other investigative materials collected and the New Jersey State Commis- ciencies, the sources complemented by TSP. However, they did not have sion of Investigation. The consor- one another and provided information access to grand jury transcripts, the tium’s directive was “to identify the that was more reliable and valid than identities of confidential informants, nature and extent of Russian-emigre any other single source. and other similar materials. crime within the tri-State region... 2. The Tri-State Joint Soviet-Emigre In addition to the information Organized Crime Project, An in order to assist law enforcement garnered from TSP, research was Analysis of Russian-Émigre Crime in in its ongoing effort to combat the the Tri-State Region, New York: New conducted through several other threat of organized crime.”2 York State Commission of Investi- research initiatives to collect a large gation, 1996: 33.

practices, such as bartering and deal income outside official channels. amount of money exchanging making, became the means that The shadow economy also was a hands is greater, and the number of Soviets used to get what they needed means for citizens to obtain legal items on the black market is more and to do what they wanted. The goods in an illegal manner. extensive—it now includes antiques, children learned from watching stolen cars, precious metals, and The black market, a second aspect their parents deal with the shadow advanced weapons, including of the illegal economy, was used to economy or black market: You had nuclear weapons materials. obtain illegal items, including to manipulate the system or you and Western products as well as stolen your family would suffer. goods, drugs, and bootleg liquor Russian Crime in Taking advantage of shortages, an and cigarettes. This market was the United States illegal second, or shadow, economy comprised of work activities carried began to work alongside the official out for private gain, such as carpen- It isn’t surprising that criminals who economy. This economy was made try, plumbing, and electrical work emigrated from the former Soviet up of the activities deemed neces- that was officially unauthorized. Union would commit crime based sary by factory managers, farm Instead of being curtailed by the on their past experiences. In fact, directors, and others in similar collapse of the Soviet Union, evi- one could easily imagine that some positions to exceed their production dence indicates that black market who left the Soviet Union simply quotas and produce profits and activity actually has increased. The continued their old ways and saw

Challenging the Russian Mafia Mystique 4 Defining Organized Crime

Three assumptions helped shape the the legal and political systems. This however, is to citizens, who lose basis of this research into Russian violence may have both a specific respect for the legitimacy of the crime. The first is that a criminal instrumental purpose (creation and legal and political systems and who, organization can be usefully exam- maintenance of criminal monopo- as a result, fail to support what they ined both in terms of its structure lies) and a more general intent believe are corrupted processes. and the activities in which it (creation of an atmosphere ripe Of the types of harm traditionally engages; second, that a criminal with fear and intimidation). Not associated with the operation of organization is not synonymous with only does this facilitate the estab- organized crime, the one most organized crime; and third, that the lishment of market control, it clearly evident in the Tri-State Joint nature and extent of harm caused is eventually controls the community Soviet-Emigre Organized Crime an essential dimension for charac- and undermines the legal system Project data was violence. Russian terizing a criminal organization. because local residents will not criminals in the tri-State region use report crimes or serve on juries. Organized crime is typically defined violence to intimidate the public, by three characteristics: criminal As with violence, corruption is potential competitors, and persons monopoly, violence, and corruption. instrumental in providing organized viewed as disloyal. There is, howev- Although other forms of criminal crime with insurance against arrest, er, no indication that Russians have organization may involve one or prosecution, and conviction for established any criminal monopolies two of these activities, true organized crimes. Corruption also facilitates in the United States. Rather, their crime is unique because all three monopoly control by enlisting the offenses take place in a variety of are essential, each one reinforcing authorities in the elimination of areas and do not represent total the other two. criminal competitors. The integrity domination of any market. Russian of the legal and political systems criminals also do not appear, at A monopoly (total control of a mar- is harmed as law enforcement this point, to be using systematic ket) is gained through the threat and becomes distorted and the rule of corruption to protect their enterpris- use of violence and the corruption of law is subverted. The ultimate harm, es in the United States. anything having to do with the gov- impact of the illegal activity and Naturalization Service documents, ernment as “fit for the taking.” This makes it harder to detect. For exam- passports, and other documents. may mean that it could be expected ple, in the early 1990’s a Pennsyl- In addition to the fraud and coun- for some, if not many, such emigres vania automobile insurance ring terfeiting allegations, Russians are to have few reservations about staged automobile accidents that involved in drug and drug para- defrauding the government and resulted in more than $1 million in phernalia markets, including the government programs and mount- phony claims. This scheme, which importation and street-level sale ing various scams and schemes illegally used people in the legiti- of drugs. Evidence indicates that against bureaucracies. mate economy, was led by the owner Russians have cooperated with other of a medical clinic and at least one In fact, fraud is the most common ethnic groups, such as Colombian doctor employed at the clinic. type of crime among Russian crimi- drug cartels. In addition, the former nals in the United States, according Other fraud involves confidence Republics of the Soviet Union serve to the TSP investigation. Fuel tax schemes in which the victims are as transshipment points for impor- evasion cases are the largest and often members of the Russian com- tation of drugs into the United best-known type of fraud carried munity, which varies from the old States.3 Smuggling has involved out by these individuals. The crimi- belief that it was all right to steal more than drugs and drug-related nals take advantage of the ways that from the government but not from items; smuggled products include various States and the Federal citizens. For example, an emigre aluminum, weapons, and currency, Government collect taxes on may purchase a ticket to Russia for among others. motor fuel. his mother from a Russian travel Russian criminals in the tri-State agency, but because the agency is Russians also commit other sophis- region have shown a willingness and a criminal front, a ticket is never ticated types of fraud that blend capacity to use violence, including received. Other operations orga- legal and illegal operations, as often murder, extortion, and assaults. nized by Russian offenders have happened in the former Soviet Additional information was found included making counterfeit credit Union. This blend maximizes the on this topic when another data cards, checks, Immigration and

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 5 Regardless, some law enforcement authorities and journalists have described Russian criminals operat- ing in the United States as being structured in the manner of the mafia or La Cosa Nostra (the U.S- based version). For example, when Vyacheslav Ivankov, nicknamed “Yaponchik” or “Little Japanese,” was arrested in June 1995, he was labeled the “capo di tutti capos” (boss of all bosses) of Russian crime in the United States.5 Officials viewed Ivankov’s arrest as proof of Russian organized crime in the United States. His known associa- tion with the Solntsevskaya gang, the largest gang in the former Soviet

Photo source: The AssociatedPhoto source: Press Union, strengthened the idea that he Vyacheslav Ivankov, who some consider the godfather of the Russian mafia in the United States, was was the leader of a group similar to arrested by the FBI in 1995 for extortion. He was sentenced to 9 1/2 years in prison. La Costra Nosa.6 Ivankov is believed to be one of the Russian vory, and source was used to complement Organized Crime perhaps even among the top leader- the information garnered from vs. Crime That Is ship group.7 TSP—interviews with residents in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn, the oldest Organized: Whither Other authorities believe that and most prominent Russian com- the Russian Mafia Russian crime networks and organi- munity in the United States. A trans- zational structures in this country The notion of mafia is associated do not look anything like La Cosa planted Russian, who is now a most often with Sicily and southern 8 teacher in Brighton Beach, gave a Nostra. According to this view- Italy. The Sicilian Mafia is said to point, criminals from the former detailed description of this trend be a way of life that is particularly Soviet Union operate mostly as toward the use of violence in the Sicilian, with a code based on Sicilian individual specialists instead of with criminal arena. traditions and customs. The notions the hierarchical structure tradition- Russian murderers are being of honor, respect, and omerta (code ally associated with continuing ordered and brought from of silence) are critical to defining the criminal enterprises. Because they Russia to complete a specific mafia. The so-called Russian Mafia, operate in this manner, the groups task of killing someone. The however, is not associated with are variable and occasionally come mafia shows them who to kill honor and respect and should not together to commit a crime. This and that is the end of it. It is be confused with the real thing. point of view suggests that the planned and organized pretty The label Russian Mafia offers a Russian crime groups are not rigidly well.However,I don’t think that convenient hook for understanding, authoritarian and that the people Russians occupy any of the involved do not answer to anybody but at the same time sensationalizes higher positions in the criminal in particular. When these groups matters so as to peak interest. The structure. do work together, it is in a market- use of the term Russian Mafia may like manner, choosing others to Since 1981, investigators have report- actually create a self-fulfilling work with purely because of the ed at least 65 murders and attempted prophecy in which people—whether expected financial return on their murders in the tri-State area involv- Russian emigres, members of the collaboration. ing Russians that have indications of general public, law enforcement organized crime involvement.4 These officials, or journalists—map their But neither view is entirely correct. murders do not appear to be either images of mafia onto the crimes Data indicate that the individuals systematic or designed to protect a that occur in Brighton Beach and identified by law enforcement as criminal enterprise, but instead are elsewhere. A criminal group gains involved in or suspected of criminal motivated mainly by greed or per- stature when it is called “mafia,” activities are part of large, ongoing sonal vendettas. which only heightens its power. networks of criminals. Although

Challenging the Russian Mafia Mystique 6 analyses found no evidence of a complex hierarchy or set of hierar- For More Information chies, they did find ad hoc teams that come together for specific crim- Finckenauer, James O., and Elin Waring, Russian Mafia in America, Boston: Northeastern inal ventures, forming opportunistic University Press, 1998. partnerships. In these groups, orga- Friedman, Robert I., Red Mafiya, New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2000. nizational structure is created on an Williams, Phil, ed., Russian Organized Crime: The New Threat? Portland, OR: Frank Cass as-needed basis to enable the co- and Company, 1997. offenders to carry out particular crimes. They often create flexible, project-oriented structures similar The flexible structure of U.S.-based 3. Freeh, Louis, Testimony before to some licit organizations. Russian organized crime can be the Senate Permanent Sub- attributed to a number of forces. Of committee on Investigation, Many legitimate organizations have primary importance, this structure May 25, 1994, 100 Russell Senate moved to decrease the amount and is a continuation of the patterns and Office Building, Washington, degree of hierarchy and to increase practices that were so common in DC. the reliance on strategic partner- the former Soviet Union. Second, ships and task groups and on third- 4. The Tri-State Joint Soviet- this loose, flexible structure is well- party service providers.9 This style Emigre Organized Crime suited to the types of crime in which of organization seems to be effective Project, An Analysis of Russian- these criminals are involved. Crimes for both licit and illicit enterprises. Emigre Crime in the Tri-State such as fraud and confidence Region, New York: New York These forms of organization also are schemes and certain violent crimes State Commission of similar to those seen among Russian are particularly suited to this type of Investigation, 1996: 1. offenders in the tri-State area. structure because they require team- What is not found is evidence work, flexibility, and the ability to 5. The Times (Trenton, NJ), “New of mafia-like structures or activities. imitate the operation of a legitimate Comrades of Crime” (August 14, Ironically, Russian criminals have actor or organization. But because 1995): A1. adopted the structure of many Russian crime and the nature of 6. Dunn, Guy, “Major Mafia Gangs legitimate organizations, which is Russian criminal organizations in in Russia,” in Russian Organized becoming more horizontal rather this country are evolving, this pic- Crime: The New Threat? Phil than vertical in nature. ture also could change. Williams (ed.), Portland, OR: Frank Cass and Company, 1997: Of the tools used by sophisticated NCJ 187711 65–67. criminal organizations—monopoly, Notes 7. Friedman, 1994, op. cit. violence, and corruption—violence 1. For example: Anderson, Scott, is the only one that is seen as typical “Looking for Mr. Yaponchik,” 8. Rosner, Lydia S., “The Sexy of Russian criminals. The evidence Harper’s (December 1995): Russian Mafia,” Criminal does not indicate monopolization of 40–51; Attanasio, Traci Anne, Organizations, 10(1) (1995); criminal markets or a systematic use “How Russian Organized Surrett, Roy, “Remarks,” First of corruption. Crime Took Root in the U.S.,” International Law Enforcement The prevailing structure of Russian Organized Crime Digest 15(19) Sharing Conference on Russian organized crime in the United States (October 12, 1994): 1; Friedman, Organized Crime, September is characterized by people who knew Robert I., “The Organizatsiya,” 19–23, 1994. each other in the former Soviet New York (November 7, 1994): 9. Powell, Walter W., and Laurel Union, or who knew people in com- 50–58; Raab, Selwyn, “New Smith-Doerr, “Networks mon, and who collaborate for a spe- Group of Russian Gangs Gains and Economic Life,” in The cific criminal event. Although their Foothold in Brooklyn,” The New Handbook of Economic Sociology, backgrounds vary, they are most York Times (August 23, 1994): 1; Neil Smelser and Richard likely professional and entrepre- The Times (Trenton, NJ), “New Swedborg (ed.), Princeton: neurial criminals. Russian criminals Comrades of Crime,” The Times Princeton University Press, in the United States associate mainly (August 14, 1995): A1. 1994. with each other, although their loy- 2. Simis, Konstantin M., USSR: alty does not seem to be based on The Corrupt Society,New York: shared ethnicity or culture. Simon and Schuster, 1982.

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 7 Photo source: Kenny Blackbird Kenny Photo source:

The Changing Federal Role in Indian Country

by Kim Baca about the author efore contact with Euro- Kim Baca is a reporter for a news wire service and a former researcher and policy analyst peans, Native American with the Office of Indian Affairs for the State of New Mexico. She is Navajo and Santa Clara Bcommunities were largely Pueblo and can be reached at 803–748–7342 or [email protected]. governed by strong, traditional social structures. acres of tribal lands in the lower 48 For example, Laguna Pueblo, which “In ancestral times, people were States lags far behind the per capita consists of six villages, created a limited to certain behaviors and officer ratio in non-Indian commu- project to assign nonviolent offend- all those unwritten rules were well nities. ers to work on various projects with enforced,” explained Hayes A. Lewis, leaders within their villages. a Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, tribal The public safety crisis in Indian member who works with anti- Country has prompted the Federal Another program, the Mayordomo substance abuse and antiviolence Government to rethink its approach Project, emphasized collaboration programs on the reservation. to crime and justice on Indian between the traditional justice prac- lands. tices and the contemporary judicial “Back then, you didn’t want to system. Through the project, which embarrass your family or yourself. derives its name from the Spanish Our parents used to tell us, ‘If you Rethinking Ways to word for elder, the villages elected bring any shame to you, you’re just Support Traditional mayordomos—village elders and not shaming yourself, you are sham- Customs spiritual leaders—to handle some ing your family,’” he added. disputes, encourage traditional The Department of Justice launched approaches, and oversee the care The waning of traditional Indian the Indian Country Justice Initiative of the land, including the mending culture and social controls and the (ICJI) in 1995 to streamline the of fences and maintenance of roads introduction and dominance of Justice Department’s support for and ditches. Western culture have contributed Indian Country. Two tribes were to a public safety crisis in Indian invited to participate in the pilot The project also fostered mentoring Country today. effort—the Laguna Pueblo in New between elders and youth to help Mexico and the Northern Cheyenne While Americans elsewhere are young people rediscover their com- tribe in Montana. enjoying decreasing crime rates, munity’s traditional and cultural social order. self-reported data from crime vic- According to Carol Lujan, the for- tims indicate that the 1.4 million mer director of American Indian The programs have been successful American Indians living in the U.S. Studies at Arizona State University overall, but there is always room are victims of violent crime at more who evaluated the initiative, the for improvement. Even though than twice the rate of all U.S. resi- program “advocated innovative American Indians had more say dents.1 At the same time, the num- approaches to justice that provided on how to tailor projects to their ber of law enforcement officers who for strengthening traditional mecha- specific needs, they expressed patrol the more than 56 million nisms of social control.”2 concerns about lack of under- standing on the part of the Federal Government. Federal officials had similar complaints. Both sides, however, said the “In ancestral times, people were limited to initiative expressed a new way to acknowledge the sovereign status certain behaviors and all those unwritten rules of tribes. were well enforced,” explained Hayes A. Lewis, Finding a New Way Through Interagency a Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, tribal member who Collaboration To continue to improve the relation- works with antisubstance abuse and antiviolence ship between the Federal Govern- ment and tribal Nations, the programs on the reservation. Departments of Justice and Interior

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 9 The CIRCLE Project

In 1997, the Northern Cheyenne Perhaps most importantly, it The Office of the Comptroller tribe noticed a rash of burglaries focuses on the development and within the Office of Justice in its isolated community near implementation of a comprehen- Programs is providing assis- Billings, Montana. It wasn’t non- sive strategic plan as well as tance in supporting financial tribal members committing the streamlines DOJ resources so enhancement activities. crimes. It was Native community that tribes can apply for grants Northern Cheyenne, Pueblo of children hooked on methampheta- through a single application. Zuni, and Oglala Sioux are the mine. The tribe also was seeing three Indian communities that CIRCLE’s guiding principles are more violent activity. are pilot grantees. based on an understanding that: “We had a youth murdered and (1) the most effective solutions to Northern Cheyenne, which began stabbed 60 to 80 times,” recalled the problems faced by tribal com- receiving Federal funds in 1995 as Kim Dahle, Northern Cheyenne munities are likely to come from part of the Indian Country Justice tribal member and coordinator within the communities them- Law Enforcement Initiative, has of the tribe’s Community Justice selves, rather than being imposed seen significant changes in the Program, “and we didn’t have by the Federal Government, and community. Dahle said the tribe’s full law enforcement.” (2) the problems to be addressed first juvenile probation officer was require a comprehensive approach hired, more cops were hired, Tribal officials, concerned about that incorporates coordinated and and more youth programs were safety in their community, applied multidisciplinary efforts. established at the Boys and Girls for the first collaborative grants Club. The tribe also has tried to available under the 1995 Indian DOJ’s funding partners and their integrate traditional activities as Country Justice Law Enforcement commitments are as follows: an alternative to drugs with the Initiative. This initiative, created by The Office of Community creation of a youth drum group. the U.S. Department of Justice, Oriented Policing Services was a comprehensive and innova- (COPS) is providing fully “We knew what the issues were, tive program to improve criminal trained and equipped officers. and we had tried to work on them for years. And then the opportunity justice and strengthen the working The Corrections Program Office relationship between tribes and the is supporting construction of came up to strengthen our pro- Federal Government. detention facilities. grams,” Dahle said. “It’s been a lot of work, but we’ve been The program’s biggest advantage The Bureau of Justice Assis- successful. We’ve been able was that it focused on the rising tance is combining technical to put a lot more resources into crime rates in Indian Country assistance and funding for enhancement of tribal courts. the community.” through a multiagency strategy involving many DOJ offices and The Office of Juvenile Justice At Pine Ridge, South Dakota, programs committed to reducing and Delinquency Prevention is the Oglala Sioux tribe has seen funding activities to enhance child abuse and substance abuse a reduction in gang activity and the tribal juvenile justice sys- and improving law enforcement. domestic violence since the tem and address gangs and CIRCLE project was initiated, These efforts evolved into the substance abuse. Comprehensive Indian Resources according to Bart Mardanian, The Office for Victims of Crime for Community and Law Enforce- former Oglala CIRCLE program is funding activities related to coordinator. Prior to the CIRCLE ment (CIRCLE) project. child abuse. funding, there were few repercus- The CIRCLE project is a 3-year The Violence Against Women sions for either juvenile delin- Federal effort that seeks to find Office is supporting activities quents or domestic violence effective ways to address public to address violence against offenders. Courts were under- safety in Indian Country. The pro- native women. (See “Protecting staffed and manually operated. ject promotes the exchange of Indian Women From Domestic Violence” by Eileen Luna, Only 40 officers patrolled ideas and experiences and fosters NIJ Journal, January 2001, the reservation’s 54 small coordination among the tribes for page 28.) communities. more efficient use of resources.

The Changing Federal Role in Indian Country 10 But Mardanian said many of the Mardanian said gang activity has The evaluation will focus on the problems have decreased since risen over the last 6 years with development, implementation, and 1999, when the first round of the influence of television on outcomes of CIRCLE. funding was received. He says the reservation youth trying to An evaluation team member tribe also has returned to its roots mimic urban life. affiliated with a local college will in trying to rehabilitate offenders “We are caught up in a quandary be available at each site for the through the Court-Appointed of who we are as a people— duration of the evaluation to pro- Special Advocate (CASA) program. whether we should go back to vide feedback to both the sites and “There is a resurgence of people the old ways or adopt new ways. the CIRCLE project’s evaluation across the reservation to get back We’re going to have to find an subcommittees. Project sites will to the traditional way of life,” he equilibrium,” he said. be asked to comment on how this said. “Many times, the children NIJ is now evaluating CIRCLE participatory evaluation should be who are facing challenges are through a grant to the Project put into operation for the project encouraged to attend various reli- on American Indian Economic as a whole. gious ceremonies to help them Development at Harvard University. cope with their problems.”

joined tribal leaders in forming Table 1: Congressional Appropriations an executive committee to more thoroughly analyze crime and Indian Country Law Enforcement Improvements Initiative justice problems on tribal lands. Fiscal Year Fiscal Year Fiscal Year The committee’s key findings 1999 2000 2001 included: Tribal correctional $34 million $34 million $34 million Serious and violent crime, such facilities as child sexual and physical COPS Tribal Resources $40 million $40 million $40 million abuse, was rising significantly Grant Program in Indian Country, in sharp Tribal courts $5 million $5 million $8 million contrast to national trends. Tribal youth $10 million $12.5 million $12.5 million Law enforcement in Indian FBI 50 positions Country often failed to meet (30 agents and basic public safety needs. 20 support staff) The single most glaring pro- U.S. Attorneys $5 million for 60 blem was the lack of adequate positions, including resources.3 33 attorneys Bureau of Justice Statistics $2 million Following up on the executive (tribal criminal justice statistics) committee recommendations, the Alcohol and crime $5 million Attorney General and Secretary demonstration grants of the Interior recommended that spending be increased to address the public safety crisis by providing ment (CIRCLE) project. (See Tribal correctional facilities resources for tribal justice systems. “The CIRCLE Project.”) ($34 million). The DOI-DOJ collaboration became known as the Indian Country In fiscal year 1999, Congress appro- Juvenile justice programs Law Enforcement Improvements priated and DOJ dispersed $89 mil- ($10 million). Initiative. lion in grants to more than 120 Tribal courts ($5 million). tribes throughout Alaska and the Another collaborative funding lower 48 States for the following Other programs and offices initiative involving a number of activities: within DOJ were awarded grants DOJ offices became known as the to improve victim services for Comprehensive Indian Resources Police staffing, training, and women and children and to for Community and Law Enforce- equipment ($40 million). establish tribal drug courts.4

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 11 Tribal Sovereignty and the Department of Justice

In 1994, an executive memoran- consult with all Indian tribal issue, as many American Indians dum was issued on government- governments before taking relayed. to-government relations with actions that would affect those "It's been hard sometimes to Native American tribes. The mem- tribes. DOJ, like some other make them realize that we are orandum reaffirmed the Federal Federal agencies, took the a sovereign nation and that we Government's unique legal rela- directive a step further and are capable of running our own tionship with tribes under treaties committed itself to assisting successful programs," said signed more than 100 years ago. Indian tribal governments in Kim Dahle, Community Justice strengthening their justice The United States recognizes the Program coordinator for the systems. sovereign status of Indian tribes Northern Cheyenne tribe in as "domestic dependent nations," After the executive memorandum Montana. She said one of the based on Cherokee Nation v. was issued, Federal officials main problems is that Federal Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1, 17 sponsored a historic Listening officials don't know the culture (1831). Also, in early treaties, the Conference in New Mexico in or justice issues on the more United States pledged to "protect" 1994, where tribal leaders than 500 sovereign nations in and ensure the "welfare" of Indian expressed their concerns about the United States. Federal officials tribes, therefore establishing one safety on the reservation while said they have heard these com- of the bases for the Federal trust reaffirming the importance plaints and are trying to learn. responsibility. of sovereignty between the U.S. They want to give American Government and Indian nations. Indian communities the tools Based on this early case law, and resources they need to all branches of the Federal Acknowledgment of sovereignty, improve safety and justice. Government were directed to however, isn't an easily understood

While an important aspect of Collaborative Funding the way it awards CIRCLE grants, the Department’s efforts has Maximizes Resources some Indian program administra- been the combined funding tors say some Federal employees still of Federal agencies to support The collaborative Federal funding have no understanding of American tribes, the most significant from DOJ offices and the stream- Indian culture. Indian program component is the Initiative’s lined grant-making process will administrators also complain of encouragement of a government- help tribes pull together resources to high turnover among Federal pro- to-government relationship that develop even better planning efforts gram directors. However, Federal better appreciates tribal leaders’ and treatments for some of their employees have the same complaint decisionmaking role. most ailing social problems. about high turnover among tribal administrators. “We were trying to avoid the For example, according to Hayes mistakes of the past by saying, Lewis, the Pueblo of Zuni substance Other questions or concerns on the ‘This is the right way to do it,’” abuse and antiviolence programs part of some Federal personnel and said Philip Baridon, a senior administrator, the Pueblo in north- congressional lawmakers include the eastern New Mexico used the fund- policy analyst in DOJ’s Criminal rising economic power of various ing from several agencies to hire Division. “In a way, we are trying tribes as a result of casino gambling. four more law enforcement officers, to conceptualize the government- Of the 561 federally recognized buy equipment, provide training to-government relationship that tribes, 195 operate some type of (especially in community policing), the law recognizes but hasn’t gambling operation, totaling 309 streamline the court system, and always practiced.” (See “Tribal gaming locations in 28 States. But develop a youth leadership program. Sovereignty and the Department only about 5 percent make a sizable of Justice.”) But while the Department of Justice income for the tribe’s operations, is off to a good start by streamlining according to the National Indian

The Changing Federal Role in Indian Country 12 Gaming Commission.5 Twenty-two tribal operations account for 56 For More Information percent of the revenue. Visit the Office of Tribal Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, at http://www.usdoj.gov/otj. “What we are looking to do is make Attorney General Policy Directive, “Department of Justice Policy on Indian Sovereignty this initiative more than a tempo- and Government-to-Government Relations With Indian Tribes,” Office of the Attorney rary fix,” said Todd Araujo, deputy General, June 1, 1995. Available on the Web site of the U.S. Department of Justice, director of the Office of Tribal Office of Tribal Justice, November 24, 2000, http://www.usdoj.gov/otj/sovtrb.htm. Justice. “We are seeking permanent Wakeling, Stewart, Miriam Jorgensen, and Susan Michaelson, “Policing on American funding to provide tribes a base Indian Reservations,” NIJ Journal, January 2001: 2 (NCJ 186185). for infrastructure. For example, tribes that receive money from the COPS program will get funding for 3 years, after which the tribe Notes Committee for Indian Country is obligated to pick up the tab. The Law Enforcement Improvements: problem is that most tribes will not 1. Greenfield, Lawrence A., and Final Report to the Attorney significantly improve their econom- Steven Smith, “American Indians General and Secretary of the ic status in 3 years, nor will the need and Crime,” U.S. Department Interior,” October 1997. Available for police disappear in that time of Justice, Bureau of Justice on the Web site of the U.S. period.” Statistics, Washington, DC, Department of Justice, Office February 1999 (NCJ 173386). of Tribal Justice, November 24, “The Department of Justice’s prima- 2000, http://www.usdoj.gov/ ry involvement in Indian Country 2. Lujan, Carol Chiago, James otj/icredact.htm. prior to this initiative was to investi- Riding In, and Rebecca Tsosie, gate and prosecute crimes,” said “Justice in Indian Country: A 4. For example, funds were award- Araujo. “This recent shift in policy Process Evaluation of the U.S. ed by the Office for Victims of seeks to empower tribes to combat Department of Justice Indian Crime under the Children’s crime at the local level by enhancing Country Justice Initiative,” Final Justice Act for Native American programs designed to better their Report, Executive Summary, Communities and Victim own justice systems, just as the April 1998: 7 (NCJ 181048). Assistance in Indian Country, Department does with State and 3. The executive committee’s report by the Violence Against local government.” and a list of members can be Women Office under the Violence Against Indian NCJ 187713 found in “Report of the Executive Women Discretionary Grant program, and by the Drug Court Program Office under the Tribal Drug Courts “The Department of Justice’s primary involvement Program. 5. Kyle Nayback, Director of Congressional and Public in Indian Country prior to this initiative was Affairs, telephone interview, August 2000. See also National to investigate and prosecute crimes,” said Araujo. Indian Gaming Commission, Indian Gaming Facts, at “This recent shift in policy seeks to empower http://www.indiangaming. org/library/index.html (October 31, 2000). Note: Pueblo of Zuni tribes to combat crime at the local level by and Northern Cheyenne do not have casino gambling. Oglala enhancing programs designed to better their Sioux has a limited gaming operation. own justice systems, just as the Department does with State and local government.”

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 13 by Charles Wellfordby Charles A Game: When It’sNoLonger in theUnited States Pathological Gambling

Photo source: PhotoDisc about the author ven the most determined Charles Wellford, professor of criminology and criminal justice at the University of Maryland, opponents of gambling is director of its Maryland Justice Analysis Center. He chairs the National Research Council’s Ecannot dispute its populari- (NRC’s) Committee on Law and Justice and has served as chair of the NRC’s Committee on the ty. Anyone who succumbs to the Social and Economic Impact of Pathological Gambling, which produced the report on which temptation to play the lottery when this article is based. He can be reached at 301–405–4701 or [email protected]. the jackpot rises into the millions can attest to it. Anyone who resists the temptation to join a long ticket queue that promises fabulous, The wider availability of gambling of the problem; its effects on indi- instant wealth can attest to it. Hard in the past two decades, the intro- viduals, families, and communities; facts confirm gambling’s pervasive- duction of new forms of gambling, treatment approaches and their ness as well as its broad appeal. It the rise in the number of people effectiveness; and ways to improve is now legal in all but 3 States, and who play games of chance, and the understanding of pathological the increasing amount of money gambling. The study found consid- 37 States have lotteries. More than they are wagering have raised con- erable gaps in what is known, con- 8 in 10 adults say they have played cerns about gambling’s social and cluding that pathological gambling casino games, bet on the races on economic effects. One focus of con- requires further study. and off the track, bought lottery cern is “pathological” gambling— tickets, or in some other way the inability to resist the impulse engaged in recreational gambling. to gamble. Identified as a psychiatric Rapid Expansion of In a single recent year, Americans disorder, pathological gambling can Legalized Gambling collectively wagered more than have a number of harmful conse- half a trillion dollars. When Americans gamble, they are quences for the compulsive gambler observing a time-honored tradition. and his or her family. The justice In this country, gambling predates editor’s note system enters the picture when the republic. Opponents have at destructive behavior becomes times succeeded in banning or oth- This article summarizes a book-length report, criminal behavior. erwise stigmatizing it, but even after Pathological Gambling: A Critical Review, by the Committee on the Social and Economic Concern about the effects of gam- protracted periods of interdiction, Impact of Pathological Gambling, National bling has been voiced at the highest recreational or social gambling Research Council (Washington, D.C.: National levels of government, prompting the always revived, most notably with Academy Press, 1999), National Academy U.S. Congress to order a compre- relegalization in Nevada in the of Sciences (NAS). The summary is published hensive study. Included in the study 1930’s. with permission of NAS. The full report is avail- was an assessment of pathological able from the National Academy Press and The current era of legalized, socially gambling. (For details of the man- acceptable gambling (or “gaming,” is online at its Web site: http://www.nap.edu. date, see “Why Study Pathological Readers who wish to consult the author’s as the industry terms it) dates from Gambling?” page 16.) The assess- citations to the research literature will find the 1960’s, when the first State lot- them in the full report. ment covered the nature and extent tery was established. The advent of State lotteries marked a major poli- cy shift—away from mere tolerance on the part of government and One focus of concern is “pathological” toward active sponsorship and aggressive marketing. gambling—the inability to resist the impulse State sponsorship reflected a lifting of social and moral barriers and ini- tiated an expansion of gambling to gamble. Identified as a psychiatric disorder, that continues today. No doubt it lent added legitimacy to gambling. pathological gambling can have a number of It did not mean that all opposition ceased. Many State legislatures, for harmful consequences for the compulsive example, oppose casinos and State- sanctioned sports betting. Still, gambler and his or her family. the growth of legalized gambling

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 15 determine with any accuracy whether they exceed the costs of Why Study Pathological Gambling? gambling, including those associated with problem and pathological The study of pathological gambling 1 gambling. Congress stipulated that gambling. was conducted in response to a con- NGISC contract with the National gressional mandate. Rapid expansion Research Council for assistance in of gambling and new forms of gam- studying pathological gambling. In When Does bling prompted Congress in 1996 to response, the Council established the Gambling Become order a comprehensive study of its Committee on the Social and Economic Pathological? social and economic effects. Congress Impact of Pathological Gambling, recognized that State, local, and Native whose mission was to identify and If gambling has benefits, it also has American tribal governments were analyze the full range of research on costs. Pathological gambling, with instituting gambling as a way to create the nature of pathological and problem its adverse effects for individuals, jobs and generate revenue and that gambling, highlighting key issues families, and communities, is one new forms such as Internet gambling and data sources that might provide of them. Most adults who gamble could affect interstate and international evidence of prevalence and effects. view it solely as entertainment, and matters that come under Federal they wager only small amounts of The Commission reports, including jurisdiction. The most recent Federal money. Pathological gambling is dif- the report on pathological gambling, Government study of gambling was ferent. Someone with this problem are available on its Web site at conducted almost 25 years ago, is unable to control the urge to http://www.ngisc.gov. so the jurisdictions that established gamble, and that inability may grow gambling had no recent information progressively worse. The condition about the impact of these new 1. In addition to pathological gambling, has been defined by the psychiatric the Commission examined Federal, developments. State, local, and tribal government profession as a mental health disor- policies on gambling; the relationship der. (More details of the definition One of the missions of the National between gambling and crime; the impact are in “A Mental Health Problem.”) Gambling Impact Study Commission of gambling on individuals, families, busi- (NGISC), the body established to nesses, and the economy; the extent to About 1.5 percent of adults in this which gambling generates government conduct the study, was to assess the revenue; and interstate and international country have been pathological effects of pathological or problem effects of electronic gambling. gamblers at some point in their lives. In a given year, 0.9 percent of adults in this country (1.8 million) are pathological gamblers. There are continues apace. The Indian gambling. In fact, State budgets differences by gender and age, with Gaming Regulatory Act, passed have become increasingly dependent men more likely than women to be in 1988, allows Indian tribes to on these revenues. Economically pathological gamblers, and adoles- operate any form of gambling that depressed communities in which cents more likely than adults. is legal in the State where the tribe gambling is offered appear to have lives. New forms of gambling are benefitted from it. In the currently expanding gam- emerging, most notably those bling environment, it might seem If a gambling enterprise is operat- based on advanced electronic likely that the number or propor- ing in a community, that can mean technologies (Internet-based tion of pathological gamblers would more jobs and higher incomes, gambling, for example). increase. Although public health and enhanced opportunities for policy officials are concerned about tourism- and recreation-based that possibility, studies thus far business, and higher property Benefits of Gambling offer no certain answers. values. Indian communities in If the opponents of gambling particular have benefitted socially cannot dispute its popularity, they and economically from gambling Links to Crime would also be hard-pressed to dis- enterprises. Unquestionably, gam- pute its benefits. The States earn bling produces numerous economic Pathological gamblers engage in revenue from taxes on commercial benefits, although there is not various forms of destructive behav- gambling enterprises and from the enough information available ior. They may amass large debts, proceeds of government-sponsored to calculate the amount or to damage their relationships with

When It’s No Longer a Game: Pathological Gambling in the United States 16 A Mental Health Problem

Pathological gambling is a mental of one’s gambling behavior, a The APA criteria appear to have health disorder. The condition preoccupation with gambling and worked well for clinicians who treat is difficult to define, but the obtaining money with which to the disorder, but because they are American Psychiatric Association gamble, irrational thinking, and based only on populations who (APA), an authority on mental a continuation of this behavior seek treatment, they cannot be problems, developed criteria despite adverse consequences. used to define the nature and that can be used to diagnose it. The inability to resist the compul- causes of pathological gambling APA first classified pathological sion to gamble can produce unde- or to estimate prevalence. gambling as a definitive diagnosis sirable outcomes ranging from in 1980, including it among borrowing excessive amounts of 1. See the APA’s Diagnostic and impulse-control disorders.1 money from family or friends, to Statistical Manual of Mental losing time from work, to being Disorders (DSM). Pathological The condition can be described gambling also was included in arrested for offenses committed to as a disorder characterized by con- the 1994 edition, DSM-IV. support the gambling habit. tinuous or periodic loss of control family members and friends, and pathological gambling increases with causes of pathological gambling even kill themselves. They also may the number of illicit substances used. are not well understood. Neither commit crimes, including theft, is it possible to determine whether The link to crime is often a byprod- embezzlement, domestic violence, the number of pathological gam- uct of the financial losses incurred. and child abuse and neglect. Precise blers is rising. Nor is there enough Pathological gamblers may spend tallies of these social costs of patho- information to state with certainty inordinate amounts of money on logical gambling are needed, but whether particularly vulnerable their addiction, tapping into family again, the current state of knowl- populations—the elderly and savings or borrowing money. As edge makes it impossible to identify people who are economically these sources are depleted and debts the extent to which legalized gam- disadvantaged—tend dispropor- pile up, they may resort to crime to bling affects crime rates. (For an tionately to be pathological gam- obtain money. examination of crime in several blers. Although there is no doubt communities where this form of Attempts have been made to esti- that gambling creates certain eco- gambling has been introduced, mate the proportion of pathological nomic benefits for communities, see “Casino Gambling: Burden gamblers who commit crimes such these too are difficult to measure or Boon?” page 18.) as fraud, theft, embezzlement, precisely, as are the social costs of forgery, and blackmail, but the gambling. Problem gambling is Pathological gambling can co-occur results vary widely. As many as one- linked to crime, but exactly how with such problems as substance half to two-thirds of pathological legalized gambling affects local and abuse. Substance abusers admitted gamblers may have committed a national crime rates is unknown. to treatment programs are three to crime to obtain gambling money. six times more likely than the gener- This information deficit means Evidence also suggests that a sizable that the assessment of pathological al population to be problem gam- proportion of pathological gamblers blers. A study of people seeking gambling is greatly influenced by a have criminal charges pending as relatively small number of newer, treatment for cocaine abuse revealed a result of illegal activity to fund that those who had gambling prob- better studies. Notably, information their habit. about the onset and progression of lems were more likely than those the disorder is beginning to come who did not to have additional to light. It reveals, for example, that drug problems, such as overdosing More Questions the earlier someone starts to gam- or using opiates. Than Answers ble, the more likely he or she is to Heavy use of alcohol is linked to Much of what is known about become a pathological gambler and multiple gambling problems and pathological gambling is limited that pathological gamblers are more increased spending on gambling, and in scientific value. The extent and likely than other gamblers to have

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 17 Casino Gambling: Burden or Boon?

The research described below was The study covered seven commu- One other saw no change in the conducted independently of the nities where casino gambling vast majority of crimes. The mixed study of pathological gambling. (on riverboats or barges) had results suggest that certain factors It is based on Effects of Casino been introduced in the past 10 may be operating in some com- Gambling on Crime and Quality of years: Alton and Peoria/East munities and not others. One factor Life in New Casino Jurisdictions, Peoria, Illinois; Sioux City, Iowa; might be tourism. Biloxi, with its by B. Grant Stitt, Mark Nichols, St. Joseph, St. Louis, and St. Louis nine casinos drawing tens of thou- and David Giacopassi, November County, Missouri; and Biloxi, sands of visitors annually, saw the 29, 2000, draft report of grant Mississippi. Community leaders largest increase in crime of all the 98–IJ–CX–0037, submitted and residents were asked their communities studied. to NIJ. views of the impact on crime, and Interviews with the police chiefs more objective sources of informa- Proposals to establish casino of these communities revealed that tion in the form of crime data also gambling often have generated law enforcement agencies need to were examined. rancorous debate among commu- prepare to make changes in their nity residents, with proponents Community residents and commu- operations when a casino comes touting the anticipated economic nity leaders were divided in their to town, because crime patterns benefits and opponents predic- views, with residents believing may change and crimes once ting inevitable social problems. casinos increased crime and unknown to the community may Residents’ perceptions are impor- community leaders seeing little appear. Several chiefs stressed tant, because the establishment or effect and believing casinos that preparedness is the key to continued existence of a gambling enhanced the quality of life and avoiding problems. For example, enterprise can depend on them. benefitted the economy. Perhaps the department might want to Nevertheless, though these opin- not surprisingly, communities develop communications with ions are forcefully expressed, they most heavily dependent economi- other casino communities and have not been based on hard data, cally on gambling were the ones cultivate a good working relation- because studies of many key that embraced it most warmly. ship with casino security staff. questions about the effects of Where citizens’ perceptions of Perceptions did not reflect reality. gambling have been incomplete increased crime do not square There is no single “casino effect” or nonexistent. A recent NIJ- with reality, the police will want on crime. The impact of the casi- sponsored study, which examined to make doubly sure that accurate nos varied from community to crime data as well as residents’ information about crime rates is community. Three communities opinions, showed that perceptions widely reported so as to alleviate experienced a significant increase of gambling’s effects on crime unfounded fears. Where crime in several types of crime, while the can be at odds with more objective has increased, the police will opposite was true in three others. measures. want to find additional resources.

parents who were pathological measures of pathological gambling that to happen, a great deal more gamblers. in the annual surveys conducted light needs to be shed on the subject by the Centers for Disease Control by filling in the many information The origins and nature of patholog- and Prevention and the National gaps identified in the assessment. ical gambling and the changes tak- Institutes of Health. In short, pathological gambling is ing place in it over time could be a problem significant enough to better understood through long- The effects of pathological gambling warrant more sustained, compre- term studies and cross-sectional (debt, for example) could be added hensive, and scientific research studies (which examine a popula- to other long-term studies of health than now exists. tion at a specific point in time). or mental health. Prevention and One way to obtain this kind of treatment of pathological gambling NCJ 187712 information would be to include need to be aggressively pursued. For

When It’s No Longer a Game: Pathological Gambling in the United States 18 At-A-Glance: Recent Research Findings

Gang Prevention which was developed in 1991 and and behaviors, and (2) the Nation’s Program Evaluated is now taught in all 50 States and schools are structured in such a way overseas. More than 1.5 million that children move from smaller, NIJ Research in Progress Seminar, students have gone through the more nurturing elementary schools “The National Evaluation of the program. The evaluation involved to progressively larger and more Gang Resistance Education and 6 sites and 3,000 students and was diversified middle and high schools. Training (G.R.E.A.T.) Program,” supported by NIJ in cooperation As young people move into a wider Finn-Aage Esbensen, grant number with the Bureau of Alcohol, world, they also struggle to attain 94–IJ–CX–0058, available Tobacco, and Firearms. greater maturity and understanding on videotape from NCJRS about themselves. As a result, the Trained uniformed officers lead (NCJ 185668). authors speculated that too many G.R.E.A.T. students through a factors may have obfuscated the In a longitudinal evaluation of a curriculum based on a cognitive 2-year situation to adequately dis- gang prevention program, research- approach that is designed to pro- cern the effects of the prevention ers found something surprising: duce attitudinal and behavioral experience. Early experiences with no significant differences between changes. Students are taught how the program may not be manifested participants and nonparticipants to set positive goals, resist negative until the youths are older. after 2 years, but important differ- pressures, resolve conflicts, and ences in attitudes after 4 years. understand how gangs impact Evaluation Results Spur Program participants also reported the quality of their lives. lower levels of gang membership, Program Enhancements self-reported delinquency, and Possible Explanation When the 2-year findings were victimization, although these for the Unusual Findings released, G.R.E.A.T.’s national policy differences were not statistically board1 asked a group of experts to The researchers suggested two inter- significant. review and assess the curriculum. related possibilities for the apparent The board’s willingness to subject The evaluation involved the Gang 4-year lagged effect: (1) young ado- the program to a critical review Resistance Education and Training lescents are often ambiguous about demonstrated the high level of (G.R.E.A.T.) program curriculum, exhibiting socially accepted attitudes commitment to the mission. The review led to a more skill-based and interactive curriculum that is being How to Get At-A-Glance Materials piloted in spring 2001.

Materials are available at: For more information, contact Finn-Aage Esbensen, University of NIJ’s Web site at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij, or Nebraska at Omaha, 402–472–6383, NCJRS, [email protected], 1–800–851–3420, P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, [email protected]. MD 20849–6000. Also see Finn-Aage Esbensen and The summaries in this section are based on the following: Wayne Osgood, 1997. Research Research in Progress Seminars. At these seminars, scholars discuss their in Brief. National Evaluation of ongoing research and preliminary findings with an audience of researchers and criminal justice professionals. Sixty-minute VHS videotapes of the Research in Progress seminars are available from the National Criminal Justice Reference 1. Members of the G.R.E.A.T. board, which Service (NCJRS) at 1–800–851–3420. Videotaped seminars are $19 ($24 in shares responsibility for and oversight Canada and other countries). of the programs, are the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms; the NIJ Final Reports. These final submissions from NIJ grantees typically are available Federal Law Enforcement Training Center; from NCJRS through interlibrary loan. In some cases, photocopies may be obtained and representatives from five local-level for a fee. For information about these reports and possible fees, contact NCJRS. law enforcement agencies (Phoenix, Arizona; Portland, Oregon; Philadelphia, NIJ Publications. Some of the information here is summarized from recent NIJ Pennsylvania; La Crosse, Wisconsin; and publications, which are available from the NIJ Web site or by contacting NCJRS. Orange County, Florida). Refer to the documents’ accession (ACN) or NCJ numbers. National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 19 G.R.E.A.T., Washington, DC: Table 1: Helpfulness of Commonly Used Domestic U.S. Department of Justice. Violence Prevention Strategies NCJ 167264, which discusses the methodology of the cross-sectional Percentage of Women portion of the G.R.E.A.T. evaluation Percentage of Women Who Rated the Strategy Who Used the Strategy Strategy “Helpful” in more detail. It also discusses find- ings from the process evaluation, Talked to abuser 90% 24% which were found overall to be Ended the relationship 87 43 favorable. Detailed findings from Called police 85 58 the longitudinal portion of the Refused to comply with abuser 86 41 study are in Responding to Gangs: Evaluation and Research, forthcom- Fought back 81 34 ing in fall 2001 from NIJ. Slept separately 80 39 Left home 79 51 How Battered Filed for protection order 72 53 Women Cope Kept things quiet in household 70 40 NIJ Research in Progress Seminar, Tried not to cry 69 36 “An Ecological Model of Battered Talked to family and friends 69 58 Women’s Experience Over Time,” Mary Ann Dutton, grant number 98–WT–VX–0023, available on In the first of several waves of Mary Ann Dutton presented pre- videotape from NCJRS (NCJ interviews, participants reported a liminary findings at a Research in 186728). wide range of strategies for dealing Progress Seminar held at NIJ. She Almost half of the women in a study with violence. The most common collaborated on the study with on domestic violence said that the strategy—talking with the abuser— Lisa A. Goodman of Boston College; abusive episode that triggered their was also the least helpful in terms Dorothy Lessing, Esq., of the House current involvement in the courts of reducing the violence and abuse. of Ruth; and Jane C. Murphy, Esq., or shelter was severe. This finding Just over half of the women found of the University of Baltimore Law emphasizes the importance of that calling the police, another com- School. mon strategy, was helpful. Table 1 placing individual episodes of For more information, contact lists the strategies and shows the violence in the context and history Mary Ann Dutton, Department of of the relationship. percentages of women who used Psychiatry, Georgetown University each strategy and found them The ongoing study of battered Medical Center, 202–687–1997, helpful. women’s experiences over time has [email protected]. a sample of 406 women who came Most women who obtained protec- into contact with researchers at tion orders rated them useful in Police Dissatisfaction three sites—a battered women’s reducing the violence and abuse, shelter, a specialized domestic vio- but most women continued to have With Defense and lence criminal court, and a civil pro- contact with their abuser, probably Control Tactics tection order court. The study was because custody of children was Journal article “An Analysis of Police designed to uncover patterns over involved. Officer Satisfaction With Defense time, understand how women assess Women reported significantly less and Control Tactics,” Robert J. risks, and learn more about the overall violence and abuse between Kaminski and Jeffrey A. Martin, strategies women use for dealing the time they entered the study Policing: An International Journal with violence and abuse. and 3 months later. However, of Police Strategies & Management 23(2) (2000): 132–53. Although the sample was predomi- the abuse—especially stalking— nantly African American, it repre- continued for a significant number Unknowingly, some police agencies sents a diverse range of women in of women. Additional follow-up may adopt unarmed defense and terms of age, income, relationship data will be analyzed to evaluate control tactics that are of question- status, living arrangement, and the reduction in violence and able utility for safely and efficiently number of children. abuse over time. subduing resistive and combative

At-A-Glance: Recent Research Findings 20 suspects. This occurs in part because policing in the United States is high- Police Dissatisfaction Survey Methods ly diverse and decentralized, and although this can lead to innova- The survey took place over a 2-week period in June 1998. It included 65 questions tions, it can also lead to communi- designed to collect information about officer characteristics (age, sex, fitness levels, cation problems and duplication of length of service, and victimization experience), types of defense and control tactics efforts—especially in the area of training received, opinions about the effectiveness of various defense and control defense and control. In addition, methods, whether more or less training should be provided, and level of interest no national standards are in place in alternative defense and control methods. regarding the amount of training officers should receive, the methods of instruction, or the techniques takedowns, punching, kicking, Continual and substantial improve- proven most successful. defense against multiple ments have no doubt been made assailants, defense against in instructional methods and in Robert J. Kaminski and Jeffrey A. pepper spray, and gun the selection of defense and control Martin have recently published find- retention techniques. tactics over the last several decades. ings from their analysis of survey Nevertheless, well-designed research responses from approximately Moderate levels of interest in and evaluation efforts can help 600 officers to learn: pressure point controls, baton controls, and firearms training. determine which tactics and What they think about the training methods will produce training they received. Relatively little interest in verbal the desired results in the most tactics, locks and holds, training efficient and cost-effective manner. Officers’ experiences in using with pepper spray, and baton the tactics during street encoun- strikes. Future research can address such ters. questions as: How much initial Interestingly, more than half of Officers’ interest in alternative training should be provided to the respondents indicated they techniques and training recruits? How frequently should had studied wrestling, boxing, methods. in-service training occur? What or martial arts outside of the level of technique complexity is Lessons Learned and department, and virtually all optimal? Which specific techniques Suggested Improvements reported that these methods were work best for defense and control? helpful during arrest or self-defense Approximately 60 percent of the situations. These officers’ responses For more information, contact officers in the survey said the may be overly optimistic because Robert J. Kaminski, Social Science defense and control tactics training they self-selected their training. Analyst, NIJ, 202–616–9135, they had received from their depart- However, it cannot be overlooked [email protected]. ments was “not at all” or “only a that the officers’ responses may little” effective on resistive subjects. indicate a need for agencies to Using Sales Taxes Yet only about a fourth of the offi- increase in-service training time cers wanted to spend more time in areas of high interest to officers to Combat Drug Use learning defense and control tactics as a way to improve technique Final report submitted to NIJ, Jack- from their department. effectiveness. son County, Missouri, COMmunity Backed Anti-Drug Tax (COMBAT) Such high levels of dissatisfaction Implications for Policy suggest that in-service training Evaluation, by Peter Finn, et al., methods need to be reexamined The survey indicates that police grant number 96–IJ–CX–0091. and redeveloped, at least in those administrators may lack objective Available from NCJRS (NCJ agencies experiencing similar information as to whether or not 182439). levels of dissatisfaction among their officers are being taught the Twice, the voters of Jackson County, their officers. most efficient physical methods Missouri (Kansas City), have voted for safely subduing resistive and The survey responses provide some to increase their county sales tax by combative suspects. If certain tech- hints for improving in-service train- one-quarter of 1 percent to fund niques or training methods are not ing. Officers expressed: prevention, treatment, and law effective, officers, suspects, and enforcement initiatives to fight High levels of interest in innocent bystanders may be at substance abuse. in-service training in wrestling, risk for unnecessary injury.

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 21 Voters approved the funding effort, estimated that these prevention number of jobs COMBAT may have called COMmunity Backed Anti- initiatives reached several thousand helped generate. However, it appears Drug Tax (COMBAT), in 1989 young people. However, the evalua- that a very modest increase in job for 7 years and again in 1995 for tion could not determine whether opportunities occurred because of another 7 years. COMBAT reduced drug experimen- COMBAT’s contribution to making tation or how many individuals the community safer and less disor- The tax has generated between $14 COMBAT-funded prevention initia- derly than in the past. to $18 million each year. Both the tives served over the life of the unique funding mechanism and the Is there community support program. Trends in school-based ambitious goals of the COMBAT for COMBAT and its program? surveys of drug use among 12th effort have received considerable Every 7 years, the voters of Jackson graders suggest no significant attention outside of Jackson County. County must reapprove the anti- changes during COMBAT years. drug tax. Generating community Local trends in drug use are similar Has It Worked? support is essential if COMBAT is to those found nationwide. to survive. Although most COMBAT The program underwent only limit- Did COMBAT support innovative participants and observers believe ed evaluation early in its history. programming that might not that most residents are not familiar In 1996, NIJ and the Kauffman otherwise have been funded? with the program, a random digit- Foundation joined forces to solicit a COMBAT initiated, coordinated, or dialing survey of Missouri telephone full evaluation. Abt Associates won funded a number of significant exchanges in 1998 found that 45 that procurement and began work innovative initiatives. Perhaps the percent of Jackson County residents in the fall of 1996. The highlights of most innovative aspect of COMBAT were aware of COMBAT and, of the findings include the following: is the scope of its programming. those, 64 percent were satisfied Did COMBAT lead to increased Among the significant initiatives with COMBAT’s performance. jailing of dangerous offenders? were a multimillion dollar Grant Taken as a whole, the number of Match Program that attracts an Policy Implications arrests of serious drug offenders has estimated $4 for each $1 in COM- While in its infancy COMBAT increased substantially. The arrest BAT matching funds, Community looked similar to other community rate has been comparable to or Action Networks (CAN’s) that link partnership efforts or localized law higher than the rate found in other neighborhood organizations and enforcement efforts, it has evolved jurisdictions—a rate that has been police officers to solve local crime and started to become institutional- sustained over the entire COMBAT problems, job preparation and ized as a large-scale, comprehensive period. In Missouri, Jackson County placement services for substance public health approach to dealing has made large contributions to abusers in treatment through the with drug abuse and all of the prob- the State prison population, as Full Employment Council, and lems that arise from drug abuse. The well as contributing to keeping landlord-related initiatives for deal- level of integration of both public the county jail operating at over- ing with substance-abusing and health and strong law enforcement capacity levels. drug-trafficking tenants. components is unusual. Did COMBAT increase the treat- Did COMBAT enhance communi- COMBAT is also unique in that it ment of nonviolent offenders cation and collaborative action represents both a stable presence in who want to get off drugs? among organizations, programs, the community through funding a COMBAT appears to have increased and jurisdictions? COMBAT pro- standing group of providers and the amount of treatment available. moted considerable collaboration programs over the years, as well as Program funding made treatment among a wide range of organiza- a dynamic component that supports available for an estimated 4,500 tions, programs, and jurisdictions. new programming ideas as they individuals in 1997. Data limitations The program’s overall philosophy arise. prevented estimating the increased and approach is one of collabora- treatment slots for other years. tion among prevention providers, Jurisdictions that are contemplating the treatment community, and the replication of COMBAT should Did COMBAT increase the pre- criminal justice system. consider incorporating three key vention of drug experimentation operational themes: among youth? COMBAT increased Did COMBAT promote economic the number of prevention initiatives development activities? The A holistic approach to combat- in Jackson County, and the study study could not estimate the exact ing substance abuse.

At-A-Glance: Recent Research Findings 22 Evolution, not revolution, in Make sure there is a strong gram objectives and activities and promoting change. foundation of accessible treat- the lack of complete, reliable, and ment programs. pertinent data limited the value of Accountability among partici- most of the subsequent evaluations pating agencies and organiza- Earmark the tax money exclu- that were conducted. Only by begin- tions. sively for fighting substance abuse. ning the evaluation when the pro- Other jurisdictions can replicate gram starts is it possible to collect COMBAT, and, indeed, Little Rock, Plan in advance how the money the kinds of valid baseline and his- Arkansas, already has. Other jurisdic- will be used. torical data that may not be accessi- tions are most likely to be successful Assign staff full-time to monitor ble easily or at all later on. in replicating COMBAT if they: prevention and treatment Additionally, if COMBAT had set up Secure strong, top-level political provider performance. an evaluation at the start, all parties leadership for the program. Find ways to make participants that were to receive COMBAT fund- ing would have been put on notice Make law enforcement a major feel they “own” the initiatives. from the outset that they would be component of the program. Finally, other communities should held accountable for achieving their allocate funds for evaluating the Give the program a public goals. program and begin the evaluation health focus. from the start. COMBAT itself did For more information, contact Peter Find an exceptionally talented, not commission or arrange for a Finn, Abt Associates, 55 Wheeler experienced, and dedicated pro- comprehensive evaluation when it Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, gram administrator. first began. The lack of written pro- 617–349–2739.

New & Noteworthy

Study of Crimes Online Database Against College Women College administrators, potential students, parents, and others interested in tracking crime on campus can search an online database that contains reported criminal offenses The Sexual Victimization of College for more than 6,000 colleges and universities in the United States. The database was Women, a report supported by NIJ developed by the Department of Education’s Office of Postsecondary Education as a and the Bureau of Justice Statistics result of the 1998 Congressional amendments to the Higher Education Act of 1965. (BJS), reports that about 3 percent The database can be searched by city, geographic region, instructional program, name of college women experience a com- of institution, number of students enrolled, State or outlying area, and type of institution. pleted or attempted rape during a typical college year. Visit the database at http://www.ope.ed.gov/security/Search.asp. Authors Bonnie S. Fisher, Francis T. In about half of the incidents respondents and whether force Cullen, and Michael G. Turner esti- categorized by the researchers as or coercion was used. Completed mate that more than 350 rapes a completed rapes, the women did not rape was defined as “unwanted com- year could occur at a college with consider the occurrence to be a rape pleted penetration by force or threat 10,000 female students—a finding for a number of reasons, such as of force.” with serious policy implications for embarrassment, not clearly under- college administrators. The report, The study also included a compari- standing the legal definition of rape, which offers a comprehensive look son component sponsored by BJS or not wanting to define someone into the prevalence and nature of that used methodology similar they knew as a rapist. The study sexual assault occurring at American to that of the National Crime asked a number of questions to colleges, also states that about Victimization Survey, and the two determine what happened during 13 percent of college women components used different ques- incidents reported by survey are stalked each year. tioning methodologies to screen for

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 23 incidents of rape. The differences training specific to domestic vio- The 103 courts were chosen because in estimated levels of sexual assault lence, and less than 10 percent they operated a special service, associated with the methodological of courts exclusively assigned to process, or structure related to differences will help researchers domestic abuse require any related domestic violence. design better and more accurate training. In addition to the survey’s findings, surveys in the future. The study also found that in most the book includes an extensive Copies of Sexual Victimization courts: appendix outlining each individual of College Women (NCJ 182369), court’s responses. The questions Systems are not in place for grant numbers 95–WT–NX–0001 cover several topics, including court monitoring batterer compliance. and 97–MU–MU–0011, are avail- jurisdictions, monitoring of batterer able online at http://www.ojp. Case screening and coordination compliance, intake services, and usdoj.gov/nij or by calling NCJRS are not standard. general court services. A copy of at 1–800–851–3420. Basic information gathering the survey sent out to the identified tools are not utilized. courts also is included. Domestic Violence Domestic violence victims are To obtain copies of Specialization of in the Courts not given information critical Domestic Violence Case Management to their decision making. in the Courts: A National Survey, An overview of current court prac- grant number 98–WT–VX–0002, Few courts offer all the available tices in domestic violence cases is contact Pam Petrakis, National services to victims, including the focus of Susan Keilitz’ new Center for State Courts, ppetrakis@ legal assistance for economic book, Specialization of Domestic ncsc.din.us, 757–259–1822, fax: support or civil issues. Violence Case Management in the 757–564–2081. A shipping and Courts: A National Survey. In the The study, which includes the handling charge of $5 applies. NIJ-sponsored study, Keilitz found responses of 103 courts represent- It also is available from NCJRS that only half of all courts specializ- ing 22 States, offers data gathered (NCJ 186192). ing in domestic violence cases through a written questionnaire, require any judicial training, telephone interviews, and a panel approximately one-third require discussion with 27 professionals. New Book Plots the Effects of Crime Mapping Technology is revolutionizing the criminal justice system, and a new book looks at how crime mapping and geographic information systems are changing the face of justice practice and research. Atlas of Crime: Mapping the Criminal Landscape, edited by Linda S. Turnbull, Elaine Hallisey Hendrix, and Borden D. Dent, uses mapping to look at “hot spots” and crime trends (both current and his- toric) in the United States. Among other topics, Atlas of Crime delves into crimes of personal violence, property crime, and the criminal justice system. Crime mapping, which provides a visual display of where crimes are occurring and what types of crime are most prevalent in these areas, is

New & Noteworthy 24 becoming more widespread. Police departments are using this process to fight crime by placing officers in Guns In America the identified “trouble spots” and The definitive research about gun developing new approaches based ownership in the United States on the crime mapping data. was conducted by Philip J. Cook In chapters dealing with violent and Jens Ludwig under NIJ crime, notable scholars discuss the grant number 93–IJ–CX–0017. geographic and time-based varia- The study, published in 1997, focused on four central issues: tions in homicide, sexual assault, (1) the size, composition, and and robbery in various U.S. loca- ownership of America’s gun tions and explore why these varia- stock; (2) how and why firearms tions exist. For robbery, the authors are acquired; (3) gun storage also describe the victims and perpe- and carrying; and (4) the trators, focusing on New York City defensive use of firearms in particular. against criminal attackers. The section on property crime NIJ published a 12-page includes both traditional (burglary Research in Brief of the and motor vehicle theft) and “new” national survey entitled Guns crimes (environmental and comput- in America: National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms er crimes). Although only 4 percent (NCJ 165476). NIJ’s report is available at of all American residences are bur- http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/165476.pdf glarized each year, this chapter or by calling NCJRS at 1–800–851–3420. includes several levels of locational analysis and investigates the factors The Police Foundation published a 94-page related to these burglaries. Other book entitled Guns in America: Results of a Comprehensive National Survey on Firearms sections provide information on the Ownership and Use, which can be purchased on their Web site direction and distance a stolen car at http://www.policefoundation.org. There is a charge of $15.00. might travel following a theft and explain the phenomenon of envi- ronmental crime, which includes authors also discuss the difficulty through a case study of Lima, Ohio; both moral and criminal crimes that in solving computer-based crimes and the geographic evolution of one affect the global community. The (identity theft, software pira- of today’s most controversial crimi- cy, and data alteration, for nal justice issues—capital punish- example) and explain how ment. geography can be used to For more information about the solve these problems. book or to order a copy, visit Atlas of Crime takes a general the Oryx Press Web site at look at crime mapping in http://www.oryxpress.com. For the criminal justice system. more information about crime Experts examine several mapping and the use of geographic examples of its use, includ- information systems in the criminal ing the geographic distribu- justice field, revisit Thomas Rich’s tion of State and local law “Mapping the Path to Problem enforcement officers killed Solving,” NIJ Journal,October in the line of duty (both 1999, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/ feloniously and accidently); journals (NCJ 179444), or visit the use of crime scene OJP’s Crime Mapping Research sketches to help officers Center’s Web site at http://www. rebuild or reconstruct ojp.usdoj.gov/cmrc and the Crime crime scenes; the opera- Mapping and Analysis Program at tion of community polic- http://www.nlectc.org/cmap. ing on a local level

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 25 Events

VAWA’s Impact Subject Some of the issues raised during substance abuse, dependence, and of Joint Workshop the workshop have been addressed addiction. This includes related neu- by the Violence Against Women Act rological imaging and chemical assay of 2000 (VAWA II), including differ- technologies, genetics, and methods ential impacts targeting underserved to detect use and treat addictions. populations (elderly persons, immi- The supply reduction discussions will To begin assessing the impact grants, and people in same-sex cover new technological approaches of programs funded through the relationships). VAWA II includes to disrupting all phases of drug oper- Violence Against Women Act a reauthorization of the original ations and increasing agencies’ capa- (VAWA), NIJ, the Bureau of Justice VAWA legislation, amendments to bilities. This includes several types of Statistics, and the Violence Against further protect abused immigrant sensors (i.e., nuclear, acoustic, and Women Office brought together spouses, and strengthened full-faith biological) to monitor and detect the researchers, practitioners, and and credit provisions to support growth, processing, shipment, and Federal and State government enforcement of protection orders distribution of illegal drugs, and the officials to discuss how to define across jurisdictional boundaries. and measure the impact. identification of drug-associated For more information about the Vio- currency. Non-intrusive cargo Opening discussions focused on how lence Against Women Act and NIJ’s inspection also will be discussed. to define VAWA impacts. Attendees Violence Against Women Office, visit In addition, a special session is proposed using the term “victim http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/vawo. For planned on unmanned aerial well-being” rather than “victim safe- more information about the work- vehicles, airships, and balloons as ty” because “well-being” broadens shop, contact Angela Moore Parmley, cost-effective surveillance sensor one’s perspective. They also noted Social Science Analyst, Violence and platforms, and two plenary sessions that adverse and differential impacts Victimization Division, NIJ, at are scheduled dealing with drug with regard to race, ethnicity, and [email protected]. social class need to be considered detection equipment standards both for victims and offenders. Other and the legal implications and suggestions included focusing on Drug Policy ramifications of new surveillance community-level interventions and Technologies and detection technology. responding with more than punitive Focus of ONDCP For more information about the approaches. Symposium symposium or to register online, Attendees also suggested using or visit http://www.reg4.com/pdg/ “Counterdrug main.asp or call 1–800–377–4734. augmenting major measures of vio- Research and lence against women: The geographic Development: codes in the National Crime Victimi- Technologies for the Perspectives on zation Survey could be used to exam- Next Decade” is the Crime and Justice ine communities with and without theme of this year’s Office of Lecture Series VAWA funding, paying special atten- National Drug Control Policy tion to the subpopulations not cap- (ONDCP) International Technology Every year, NIJ invites scholars tured in the Survey. A clearinghouse Symposium. The conference, spon- to Washington, D.C., for the of instruments could be developed, sored by ONDCP’s Counterdrug Perspectives on Crime and Justice enabling researchers to gather more Technology Assessment Center, will lecture series. The lectures are consistent data and allowing better take place June 25–28, in San Diego, designed to present provocative future impact evaluations. Measures California. points of view to policymakers could go beyond criminal justice and practitioners. outcomes (e.g., arrest, prosecution, Designed to promote the exchange of convictions, and recidivism) and information and foster discussion, In February, Alfred Blumstein, a well- include social justice measures such the symposium will cover two main known criminologist from Carnegie as equality in service provision, eco- topics—demand reduction and sup- Mellon University and director nomic autonomy, tribal sovereignty, ply reduction. of the National Consortium on respect for victims, and fair treat- Violence Research, discussed factors The demand reduction sessions will contributing to the falling violence ment of all perpetrators who go focus on the development and facili- through the criminal justice system. rate in the United States and con- tation of methodologies that address cepts to consider in the future.

Events 26 The March lecture featured Laurence legitimate economy were recruited Steinberg of Temple University, both to meet the growing demand July 22–25, 2001 director of the John D. and Catherine and to replace the older sellers who JW Marriott Hotel, Washington, DC T. MacArthur Foundation Research were sent to prison in large numbers. Network on Adolescent Development Until the late 1980’s, the drug arrest Plan Now to Attend the 2001 and Juvenile Justice. He spoke on rate for white and nonwhite juveniles juvenile psychopathy. was roughly comparable, but Annual Conference on between 1989 and 1992, nonwhite Blumstein’s Lecture juveniles’ drug arrest rate zoomed Criminal Justice on Declining Violence to four times that of whites. Hand- Research and guns became necessary protection A dramatic rise in crime was record- for these young sellers, but because Evaluation ed in the United States during the young people are so tightly net- 1980’s, but it has been steadily worked, there was a widespread For more details, contact: decreasing since its peak in 1993. diffusion of handguns to their peers, Institute for Law and Justice Blumstein discussed the violent including those not involved with 1018 Duke Street crime trends of the past few years by drugs. As a result, handguns became looking at variables such as offender Alexandria, VA 22314 a much more common instrument age, weapon use, and drug markets. 703–684–5300 for dispute resolution. fax: 703–739–5533 During the crime peak years, Why is crime falling? Two explana- http://www.nijpcs.org Blumstein found, younger offenders tions are generally cited for the were arrested twice as often for homi- Sponsored by decrease in crime—fewer total young cide compared to 1985, when the adults and higher incarceration rates. National Institute of rise started. Starting in 1985, a major Blumstein was quick to point out, Justice and other Office dichotomy occurred between young however, that the demographic shift of Justice Programs people under 20 years of age and the was more significant in the crime offices and bureaus. 25 and older group, marking consid- drop of the early 1980’s as the baby erable shifts in violent crime for just boom generation aged out of the the younger group, with a steady and prime crime age bracket. He also continuing decline for the older ones. pointed out that the late 1980’s to engage in criminal activity. Blumstein reported that an increase marked a period in which incarcera- Demographic changes, which are in gun use by young people was tion and crime went up, leaving us now increasing the population in largely responsible for this crime with the highest incarceration rate the high-risk age ranges but only boom. By 1993, juvenile offenders in the industrialized world. This pre- slowly at about 1 percent per year, were committing homicide using cludes the simplistic claim many have could also adversely affect the vio- handguns more than four times as made that the 1990’s crime drop was lence rate. He also emphasized the often as in 1985, with no comparable caused only by the growth of incar- importance of building the research change in weaponry other than ceration. He reported estimates by program to reach a much fuller handguns. Because the dynamics of both William Spelman and Richard understanding of the mutually teenage fights accelerate dramatically Rosenfeld that about 25 percent of supporting—or opposing— when a handgun is used, the homi- the 1990’s crime drop was attribut- contributions of our various cide rate for that age group increased able to incarceration. efforts to control crime. dramatically. The rate of gun use and Looking ahead. The crime rate can- young people’s homicide peaked in Steinberg’s Lecture on not continue to decrease at the cur- 1993 and was largely restored to 1985 Psychopathic Juveniles rent rate, and there are already indi- levels by the end of the 1990’s. cations that the decline is beginning The characterization of the juvenile He also pointed to the crack epidem- to level off—especially in the big offender as a psychopath is a trend ic of the 1980’s as a key factor con- cities. Potential threats for the future that concerns Laurence Steinberg. tributing to the increased violent include new drug markets involving Although no hard data are available crime rate. Crack made cocaine more weapon use that might create a situa- to validate this perceived increase, affordable and available, and sellers tion similar to the crack epidemic of Steinberg feels that there are many were needed to serve the rapid the 1980’s. Blumstein pointed out reasons to sound a note of caution growth in demand. Young African that an economic downturn and about the potential overuse of Americans who saw only limited increased unemployment could juvenile psychopathy as a diagnostic economic opportunities in the also increase the incentive label.

National Institute of Justice Journal April 2001 27 Psychopathy, a personality disorder The crisis. Today’s sense of urgency in adolescent and adult popula- defined by a combination of antiso- over the need to identify psycho- tions? cial behavior and emotional detach- paths has its origins in the now Are scores on measures of ment, is generally assessed through infamously wrong prediction about psychopathy derived during the Psychopathy Checklist (PCL); the coming wave of superpredators. adolescence correlated to those a slightly revised version called the Although views have softened on the derived during adulthood? PCL Youth Version is being used inevitability of an epidemic of juve- with adolescents. PCL scores are nile violence, the legacy of the super- Do scores on measures of psy- based on interview responses and predator lives on today in the label chopathology derived during official records, and they are often of the juvenile psychopath. adolescence predict future antiso- used to predict future behavior— cial behavior and violence? The theory. Although warnings adults who score over 29 on the test about superpredators were not Although research is attempting to are four times more likely to commit based on reality or precise evidence, answer these questions, the only a future violent crime. Steinberg said that the translation of answer available now is, “We don’t The construct of psychopathy is the rhetoric into policy and practice know.” Steinberg feels that the use questionable when applied to juve- necessitated two other ingredients: a of psychopathy assessments to make niles, however. Psychopaths are saleable theory about the condition’s important decisions about juvenile probably more likely to be viewed origin and a diagnostic test to identi- offenders is premature, and if the as incorrigible, less likely to receive fy offenders. In recent years, psycho- answer to any of these three ques- rehabilitation, and more likely to be pathy has been attributed to low tions is “no,” the use of psychopathy transferred to the adult criminal jus- serotonin levels, low autonomic assessments to make important tice system when branded with the reactivity, unusual patterns of physi- decisions about juvenile offenders disorder. The stability of psychopathy ological arousal, and prefrontal corti- is bad practice, and perhaps even measures over the course of adoles- cal dysfunction. It also has become unethical. cence or between adolescence and increasingly common at professional Before relying on assessments of adulthood is unknown, though, and meetings to see “pictures” of criminal psychopathy to determine serious few data have been gathered on the brains; whether this is informative or juvenile offender dispositions, longi- predictive utility of the diagnosis simply high-tech phrenology remains tudinal research must be conducted. when applied to juveniles. controversial. Steinberg added, “Psychopathy is, Steinberg expressed concern that The diagnostic tool. The wide- by definition, not something that juvenile psychopathy assessments spread use of the PCL in work with individuals grow out of. Adolescence, are being used to make decisions adults has led many to believe that by definition, is.” to transfer youths into the adult the instrument is appropriate for system, making false-positives espe- use with juveniles. Translating a The Lecture Series cially worrisome. Steinberg believes test from one age group to another Two other Perspectives lectures the trend is due to four factors: a is far from worry-free, however. Until occurred in 2001. Summaries will problem, a crisis, a theory, and a certain fundamental questions about appear in the next issue of the diagnostic tool. the use of the PCL are answered NIJ Journal. through systematic scientific The problem. One of the problems research, Steinberg stated that it Carl Bell, Community Mental facing practitioners in the juvenile should not be used in forensic Health Council and Foundation, justice system is differentiating practice. “Violence Prevention 101,” April between serious offenders who are 20, 2001. likely to reoffend and those who Future of the use of the are not—and wanting to protect psychopathy diagnosis with Margaret Berger, Brooklyn Law communities without exposing low- juveniles. Three important ques- School, “The Impact of DNA risk juveniles to adult sanctions. If tions must be answered before using Testing on the Field of Forensics,” differentiating these juveniles were juvenile psychopathy assessments in May 9, 2001. possible, far better decisions could be sentencing, transfer, and decertifica- To obtain copies of the collected made regarding transfers to the adult tion decisions: papers from previous lectures, system and the decertification of Do measures of psychopathy visit NIJ’s Web site at http://www.ojp. juveniles charged as adults. mean the same thing when used usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/184245.htm.

Events 28 U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh Street, NW. Washington, DC 20531

John Ashcroft Attorney General

Office of Justice Programs World Wide Web Site http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

National Institute of Justice World Wide Web Site http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

The National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS), a centralized national clearinghouse of criminal jus- tice information, is sponsored by the Office of Justice Programs agencies and the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Registered users of NCJRS receive the NIJ Journal and NCJRS Catalog free. To become a registered user, write NCJRS User Services, P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000, call 800–851–3420, or email [email protected]. Visit the NCJRS World Wide Web site at http://www.ncjrs.org. The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

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