NOTES

1 Empire and Occultism

1. Eric Mahoney, Religious Syncretism (London: SCM Press, 2006). 2. Quoted from Speech Genres, 2, by Joseph Roach, Cities of the Dead: Circum-Atlantic Performance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 187. 3. For magic and the marvellous, Gordon in Valerie Flint, Richard Gordon, Georg Luck and Daniel Ogden, The Athlone History of Witchcraft and Magic in Europe, vol. 2, Ancient Greece and Rome (London: Athlone Press 1999), 168ff. 4. Roger Griffin, Modernism and Fascism: The Sense of a Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). 5. Griffin’s introduction to Ben Hutchinson, Modernism and Style (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), xii; idem, Terrorist’s Creed: Fanatical Violence and the Human Need for Meaning (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 53, 73. Key terms from Griffin’s work will intermittently recur in this study. 6. Suzanne Marchand, German Orientalism in the Age of Empire: Religion, Race, and Scholarship (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 7. Ibid., 256 for the ‘reconvergence’ point. 8. Mahoney, Syncretism, 118. 9. , Madame Blavatsky: The Mother of Modern (New York: Tarcher/Penguin USA, 2012); Stephen Prothero, The White Buddhist: The Asian Odyssey of (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012); Joscelyn Godwin, The Theosophical Enlightenment (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994). 10. Martha Shuchard, Restoring the Temple of Vision: Cabalistic Freemasonry and Stuart Culture (Leiden: Brill, 2002). There are Masonic ‘survivals’ and Cabalistic allusions in , but these did not greatly impact on the art world. 11. Catherine Wessinger, and Progressive Messianism, 1874–1933 (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1988); Gregory Tillett, The Elder Brother: A Biography of Charles Webster Leadbeater (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1982). 12. For Theosophical Neoplatonism, Michael Gomes, The Dawning of the Theosophical Movement (Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing House, 1987). 13. Gerald Figal, Civilization and Monsters: Spirits of Modernity in Meiji Japan (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999). 14. Eva Kuryluk, Judas and Salome in the Cave of Sex: The Grotesque, Origins, Iconography, Techniques (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1987). 15. Paul Greenhalgh, The Modern Ideal: The Rise and Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts (London: V&A Publications, 2005), 118. 16. For ‘the colonial syncretic’, Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine: Theosophy and Feminism (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).

145 146 NOTES

17. For Griffes, John Struble, The History of American Classical Music: MacDowell through Minimalism (London: Robert Hale, 1995), 79; for his Theosophy, Judith Tick, ‘Ruth Crawford’s “Spiritual” Concept: The Sound Ideals of an Early American Modernist’, Journal of the American Musicological Society, 44/2 (1991), 224 n. 13; for Heyman’s 1921 The Relation of Ultra Music to Archaic Music, Tick ibid., 22 and n. 27; for Flanner on Pound, Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 1994, 58; for Brancusi, Roger Lipsey, An Art of Our Own: The Spiritual in Twentieth Century Art (Boston and Shaftesbury: , 1988), 242, 245, 256. 18. Paul Edwards, Wyndham Lewis, Painter and Writer (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000), 4. 19. Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: History of the Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World’s Fairs (Manchester University Press, 1990). 20. John Mackenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester University Press, 1995); Greenhalgh, The Modern Ideal, 118ff. 21. Martin Green, Dreams of Adventure, Deeds of Empire (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980). 22. Richard Seager, The World’s Parliament of Religions: The East–West Encounter, Chicago, 1883 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009). 23. Quoted by T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Trans- formation of American Culture (University of Chicago Press, 1994), 309. 24. Paula Amad, Counter-Archive, Film, the Everyday, and Albert Kahn’s Archives De La Planète (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010). 25. Margaret Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Paul Monod, Solomon’s Secret Arts: The in the (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013). 26. G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, Exoticism in the Enlightenment (Manchester University Press, 1989). 27. For Theosophy and pseudo-science, Linda Henderson, The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art (Princeton University Press, 1983). 28. John Lester, Journey through Despair, 1880–1914: Transformations in British Literary Culture (Princeton University Press, 1969). 29. Gary Lachman, Rudolph Steiner: An Introduction to His Life and Works (Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2007); idem, In Search of P. D. Ouspensky: The Genius in the Shadow of Gurdjieff (Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 2006). 30. Bernard Smith, Modernism and Post-Modernism, a neo-Colonial Viewpoint, Working Papers in Australian Studies, Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, 1992. 31. Rupert Arrowsmith, Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African and Pacific Art and the London Avant-Garde (Oxford University Press, 2011). 32. For some of these figures, Maurice Tuchman, ed., The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985 (New York: Abbeville Press, 1987). 33. For Steiner’s aesthetic, John F. Moffitt, Occultism in Avant-Garde Art: The Case of Joseph Beuys (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1988). 34. I owe the point to Tracy Thursfield. 35. Martin Green, Mountain of Truth: The Counterculture Begins, Ascona, 1900–1920 (Hanover and London: University Press of New England, 1986); for Taos, n. 39 below. NOTES 147

36. Bennison, ‘Muslim Universalism and Western Globalization’, in A. G. Hopkins, ed., Globalization in World History (London: Pimlico, 2002), 74ff. 37. Billie Melman, Women’s Orients: English Women in the Middle East, 1718–1918 (London: Macmillan, 1995). 38. John Corbett in Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh, eds, Western Music and Its Others (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000), 163ff. 39. Lois Rudnick, Utopian Vistas: The Mabel Dodge Luhan House and the American Counterculture (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998). 40. Harry Liebersohn, Aristocratic Encounters: European Travellers and North American Indians (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 168. 41. Ibid., 1–2, 4. 42. Ibid., 167. 43. Stephen Hay, Asian Ideas of East and West: Tagore and His Critics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 313–15. 44. Bernard Leach, Beyond East and West: Memoirs, Portraits and Essays (London: Faber and Faber), 74–5. 45. Marchand, German Orientalism; Joanne Cho, Eric Kurlander, and Douglas McGetchin, eds, Transcultural Encounters between Germany and : Kindred Spirits in the 19th and 20th Centuries (London and New York: Routledge, 2013). 46. For the quotations, Jill Lloyd, German Expressionism: Primitivism and Modernity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 115–16. 47. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 33ff. 48. Ibid., 12–13 (my italics). 49. Ian Buruma, The Missionary and the Libertine (New York: Vintage Books, 2001), 67ff. 50. Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness, 230, 240. 51. Lears, No Place of Grace, 100–2, 108–9, 117–18, 143, 222. 52. Benita Parry, Delusions and Discoveries: Studies on India in the British Imagination, 1880–1930 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), 53 and n. 125. 53. Ibid., 131. 54. Kathleen Taylor, Sir John Woodroffe, Tantra and Bengal (Richmond: Curzon, 2001), 96. 55. Hugh Ridley, Images of Imperial Rule (London: Croom Helm, 1983), 108, 111, 114, 124. 56. Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness, 230. 57. Richard Fox, Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 108–9. 58. Leonard Gordon, Bengal: The Nationalist Movement, 1876–1940 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), 112–13. 59. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2001), 12. 60. Bely, The Emblematics of Meaning, 1909. 61. Max Nordau, Degeneration (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1993), 131. 62. Brian Stableford, Scientific Romance in Britain 1890–1950 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1985), 40. 63. Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness, 251. 64. Lears, No Place of Grace, 172–3; Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness, 230, 232, 240. 148 NOTES 2 Modernist Interworlds

1. For sensory decay, Jonathan Crary, Suspensions of Perception: Attention, Spectacle and Modern Culture (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1999). For new optics and acoustics, Linda Henderson, The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art (Princeton University Press, 1983). 2. Robert Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989), 111ff. Dion Fortune described the Sephira of Yesod on the Cabalistic Tree of Life as a ‘treasure house of images’: The Mystical Qabalah, 1935, 258. 3. Irena Paperno and Joan Grossman, Creating Life: The Aesthetic Utopia of Russian Modernism (Stanford University Press, 1994), 3. 4. Note the psychoses of Lautreamont, Nietzsche, Strindberg, Van Gogh, Artaud, and maybe Jung; also the alcohol or drug addictions of Munch, Malcolm Lowry, Pollock, Wols, Kerouac, Durrell and Burroughs. 5. For the reception of the Gita and The Tibetan Book of the Dead, E. J. Sharpe, The Universal Gita: Western Images of the (La Salle: Open Court, 1985) and Donald Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la: Tibetan and the West (University of Chicago Press, 1998), 46ff. Mircea Eliade, Occultism, Witchcraft and Cultural Patterns (University of Chicago Press, 1976), 47ff., reviews the 1960s occultist canon. 6. For Harvard Orientalism, C. McNelly Kearns, T. S. Eliot and Indic Traditions (Cambridge University Press, 2008). For Wagner’s sources, Urs App, Richard Wagner and Buddhism (Rorschach and Kyoto: UniversityMedia, 2011). 7. Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation, 213–14 (my italics), apropos the Decadent ‘fatal book’. 8. Pirandello, The Late Mattia Pascal, trans. N. Simborowski (New York: Dedalus, 1987), 117. For Pirandello’s Theosophy, Ann Caesar in Peter Collier and Judy Davies, eds, Modernism and the European Unconscious (Oxford University Press, 1990), 132ff. 9. R. Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). For Indian themes in German modernism, A. L. Willson, Mythical Image: The Ideal of India in German Romanticism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1964), 241–2. 10. Catherine Albanese, Corresponding Motion: Transcendental Religion and the New America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977). 11. D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1998). 12. Richard Noll, The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement (Princeton University Press, 1994); Jeffrey Kripal, Esalen: America and the Religion of No Religion (University of Chicago Press, 2007). 13. Phil Cousineau, ed., The Hero’s Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (New York: Harper and Row, 1990). 14. William McGuire, Bollingen: An Adventure in Collecting the Past (Princeton University Press, 1989). 15. Charlotte Douglas in Maurice Tuchman, ed., The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985 (New York: Abbeville Press, 1986), 192–5. 16. For Coomaraswamy’s art ideals, Allan Antliff, Anarchist Modernism: Art, Politics, and the First American Avant-Garde (University of Chicago Press, 2001). NOTES 149

17. Quoted by John Lester, Journey through Despair, 1880–1914: Transformations in British Literary Culture (Princeton University Press, 1969), 89–90. 18. Alan Gauld, A History of Hypnotism (Cambridge University Press, 1992), 246, 504, 507. 19. For an example of the second transpersonal psychology, Ken Wilber, The Spectrum of Consciousness (Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 1977). 20. R. L. Moore, In Search of White Crows: Spiritualism, Parapsychology and American Culture (Oxford University Press, 1977), 150. 21. Henri Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (New York: Basic Books, 1981); Antoine Faivre, Theosophy, Imagination, Tradition: Studies in (Albany: SUNY Press, 2000). 22. Adam Crabtree, From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), ch. 16. 23. Stoddard Martin, Orthodox Heresy, The Rise of ‘Magic’ as Religion and Its Relation to Literature (London: MacMillan, 1989), 47. 24. Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation, 139–40. 25. S. M. Brown in Gay Allen and Ed Folsom, eds, Walt Whitman and the World (University of Iowa Press, 1995), 148ff.; Gary Lachman, A Dark Muse (New York: Thunders Mouth Press, 2005), 229ff. 26. Studies in Classic American Literature, 1923, ch. 6. 27. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920 (University of Chicago Press, 1994), 36, 38. 28. Ibid., 232. 29. Tom Steele, Alfred Orage and the Leeds Art Club 1893–1923 (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1990), 75, 111. 30. Henry Summerfield, That Myriad-Minded Man: A Biography of George William Russell, ‘AE’ 1867–1935 (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1975), 48; J. W. Forster, Fictions of the Irish Literary Revival (Syracuse University Press, 1987), 76. 31. Noll, Jung Cult, 51–4. 32. Harry Harootunian in Stephen Vlastos, ed., Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998), 157. 33. Lears, No Place of Grace, 169. 34. For yogic-Tantric echoes in modernism, J. C. Bramble in Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, eds, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West (London and New York: Routledge, 2013), ch. 10. 35. James West, Russian : A Study of Vyacheslav Ivanov and the Russian Symbolist Aesthetic (London: Methuen, 1970), 75 (my italics). 36. For mystical anarchist theatre, Beatrice Glatzer Rosenthal, ed., The Occult in Russian and Soviet Culture (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997), 382ff. 37. For Tagore’s ‘aristocratic-folk ideology’, Jon Lang, Madhavi Desai and Miki Desai, Architecture and Independence: The Search for Identity – India 1880 to 1980 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 120ff. 38. For Bergson, Noll, Jung Cult, 129. 39. For Pryse, Summerfield, That Myriad-Minded Man, 64; for Bynner and Orage, P. B. Taylor, Gurdjieff and Orage: Brothers in Elysium (York Beach: Weiser, 2001), 210. 40. Martin, Orthodox Heresy, 43. 41. Romain Rolland, The Life of Vivekenanda and the Universal Gospel (Almora: Advaita Ashram, 1931), 45, 83. 42. Lears, No Place of Grace, 175. 150 NOTES

43. See Garrett’s autobiography, Many Voices (Richmond: Time Life, 1991). 44. R. S. Ellwood, ed., Eastern Spirituality in America, Selected Writings (New York: Paulist Press, 1987), 125. 45. Ibid., 132–3 (my italics). 46. John Elderfield, ed., Flight Out of Time: A Dada Diary by Hugo Ball (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), 108 (my italics). 47. Ibid., 112. 48. Ibid., 101, 109. 49. Ibid., 111. 50. Ibid., 104. 51. Ibid., 108. 52. Bruce Lamb, The Wizard of the Upper Amazon (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1971). 53. G. R. S. Mead, The Doctrine of the Subtle Body in the Western Tradition (Shaftesbury: Solos Press, 1993), 70. 54. For vis imaginativa, Faivre, Theosophy, Imagination, 99ff. 55. Elderfield, Flight Out of Time, 73–5 (my italics). 56. John Bowlt in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 178–9. 57. Elderfield, Flight Out of Time, 119 (my italics). 58. Ibid., 113, 69. 59. Lears, No State of Grace, 306–7. 60. Kathleen Rosenblatt, Rene Daumal: The Life and Work of a Mystic Guide (New York: SUNY Press, 1999). 61. Donald Gordon, Expressionism: Art and Ideas (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 170. 62. Walter Benjamin, Eng. trans., The Arcades Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 543ff. 63. Robert Temple, Open to Suggestion: The Uses and Abuses of Hypnosis (Wellingborough: Aquarian Press, 1989), 62. 64. For Machen, Lester, Journey through Despair, 105. 65. For Surrealism and spiritualism, Daniel Cottom, Abyss of Reason: Cultural Movements, Revelations, and Betrayals (Oxford University Press, 1991). 66. V. Kolocotroni, J. A. Goldman and O. Taxidou, Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh University Press, 1998), 31. 67. Excerpted from the 1977 Penguin edition, 12–14. 68. Henderson, Fourth Dimension, 207–8. 69. Marina Yaguello, Lunatic Lovers of Language: Imaginary Languages and Their Inventors (New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1991), 100. 70. Susan Sontag, Artaud: Selected Writings (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 220. 71. Elderfield, Flight Out of Time, 104. 72. Ronald Vroon in Vroon and Paul Schmidt, Velimir Khlebnikov: Collected Works, Vol. III (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1997), 1. 73. Douglas in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 187. 74. Ibid. In touch with Khlebnikov, Roman Jacobsen was also interested Khlysty sect glossolalia: Yaguello, Lunatic Lovers, 103. 75. John Moffitt, Occultism in Avant-Garde Art: The Case of Joseph Beuys (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1988), 163. NOTES 151

76. H. E. Salisbury, preface to Bely’s The Silver Dove (New York: Random House, 1974), xxxv. 77. Wassily Kandinsky, Concerning the Spiritual in Art (New York: Dover, 1977), 15. 78. J. Hahl-Koch, Letters, Pictures and Documents by Arnold Schoenberg, Wassily Kandinsky (London: Faber and Faber, 1984), 121. 79. For Kruchenykh, Marjorie Perloff, The Futurist Moment (University of Chicago Press, 1986), 123; for Ball, Michael Tucker, Dreaming with Open Eyes: The Shamanic Spirit in Twentieth Century Art and Culture (San Francisco: Harper, 1992), 189. 80. For Huidobro, Tucker, Dreaming with Open Eyes, 190; for Artaud, 192. 81. Joseph Straus, The Music of Ruth Crawford Seeger (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 207. 82. Fernand Ouellette, Edgard Varese (New York: Orion Press, 1973), 127. 83. Olivia Mattis in James Leggio, ed., Music and Modern Art (New York and London: Routledge, 2002), 139ff.

3 Destruction–Creation: From Decadence to Dada

1. Porter in Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, Brian Levack and Roy Porter, The Athlone History of Witchcraft and Magic in Europe, vol. 5 (London: Athlone, 1999), 255ff. 2. Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah (Bollingen Foundation, Princeton University Press, 1976), 8ff. 3. Alan Robinson, Poetry, Painting and Ideas, 1885–1914 (London: MacMillan, 1985). 4. Twilight in Italy, ‘The Lemon Gardens’, 53–4, discussed by Peter Fjagesund, The Apocalyptic World of D. H. Lawrence (New York: Scandinavian University Press, 1992), 44. 5. I. F. Clarke, The Pattern of Expectation, 1644–2001 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1979); idem, Voices Prophesying War, 1793–3749 (Oxford University Press, 1992). 6. Richard Ellmann, Yeats: The Man and His Masks (London: Allen Lane, 1989), 100; Peter Kuch, Yeats and AE (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1986), 106. 7. R. Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989), 148. 8. Quoted from Marc, 100 Aphorisms (1915), by Donald Gordon, Expressionism: Art and Idea (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 24. 9. Urs App, Richard Wagner and Buddhism (Rorschach and Kyoto: UniversityMedia, 2011); Stephen Cross, Schopenhauer’s Encounter with Indian Thought (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2013). 10. Ronald Taylor, Richard Wagner: His Life, Art and Thought (London: Elek, 1979), 228, 231. 11. Raymond Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), 418ff. 12. Frantisek Deak, Symbolist Theater: The Formation of an Avant-Garde (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 82. 13. Eugen Weber, France, Fin de Siecle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), ch. 1. 14. Max Nordau, Degeneration (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1993), 20. 15. Robert Orledge, Debussy and The Theatre (Cambridge University Press, 1982), 269. 16. For Belgian Schopenhauerisme, Louis Roberts-Jones, Brussels Fin de Siecle (Koln: Taschen, 1999), 92; for Kubin, Patrick Werkner, Austrian Expressionism (Oxford: Premier Book Marketing, 1994), 205. 152 NOTES

17. Munch apparently owned a book of selections from Schopenhauer. The implications of this for his art need spelling out. 18. For Rodenbach, Khnopff and Schopenhauer, Judi Freeman in Maurice Tuchman, ed., The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985 (New York: Abbeville Press, 1986), 405; for Klimt’s Schopenhauerian Vienna University murals, Carl Schorske, Fin de Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture (Cambridge University Press, 1981), 205ff; for Klinger and Schopenhauer, Manfred Boetzkes, Max Klinger, Wege zum Gesamtkunstwerk (Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 1984). 19. Bryan Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer (Oxford University Press, 1983), appendix 7. 20. James Robinson, Eugene O’Neill and Oriental Thought (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982), 64. Strindberg’s friends, Munch (note his Madonna) and Przybyszweski (‘in the beginning was sex’) were similarly obsessed by will’s original sin. 21. Joseph Horowitz, Wagner Nights: An American History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 114. 22. Dale Riepe, Philosophy of India and Its Impact on American Thought (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1970), 120–1. 23. Christian Kloeckner, ‘Re-Orienting Impersonality: T. S. Eliot and the Far East’, in Zaoming Qian, ed., Modernism and the Orient (Ezra Pound Center: University of New Orleans Press, 2012), 163ff.; Devin Zuber, ‘“Poking around in the Dust of Asia”: Wallace Stevens, Modernism, and the Aesthetics of the East’, in Sabine Sielke and Christian Kloeckner, eds, Orient and Orientalisms in US-American Poetry and Poetics (Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2009), 189ff. 24. Robert Pincus-Witten, Les Salons de la Rose + Croix, 1892–1897 (London: Piccadilly Gallery, 1968). 25. For Symbolism’s decline, Jean Pierrot, The Decadent Imagination, 1880–1900 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 238ff. 26. Mary Greer, Women of the Golden Dawn: Rebels and Priestesses (Rochester, VT: Park Street Press, 1995). 27. John Bowlt in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 170, quoting Berdyaev: ‘painting is passing from physical bodies to ether and astral ones … the terrifying pulveriza- tion of … material bodies began with Vrubel. The transition to the other can be sensed in Ciurlionis.’ 28. Alain Mercier, Les Sources Esoteriques et Occultes de la Poesie Symboliste 1870–1914 (Paris: Nizet, 1969), two volumes. 29. Nordau, Degeneration, 539, 544. 30. ‘Chaos, disintegrated music, proto-plasma’ was one critic’s verdict on Busoni’s occultist Nocturne symphonique: Antony Beaumont, Busoni the Composer (London: Faber and Faber, 1985), 180. 31. For the mundus imaginalis, Tom Cheetham, The World Turned Inside Out: Henry Corbin and Islamic (Woodstock: Spring Journal Books, 2003). 32. Stanley Rabinowitz, The Noise of Change; Russian Literature and the Critics, 1891–1917 (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1986), 198ff. 33. Maria Carlson, ‘No Religion Higher Than Truth’: A History of the Theosophical Movement in , 1875–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1993), 201–2. 34. For Blok and Briusov, Daniel Gerould, Doubles, Demons and Dreamers: An International Collection of Symbolist Drama (New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications, 1985), 16, 22. NOTES 153

35. Solov’ev’s influence explains why Bely’s ‘thought-form’ technique is more nihilistic than Kandinsky’s. Like Scriabin, Kandinsky foresaw an imminent Theosophical millennium; Bely adopted Solov’ev’s vision of a ‘pan-mongolist’ reign of Antichrist before the Second Coming. 36. Adam Crabtree, From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 197. 37. Carlson, ‘No Religion Higher Than Truth’, 201. 38. Linda Henderson, The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art (Princeton University Press, 1983), 203. 39. Stephen Stepanchev in Gay Allen and E. Folsom, Walt Whitman and the World (Iowa City: Iowa University Press, 1995), 303. For ‘world-making’ and ‘life-creation’, Irena Paperno and Joan Grossman, Creating Life: The Aesthetic Utopia of Russian Modernism (Stanford University Press, 1994). For Bal’mont and Theosophy, Carlson, ‘No Religion Higher Than Truth’, 159. 40. Beongcheon Yu, The Great Circle: American Writers and the Orient (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1983), 61. 41. For Whitman and India, Chari in Allen and Folsom, Whitman, 399, 402; for Lawrence, Brown, in Allen and Folsom, Whitman, 149; for Whitman’s ‘Superior Soul’, Asselineau, in Allen and Folsom, Whitman, 270. 42. Christoph Asendorf, Batteries of Life: On the History of Things and Their Perception in Modernity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), 153, 163–4. 43. Asselineau in Allen and Folsom, Whitman, 242, 237. 44. Constant Lambert, Music Ho! (London, Faber and Faber, 1934). 45. For ‘unselving of objects’, Chari in Allen and Folsom, Whitman, 491. 46. R. C. Washton Long, German Expressionism: Documents from the End of the Wilhelmine Empire to the Rise of National Socialism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), 93, 264. 47. For Ouspensky, Patricia Railing, ed., From Science to Systems of Art: On Russian Abstract Art and Language 1910/1920 (Forest Row: Artists Bookworks, 1989), 41–2; for Yeats, Shiro Naito, Yeats and Zen: A Study of the Transformation of His Mask (Kyoto: Yamaguchi, 1984), 122. 48. Charlotte Douglas in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 186–7. 49. For Vivekananda and Malevich, Bernard Smith, Modernism’s History: A Study in Twentieth Century Art and Ideas (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 161. 50. Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation, 224. 51. Gerould, Doubles, Demons and Dreamers, 7. 52. For apocalyptic time versus historical time, Susan Buck-Morss, Dreamworld and Catastrophe: The Passing of Mass Utopia in East and West (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), ch. 2. 53. John Elderfield, ed., Flight Out Of Time: A Dada Diary by Hugo Ball (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), 224–5. 54. Long, German Expressionism, 264. Strindberg had described Gauguin as ‘a sort of Titan, who jealous of the creator, creates his own microcosm’. 55. For Kandinsky and Theosophy, Sixtus Ringbom, The Sounding Cosmos (Helsingfors: Acta Academiae Aboensis, 1970); for Theosophy and the abstract pioneers generally, Ringbom in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 131ff. 56. Long, German Expressionism, 83 for Hartlaub, 87 for Daubler. 57. For the Lowells, Sanehide Kodama, American Poetry and Japanese Culture (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1984). 154 NOTES

58. Elderfield, Flight out of Time, 53. 59. Jelena Hahl-Koch, Arnold Schoenberg, Wassily Kandinsky: Letters, Pictures and Documents (London: Faber and Faber, 1984), 142. 60. Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 58. 61. Richard Sheppard, Modernism – Dada – Postmodernism (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2000), 174–5, 228. 62. Jonathan Herman, I and Tao: Martin Buber’s Encounter with Chuang Tzu (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996). 63. Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 75–6, adding that the Bakhtin circle in 1920s Leningrad ‘was … interested in Eastern … religion and … Bergson’. 64. Robinson, Eugene O’Neill and Oriental Thought; Yu, Great Circle, 141ff. 65. For Dadaist precursors, M. L. Grossman, Dada: Paradox, Mystification, and Ambiguity in European Literature (New York: Pegasus, 1971). 66. For Hausmann on abstraction, Timothy Benson, Raoul Hausmann and Berlin Dada (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1987), 50; for Herzfelde and Hartlaub, Long, German Expressionism, 274, 290. 67. Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 256, 283. 68. Benson, Haussmann, 46, 49. 69. Ibid., 48; for Hausmann’s reading, Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 276. 70. For Flake, Arp and Ball, Sheppard, ibid., 268–9. 71. Elderfield, Flight out of Time, 221. 72. Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 269ff. 73. For what follows, see Sheppard in Stephen Foster and Rudolph Kuenzli, eds, Dada Spectrum: The Dialectics of Revolt (Madison, WI: Coda Press, 1979), esp. 96–7, and Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 269ff. 74. For Hausmann, Benson, Haussmann, 49; for Evola, Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 277. 75. Sheppard, Dada Spectrum, 98. 76. Benson, Haussmann, 51. A novelist and satirist of Expressionism, Friedlander wrote as ‘Mynona’. His Creative Indifference appeared in 1918. 77. Quoted by Ko Won, Buddhist Elements in Dada: A Comparison of Tristan Tzara, Takahashi Shinkichi and Their Fellow Poets (New York University Press, 1977), 85. 78. Sheppard, Dada Spectrum, 99. 79. For the urinal, Wanda Corn, The Great American Thing: Modern Art and National Identity, 1915–1935 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999), 49 n. 10, 76, 89. 80. Sheppard, Modernism – Dada, 176. 81. Quoted by Peter Conrad, Modern Times, Modern Places: Life and Art in the Twentieth Century (London: Thames and Hudson, 1998), 696.

4 Call to Order, Occultist Geopolitics, Spirit Wars

1. John Milner, Symbolists and Decadents (London: Studio Vista, 1971), 115. 2. Jacques Le Rider, Modernity and Crises of Identity: Culture and Society in Fin de Siècle Vienna (Cambridge: Polity, 1993), 57. NOTES 155

3. James Webb, The Occult Establishment (Glasgow: Drew 1981), 48. Generally, Sophie Treitel, A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004). 4. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism (London: Tauris Parke, 1992). 5. Andrei Znamenski, Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia (Wheaton IL: Quest Books, 2011). 6. Warwick Gould and Marjorie Reeves, Joachim of Fiore and the Myth of the Eternal Evangel in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Oxford University Press, 2001). 7. ‘A Letter from Germany’ (1928), Phoenix: The Posthumous Papers of D. H. Lawrence (New York: Penguin USA, 1972), 107ff. 8. Edward Timms and Peter Collier, eds, Visions and Blueprints: Avant-Garde Culture and Radical Politics in Early Twentieth Century Europe (Manchester University Press, 1988). 9. Daniel Pick, Svengali’s Web: The Alien Encounter in Modern Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). 10. R. C. Grogin, The Bergsonian Controversy in France, 1900–1914 (Alberta: Calgary University Press, 1988). 11. Susan Manning, Ecstasy and the Demon: Feminism and Nationalism in the Dance of Mary Wigman (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993). 12. Quoted from Wyndham Lewis, Paleface: The Philosophy of the Melting Pot (London: Chatto and Windus, 1929), 29ff. 13. John Fisher, Gentleman Spies (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2002), 112; Sean McMeekin, The Berlin–Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany’s Bid for World Power, 1896–1918 (London: Allen Lane, 2010). 14. Tom Reiss, The Orientalist: In Search of a Man Caught between East and West (London: Vintage, 2006). 15. Ibid., 208–9. 16. Ibid., 228ff. 17. Ibid., 236–7. For Masterman, Robert MacDonald, Sons of Empire: The Frontier and the Boy Scout Movement, 1890–1918 (University of Toronto Press, 1993), 15. 18. For old imperial religious tolerance, Mark Mazower, Salonika, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews, 1430–1950 (London: Harper Perennial, 2005). 19. Reiss, The Orientalist, 309. 20. Ibid., 244–5. 21. Dominic Green, Armies of God: Islam and Empire on the Nile, 1869–1899 (London: Century, 2007), 196. 22. For this poorly covered controversy, Barry Cadwallader, Crisis of the European Mind: A Study of André Malraux and Drieu La Rochelle (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1981), ch. 2. 23. Peter Wollen, Raiding the Icebox: Reflections of Twentieth Century Culture (London: Verso, 1993), 24–5 (my italics). 24. Peter Heehs, The Bomb in Bengal: The Rise of Revolutionary Terrorism in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993), 30ff. 25. Dale Riepe, Philosophy of India and Its Impact on American Thought (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1970), 127. 26. Mark Sedgwick, Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). 27. Eugen Weber, Satan Franc Macon: la Mystification de Leo Taxil (Paris: Juillard, 1964). 156 NOTES

28. For The Protocols, Webb, Occult Establishment, ch. 4. 29. Lewis, Paleface, 255. 30. Martin Green, The Von Richthofen Sisters: The Triumphant and the Tragic Modes of Love (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988); Gerald Doherty, Oriental Lawrence: the Quest for the Secrets of Sex (New York: Lang, 2001). 31. Hermann Rauschning, Hitler Speaks (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1939), 49. 32. Roger Griffin, Fascism (Oxford University Press, 1995), 357, for Ernst Niekisch’s hope for a German–Russian alliance against the West; G. D. Stark, Entrepreneurs of Ideology: Neoconservative Publishers in Germany, 1890–1933 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981), for Eugen Diederichs’s Orientalism, Russian publications and liking for Eastern Europe. 33. Phoenix, 109. 34. Joscelyn Godwin, Arktos: The Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism and Nazi Survival (Kempton, IL: Adventures Unlimited Press, 1996), 82–8. 35. Webb, Occult Establishment, 198–204. 36. James Moore, Gurdjieff and Mansfield (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980); P. B. Taylor, Gurdjieff and Orage: Brothers in Elysium (York Beach: Weiser, 2001); Jon Woodson, To Make a New Race: Gurdjieff, Toomer and the Harlem Renaissance ( Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1999). 37. Grogin, Bergsonian Controversy, 142; Richard Griffiths, The Reactionary Revolution: The Catholic Revival in French Literature, 1870–1914 (London: Constable, 1966). Claudel Orientalized, as did Messiaen, another Catholic. 38. Thomas Tweed, The American Encounter with Buddhism, 1844–1912 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 158: ‘processive, nonsubstantialist views of the universe and the self were advanced by natural scientists and philosophers and given expression in … Modernist fiction and painting.’ 39. Cadwallader, Crisis, 36. 40. Mulk Raj Anand, Conversations in Bloomsbury (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1981). 41. Ibid., 162. 42. Ibid., 38–9. 43. Ibid., 108ff. 44. Ibid., 125ff. 45. Ibid., 174–5. 46. Ibid., 106 for Virginia’s venom. 47. Ibid., 173, 176. 48. Ibid., 172. 49. Rachel Shteir, Striptease: The Untold History of the Girlie Show (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). 50. Sherrill Tippins, February House (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2005). 51. Comparing Kiralfy’s ‘Gesamtkunstwerk for the masses’ with de Mille’s epics, L. Senelick, ‘Spectacle and the Kiralfys’, Dance Chronicle, 12/1 (1989), 151. 52. Suzanne Shelton, Divine Dancer: A Biography of Ruth St. Denis (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981); Joseph H. Mazo, Prime Movers: The Makers of Dance in America (Pennington: Princeton Book Company, 1986), 61ff. 53. Mazo, Prime Movers, 75. For dance criticism, Marshall Cohen and Roger Copeland, eds, What is Dance? Readings in Theory and Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); for New Thought and St Denis, Nancy Ruyter, The NOTES 157

Cultivation of Body and Mind in Nineteenth-Century American Delsartism (Westport: Praeger, 1999). 54. Ruyter, Cultivation, 63. 55. Jonathan Massey, Crystal and Arabesque: Claude Bradgon, Ornament and Modern Architecture (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009). 56. Elisabeth de Jong-Keesing, Inayat Khan: A Biography (The Hague and London: East West Publications, 1974), 94–5. Mata Hari’s debut was at the Parisian Musee Guimet in 1905: Lynn Garafola, Diaghilev’s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 282. 57. The photograph is reproduced in an essay on Ballets Russes Orientalism in Nancy Baer, ed., The Art of Enchantment: Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes, 1909–1929 (San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums/Universe Books, 1988). 58. For ‘music-hall modernism’, avant-garde alliances with popular culture and Futurist use of advertising techniques, Jeffrey Weiss, The Popular Culture of Modern Art (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); also Kirk Varnedoe and Adam Gopnik, eds, Modern Art and Popular Culture: Readings in High and Low (New York: Abrams, 1990). 59. For the elephant, Arthur Saxon, P. T. Barnum: The Legend and the Man (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 306. Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: History of the Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World’s Fairs (Manchester University Press, 1990), 43, notes how Kiralfy made a gigantic circus out of the imperial theme; see also John Mackenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester University Press, 1995), 86ff. and 196. 60. For Prampolini on Bakst, Garafola, Ballets Russes, 82. 61. Jane Sherman, Soaring: The Diary and Letters of a Denishawn Dancer in the Far East, 1925–1926 (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1977). 62. ‘Grand Hotel Metaphysics’ is the title of a chapter in Ball’s (1914–20) Dada novel Tenderenda the Fantast.

5 ‘Zen’ in the Second Abstraction

1. In the forties, Breton forecast a return of the ‘accursed sciences’ through ‘accursed poetry’; Etienne-Martin and Remedio Varo followed Gurdjieff; Victor Brauner, a Spiritualist, pursued alchemy, magic, Tarot and Cabala; Kurt Seligman wrote on alchemy and the gnostics in View 1945, publishing a survey, Magic, in 1948. See also M. E. Warlick, Max Ernst and Alchemy: A Magician in Search of Myth (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001). 2. Stephen Polcari, Abstract Expressionism and the Modern Experience (Cambridge University Press, 1993), ch. 2. 3. For Pacific Era, Klaus Berger, Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse (Cambridge University Press, 1992), 265. A June 1954 Cimaise article claimed Graves, Tobey, Pollock, Rothko and Clyfford Still for an École du Pacifique. In 1955 the Getty Museum director added Wolfgang Paalen, Onslow-Ford and Lee Mullican. 4. Helen Westgeest, Zen in the Fifties: Interaction in Art between East and West (Amstelveen: Wanders, 1996), 44–5. 158 NOTES

5. Bert Winther in Alexandra Munroe, ed., Japanese Art after 1945: Scream against the Sky (New York: Abrams, 1994), 61. 6. Ibid., 59. 7. For Zen’s ‘collapsed trikaya’, Bernard Faure, The Rhetoric of Immediacy: A Cultural Critique of Chan/Zen Buddhism (Princeton University Press, 1991). 8. Winther in Munroe, Japanese Art, 57. 9. Ibid., 59–60. 10. Ellen Pearlman, Nothing and Everything: The Influence of Buddhism on the American Avant-Garde, 1942–1962 (Berkeley: Evolver, 2012). 11. Zhaoming Qian, Orientalism and Modernism: The Legacy of China in Pound and Williams (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995). 12. Beongcheon Yu, The Great Circle: American Writers and the Orient (Detroit: Wayne University Press, 1983), ch. 4; Jonathan Spence, The Chan’s Great Continent: China in Western Minds (New York and London: Norton, 1998); William Schwartz, The Imaginative Interpretation of the Far East in Modern French Literature, 1800–1925 (Paris: Champion, 1927). 13. D. J. Clarke, The Influence of Oriental Thought on Postwar American Painting and Sculpture (New York and London: Garland, 1988), ch. 2. 14. Reinhard May, Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East Asian Influences on His Work (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), noting ‘thefts’ from Taoism, Zen and Kyoto School philosophy. 15. Doris in Ken Friedman, ed., A Fluxus Reader (Chichester: Academy Editions, 1998), 91ff. 16. Jacqueline Decter, Nicholas Roerich: The Life and Art of a Russian Master (London: Thames and Hudson, 1989), 136. 17. William McGuire, Bollingen: An Adventure in Collecting the Past (Princeton University Press, 1982), 208ff. 18. Pearlman, Nothing and Everything, 95–6. 19. Stefan Tanaka, Japan’s Orient: Rendering Pasts into History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), chs 3–6. 20. Harold Bloom, The American Religion: The Emergence of a Post-Christian Nation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992). 21. R. H. Scharf, ‘The Zen of Japanese Nationalism’, in Donald Lopez, ed., Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonialism (University of Chicago Press, 1995), 140. 22. Gustavo Benavides, ‘Guiseppe Tucci, or Buddhology in the Age of Fascism’, in Lopez, ed., Curators of the Buddha, ch. 4. 23. For context, Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold-War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: The New Press, 2013). 24. Serge Guibault, How America Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War (University of Chicago Press, 1985). 25. Kay Larson, Where the Heart Beats: John Cage, Zen Buddhism, and the Inner life of Artists (New York: Penguin, 2013), 165–7. 26. Sulagna Sengupta, Jung in India (New Orleans: Spring Journal Books, 2013), 82ff. 27. J. W. de Gruchy, Orienting Arthur Waley: Japonism, Orientalism and the Creation of Japanese Literature in English (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003), 164. 28. Winther in Munroe, Japanese Art, 57. For a good bibliography, Alexandra Munroe, ed., The Third Mind: American Artists Contemplate Asia, 1860–1989 (New York: Guggenheim Museum, 2009). NOTES 159

29. Pearlman, Nothing and Everything, xii. 30. Gail Levin and Marianne Lorenz, Theme and Improvisation: Kandinsky and the American Avant-Garde, 1912–50 (Ohio: Dayton Art Institute, 1992). 31. James Monte and Anne Glusker, The Transcendental Painting Group: New Mexico 1938–1941 (New Mexico: Albuquerque Museum, 1982). 32. For music, John Mackenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester University Press, 1995), 138ff. 33. For pioneers of the second Japonisme, Francoise Will-Levaillant, ‘La Chine d’Andre Masson’, Revue de l’Art (1971) 12, 64–74. For Western knowledge of calligraphy, Westgeest, Zen in the Fifties, 100–1. 34. Westgeest, Zen in the Fifties, 9. 35. Isaac Luria was a renowned sixteenth-century Cabalist. See Chapter 6 on Bob Dylan. 36. Dore Ashton, Noguchi: East and West (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993). 37. Robert Weinberg, Spinning the Clay into Stars: Bernard Leach and the Baha’i Faith (Oxford: George Ronald, 1999), 14–15. 38. Domiciled in Ireland from the late fifties, Graves met Paul Tillich, Campbell and Rothko in 1960. He revisited the East in 1971 and 1977: Freeman in Maurice Tuchman, ed., The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting, 1890–1985 (New York: Abbeville, 1987), 400. 39. Wulf Herzogenrath and Andreas Kreul, eds, Sounds of the Inner Eye: John Cage, Mark Tobey, Morris Graves (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002). 40. Between spells in Seattle, Tobey was associated with Dartington from 1930–38. 41. Linda Henderson, The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art (Princeton University Press, 1983), 345 n. 9. 42. Weinberg, Spinning the Clay, 117. 43. Freeman in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 414; Steven Naifeh and Gregory Smith, Jackson Pollock: An American Saga (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1990). 44. Moritz in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 309–10. 45. For Fischinger’s ‘animistic Buddhism’, Moritz in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 301; for his Kandinskyism, Levin and Lorenz, Theme and Improvisation, 159ff. 46. Moritz in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 309–10. 47. For the Indians, who taught Hindu dance and philosophy at Black Mountain College in 1949, Clarke, Influence of Oriental Thought, ch. 3 n. 106. 48. Henderson, Fourth Dimension, 227. 49. Freeman in Tuchman, The Spiritual in Art, 415. 50. Carole Tonkinson, ed., Big Sky Mind: Buddhism and the Beat Generation (London: Thorsons, 1996), 326–7. 51. Stephen Schwartz, From West to East: California and the Making of the American Mind (New York: Free Press, 1998). 52. Perle Epstein, The Private Labyrinth of Malcolm Lowry: Under the Volcano and Cabbala (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969); for Duncan, Timothy Materer, Modernist Alchemy: Poetry and the Occult (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 107ff. 53. David Nicholls, ed., The Whole World of Music: A Henry Cowell Symposium (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Press, 1997), 76ff. 54. Henderson, Fourth Dimension, 224ff. 55. For Rauschenberg, Andreas Papadakis, New Art International (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1990), 23; for Cage on Fischinger, Richard Kostelanetz, Conversing with Cage (New York: Limelight Editions, 1988), 8. 160 NOTES

56. James Pritchett, The Music of John Cage (Cambridge University Press, 1993), 36ff. 57. For the ‘objet-poème’, Westgeest, Zen in the Fifties, 102ff. 58. Werner Schmalenbach, Bissier (New York: Abrams, 1963), gives conflicting dates (1919 and 1927). I choose the latter. 59. Roger Lipsey, An Art of Our Own: The Spiritual in Twentieth Century Art (Boston and Shaftesbury: Shambhala, 1988), 367ff. 60. Wols worked with closed eyes, the better to follow his ‘unconscious’. For Degottex, Westgeest, Zen in the Fifties, 117–18. 61. K. F. Rosenblatt, Rene Daumal: The Life and Work of a Mystic Guide (Albany: SUNY Press, 1999). 62. Westgeest, Zen in the Fifties, 144–5. 63. Thomas McEvilley in Dominique de Menil, Yves Klein 1918–62: A Retrospective (Houston: Rice University Institute for the Arts, 1982). 64. Rustom Bharucha, Theatre and the World: Performance and the Politics of Culture (India: Manohar, 1990), 14: ‘Artaud was drawn to a vast … range of cultural stimuli, including Yoga, oriental religions, drugs, magic, the Tibetan Book of the Dead, mysticism, acupuncture, astrology.’ 65. Rupert Arrowsmith, Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African and Pacific Art and the London Avant-Garde (Oxford University Press, 2010), 117. 66. Michael Tucker, Alan Davie: The Quest for the Miraculous (London: Lund Humphries, 1993.) 67. For the monochrome, Thomas McEvilley, The Exile’s Return: Toward a Redefínition of Painting for the Post-Modern Era (Cambridge University Press, 1994), ch. 2. 68. Barbara Rose, Art as Art: Selected Writings of Ad Reinhardt (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), xvi. Renouncing colour in 1953, Reinhardt painted residually Mondrianesque black monochromes until his death in 1967. Asian art contained nothing ‘romantic, spontaneous, unconscious, primitive, expressionistic, accidental, or informal’ (Rose, 217): none of the qualities prized by Abstract Expressionists! He disparaged ‘cafe-and-club primitives and neo-Zen bohemians’ (Rose, 202). 69. Rose, Art as Art, 87, 98, 157. 70. A painter with a cellular/cosmogonic angle on Zen, Francis knew Mallarme’s blancs: compare Reinhardt (Rose, Art as Art, 106), who called Mallarme, Melville and Flaubert ‘masters of voidness’. 71. For Martin and Taoism, McEvilley, Exile’s Return, ch. 4, noting her interest in Buddhism’s ‘intermediate’ Sambhogakaya realm. This distinguishes her from would-be Dharmakaya-level abstractionists like Reinhardt and Marden. 72. For Tapies on Eastern influences, Barbara Catoir, Conversations with Antoni Tapies (Munich: Prestel, 1991). 73. Clarke, Influence of Oriental Thought, 307 n. 85; Will-Levaillant, ‘La Chine d’ Andre Masson’, 68 n. 43.

6 Owning, Disowning and Trivializing the Occult

1. R. C. Grogin, The Bergsonian Controversy in France, 1900–14 (Alberta: University of Calgary Press, 1988), 37. NOTES 161

2. James Robinson, Eugene O’Neill and Oriental Thought (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982), 63. 3. For example, E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1951); Frances Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (University of Chicago Press, 1964). 4. J. Godwin, The Theosophical Enlightenment (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994). 5. For this meta-world (‘the middle zone of experience’), Richard Sheppard, Modernism–Dada–Postmodernism (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2000), 42ff. 6. Gary Lachman, Turn Off Your Mind: The Mystic Sixties and the Dark Side of the Age of Aquarius (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 2001). 7. P. Caraciollo, ‘Buddhist Typologies in “Heart of Darkness” and “Victory” and Their Contribution to the Modernism of Jacob Epstein, Wyndham Lewis and T. S. Eliot’, The Conradian, 14/1/2 (1989), 67–91. 8. R. C. Zaehner, Mysticism, Sacred and Profane (Oxford University Press, 1957) and Our Savage God (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1974). Sadie Plant, Writing On Drugs (London: Faber and Faber, 1999), 96 n. 27, mentions Junger’s mescalin use. William James, Havelock Ellis and Yeats were among the first to experiment with peyote. 9. For ‘the vulgarization of elitism’ during the sixties, Robert Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989), 226. 10. Max Nordau, Degeneration (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 544. 11. Pynsent, Decadence and Innovation, 156. After Joachimite doctrine, Bahr notes elsewhere that die Moderne ‘paint a new philosophy, a new religion, the dawn of the third realm’. 12. Stanley Rabinowitz, The Noise of Change: Russian Literature and the Critics, 1891–1917 (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1986), 194. 13. Daniel Gerould, Doubles, Demons and Dreamers: An International Collection of Symbolist Drama (New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications, 1985), 10. 14. For Surrealism’s darker side, Petrine Archer-Straw, Negrophilia: Avant-Garde Paris and Black Culture in the 1920s (New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000), 134ff. For Ankoku Butoh (the ‘Dance of Utter Darkness’), Alexandra Munroe in Munroe, ed., Japanese Art after 1945: Scream against the Sky (New York: Abrams, 1994), 189ff. 15. J. C. Bramble in G. Samuel and J. Johnston, eds, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West (London and New York: Routledge, 2013), 206ff. That argument is rewritten and extended here. 16. Christoph Asendorf, Batteries of Life: On the History of Things and Their Perception in Modernity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), 167; idem, Strome und Strahlen: Das langsame Verschwinden der Materie um 1900 (Giessen: Anabas-Verlag, 1989). 17. Asendorf, Batteries, 174–5. 18. Ibid., 173. 19. The Man Who Was Thursday, ch. 8: the Professor ‘insisted on a furious and incessant energy, rending all things in pieces. Energy he said was the All.’ 20. For the king-making or -undoing Tantrika as ‘occult cosmocrat’, David Gordon White, The Kiss of the Yogini: ‘Tantric Sex’ in Its South Asian Contexts (University of Chicago Press, 2003), 32. 21. Asendorf, Batteries, 36ff. 22. Daniel Pick, Svengali’s Web: The Alien Enchanter in Modern Culture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000). 162 NOTES

23. M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: Norton, 1973). 24. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 64, 65 n. 54. 25. Weston La Barre, The Ghost Dance: The Origins of Religion (New York: Doubleday, 1970), 239ff. 26. Pascal Boyer, Religion Explained: The Human Instincts That Fashion Gods, Spirits and Ancestors (London: Heinemann, 2001). SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

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absolute, the 46 Archives of the Planet, The 8, 18 Abstract Expressionism 15, 31, 32, aristocracy, and the occult 19–20 33, 40, 76, 107, 109, 111–12, 117, 128, aristocratic-folk ideology 40, 85, 105 130, 132 aristo-plebeian alliance 16, 27, 105 abstraction, shift to in visual art 64–5 Arnold, Edwin 38 absurdism, and Zen 77 Arp, Hans 75, 76, 78 Adam, Villiers De L’Isle 10 Arrowsmith, Rupert 12–13, 132 adventure, quest for 22–3 art informel 107, 117, 126–7 AE (George Russell) 39, 57 6, 13, 25, 49, 117 aesthetic gnosis 45, 49 Artaud, Antonin 17, 51, 54 Afrocentrism 84 Arts and Crafts 34 al Hallaj 42 Ascona 16, 20, 32, 34, 93, 95, 103, 110, Albanese, Catherine 31 127 alchemy 30, 32, 59, 60, 122 Asendorf, Christoph 140, 141 Allan, Maude 104 Asiaticism 90, 99–100 American Indians 19, 41 Asselineau, Roger 69 American Negroes 20–1 Atlan, Michel 129 American Transcendentalists 30, 31 Aurobindo, Sri 12, 24, 69, 112 Amerindian primitivism 107 Anand, Mulk Raj 100–2 Baader, Johannes 45 ancestral spirits 38 Babbitt, Irving 33–4 ancestral unconscious, the 39 back-room modernism 12–13 ancients (versus moderns) 5–6 Bahr, Hermann 20–1, 139, 140 Anderson, Guy 121 Bailey, Alice 32 Anglicist school of imperial thought Bailly, Edmund 12 7, 16–17 Baju, Anatole 58 Annales school of history 5 Bakhtin, Mikhail 1 anterior speech 51, 52 Bakst, Lev 105 anti- 113 Ball, Hugo 18, 29, 45–9, 50, 53, 71, 73–4, anti-Decadent modernism 70 78, 81, 136, 143 anti-modern vitalism 22–3, 77 Ballets Russes 25, 104, 105 antinomianism 10 Bal’mont, Konstantin 67, 68–9 anti-positivism 26 Bara, Theda 102 anti-Westernism 90, 96, 134 Barnum, P. T. 105 apocalypse 56–7, 91 Barr, Alfred 89 apocalyptic time 83 Barruel, Abbe 91 Aragon, Louis 90, 91 Bataille, Georges 21, 139 archaic-Oriental influences 10ff., 33, 135 Baudelaire, Charles 7, 42, 63 archaism 5–6 Bauhaus 89

168 INDEX 169

Baumeister, Wili 128 Protestant 33–4 Beard, George Miller 9 Shingon 44, 111, 124 Beat Poets, the 46, 111–12, 113, 132 Tibetan 100, 132–3 Beckmann, Max 49 Zen 78ff, ch. 5 passim, esp. 111ff Bely, Andrei 25, 33, 139, 140 Buffalo Bill shows 27 Petersburg 53, 66–8, 141 Buffet-Picabia, Gabriele 140–1 Benavides, Gustavo 115 Bulow, Hans von 58 Benda, Julien 92, 98 bureaucratic reason 3 Benjamin, Walter 42, 49, 77, 85 Burnouf, Eugene 29 Bennison, Amira 16 Burroughs, Edgar Rice 19 Berdyaev, Nicholai 66, 67, 98, 139 Burton, Richard 1 Bergson, Henri 6, 24, 41, 56, 84, 89–90 Buruma, Ian 21–2 Bernhard, Sarah 43 Bynner, Witter 41, 123–4 Besant, Annie 4, 14, 67, 102 Bethge, Hans 110 Cabala 29, 32, 59, 124 Beuys, Josef 52 Cabalistic Freemasonry 55, 63 Bhagavad Gita 29, 69, 78, 91, 123 Cage, John 77, 80, 107, 108, 111–12, 117, Bigelow, William Sturgis 37–8, 44 118, 119, 120, 122, 124–6, 132 Binet, Alfred 36 Californian cosmology 32 Binyon, Laurence 12 Callahan, Kenneth 121 Blackwood, Algernon 64, 95–6 Calve, Emma 8, 43 Blake, William 20, 46, 63 Cambridge Ritualism 3 Blaue Reiter group 56 Campbell, Joseph 32, 113, 125 Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna 4, 10, 15, 35, Candler, Edmund 22–3 36, 41, 50, 51, 54, 82, 89 Cannadine, David 24–5 Bloomsbury 84, 100–2 capitalism 141–2 Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen 17 Caracciolo, Peter 137 Boas, Franz 85 Carpenter, Edward 21, 38–9, 40, 43, ‘body electric’, Whitman’s 69–70, 122 57, 72 Bois, Jules 8, 43 Carswell, Catherine 100–1 Bollingen Foundation 32–3, 113, 120 Carus, Paul 44 Borges, Jorge Luis 59 catastrophism 10, ch. 3 passim, 138–9 bourgeoisie, the 16ff., 20–1, 138, 142 Catholicism 97–8 Boyer, Pascal 143–4 Cazalis, Henri 58 Bragdon, Claude 14, 71, 104 Celticism 97 Brancusi Constantin 6, 50, 95, 120, 127 Celtic Revivalists 39, 56–7 Brantlinger, Patrick 21, 22 Cendrars, Blaise 70 Bray, Norman 86 Chari, V. K. 69 Breton, Andre 49, 77 Chesterton, G. K. 141 British Empire 7, 16, 24–5 Chinoiserie 106 British Museum, the 12, 110, 132 Chirico, Giorgio de 59, 60, 61 Brodie-Innes, J. W. 118 Christian Science 103 Buchan, John 17, 19, 85 Christianity 9 Bucke, Maurice 38, 56 suspicion of 4 Buddhism 4, 78, 80, 106, 137–8, 143 church, the 9 German 61, 99 civilization 21, 24, 40–1 Japanese 37–8, 44 Clarke, D. J. 116 Pop 138 cognition, decay of 12, ch. 3 passim 170 INDEX

Cold War, the 91, 115 decolonization 137 colonial exhibitions 6, 9, 29, 102ff. Degottex, Jean 127 colonial syncretic, the 5, 29, 55 Delauney, Robert 11 colonies, influence from 5, 135 Delville, Jean 14, 118 colour theory 14 Dessoir, Max 36 Colour-Field painters 119 destruction–creation 55–7 Colquhoun, Ithell 63–4 destruction/decomposition 75 Colquhoun, J. C. 35 deus absconditus 2, 5 community 7, 97 Deussen, Paul 29 Comte de Gabalis 41 Dexter, Colin 138 Coney Island Orientalism 27 Diaghilev, Sergei 8, 25–6, 103 Conrad, Joseph 22, 137 die Brucke 7 conspiracy theories 91–2 Digby, Lady Jane 17 Coomaraswamy, A. K. 12, 34, 66, 69, 91, Döblin, Arthur 76 93, 98, 104, 107, 120, 121, 125, 128 Dodds, E. R. 135 Cordova-Rios, Manuel 46 Dodge, Mabel 18, 20, 50–1, 52, 68 cosmic consciousness 96 Doesberg, Theo van 66 cosmogenesis 107 Doris, David 111–12, 114 cosmogony 10, ch. 3 passim, 129ff. Dow, Arthur Sterling 108 cosmopolitanism 19ff., 137 Doyle, Arthur Conan 26 Cosmos 29 dreams 41, 49 cosmosophical System 31 Dreier, Katherine 89, 104 countercultural networks 32 drugs and drug use 42, 113, 136, 138 counterculture 3, 18, 48, 64, 93 Du Bois, W. E. B., Dark Princess 85–6 Couperus, Louis, The Hidden Force 21–2 Duchamp, Marcel 79–80, 89 Cowell, Henry 116, 124–5 Duncan, Isadora 103 Crawford, Ruth, Three Chants for Womens’ Duncan, Robert 124 Chorus 53 Durckheim, Karlfried Graf von 32, 113 crisis-cults 143 Duthuit, Georges 128 Crowley, Aleister 14, 36, 140 Dylan, Bob 138, 139, 141 Crusades, the 1 Cubo-Futurism 60, 66, 71–3, 75 Eastern occult 64 cultic milieu 4, 13, 15, 29, 45, 65, 74 Eastern rationalism 42–4 culture, internationalization of 5 Eastern spirituality 20, 29 Cunard, Nancy 100–1 Eastern threat 90–1, 99–100 East–West syncretism 2, 77–8, 134–5 Dada 48, 52, 54, 56, 71, 72, 75, 76–80, Eckhart, Meister 4, 107 121, 132 Ehrenfels, Omar-Rolph 88 Dartington 34, 113 elan vital 40 Darwinism 9 electricity 9, 69–70, 140–1 Daubler, Theodore 74 Eliade, Mircea 32 Daumal, Rene 128, 131 Eliot, T. S. 5, 10, 29, 36, 42, 91, 92, 93, Davie, Alan 129 101, 143 Debussy, Claude 12, 58–9, 63 After Strange Gods 95 Decadence 3, 9–10, 24, 56, 65, 68, 139, Anglo-Catholicism 98 141, 143 The Waste Land 10, 98 Schopenhauerian 57–62 Ellis, Havelock 103 Decadent aesthetic, the 13 Elskamp, Max 59 INDEX 171 empires 16–17 Friedlander, Salomo 79 decline of 137 Froebe-Kapteyn, Olga 32 romantic vision of 5 Fry, Roger 132 Encausse, Gerard 63 Fuchs, Georg 82, 93 Enlightenment, the 7, 8–9, 18 Fuller, Loie 102, 103 Theosophical 135 Futurism 21, 47–8, 51–2, 70, 75, 140–1 entertainment industry 138 Epstein, Jacob 12 Garrett, Eileen 43, 102–3 Eranos Conferences 32 Garvey, Marcus 86 Esalen Institute 32, 37 Gauguin, Paul 11, 17, 18, 50, 63, 64 espionage 83–4 Gauld, Alan 35 ethnographic diversity 17 Gentile, Giovanni 115 Evola, Julius 32, 141 German Buddhism 61, 99 evolution 9 German Expressionism 31, 45–9, 60, exoticism 105 71, 77, 132 auto 86 German mystical militarism 94–5 Coney Island 103 German occultism 32, 33 East Asian 110 German Orientalism 20 Enlightenment 9 Germany 55, 56, 73–4, 84, 94–5 Far Eastern 110–11 Ghose, Barindra Kumar 90 musical 17 Gill, Eric 12, 101 pan-coloured 85–6 Ginsberg, Alan 132 politico-cultural 17 globalization 96, 109–10, 129 Symbolist-to-modernist 9 Gnosticism 15 Expressionism 20–1, 75 Godwin, Joscelyn 135 Golden Dawn 36, 55, 63–4, 90, 118, 124 fascism 115, 136 Gothic art 13 Fenollosa, Ernest 44, 108, 110 Gothic psychology 34–7, 37, 41, 44, 142 Fergusson, Niall 25 Gothic revival 6 Fidus 13 Graham, John 103 First World War 56, 81, 86 Graham, Martha 103 Flake, Otto 78 Grandville, J. J. 142 Flaubert, Gustave 65 Graves, Morris 66, 120, 120–1, 131 Flint, F. S. 12 Great Britain, imperialism 25 Flournoy, Theodore 36, 51 Greco-Roman heritage 11 Fluxus 77, 119, 132 Greenberg, Clement 108, 136 folk consciousness 39 Greenhalgh, Paul 5 folk religion 15, 31, 136 Griffes, Charles 6 folk-soul, the 40, 41, 47, 97, 111 Griffin, Roger 2, 3, 5, 57, 115 Forster, E. M., A Passage to India 12, 23 Griffiths, D. W. 103, 135 fourth dimension 14, 69, 73, 97, 124 Grof, Stanislav 39 France 63, 65, 84, 89–92, 97 Grosse, Ernst 127 Francis, Sam 118, 122, 130, 130–1, 131 ground of being abstraction 129–31 Frazer, James 3 Gruchy, John de 115 Freemasons and Freemasonry 8, 55, 63 Guaita, Stanislas de 63 Cabalistic 55, 63 Guénon, Rene 23, 92, 93, 97–8 French Revolution 19 Gurdjieff, George 36, 95 Freud, Sigmund 28–9, 100 Gypsy Rose Lee 102 172 INDEX

Haeckel, Ernst 9, 39, 40 imperial-cosmopolitan supernaturalism Haggard, Rider 22 143 Hahl-Koch, Jelena 75 imperialism 8, 21, 22, 25 hallucinations 47–8 Impressionism 140 Hammer House of Horror 22 India 4, 18, 21, 91, 118, 132 Harrison, Jane 3, 103 nationalism 24, 86 Hartlaub, Julius 71, 74 Sacred Books 30 Hausmann, Raoul 77–8, 79 status of in modernism 32 Havell, E. A. 23 Indiana Jones films 138 Hay, Stephen 20 individual regression 22 Heard, Gerald 10, 43 intermediate states 28 Hearn, Lafcadio 14, 104 internationalization, of culture 5 Heidegger, Martin 111, 114 Intolerance (film) 103 Heindel, Max 128 intra-modernist supernaturalism 55 Hemingway, Ernest 22 intuition 72 Henderson, Joseph 122 Isherwood, Christopher 43 heroism 21, 22 Islam 87, 88–9 Herzfeld, Wieland 77 Ivanov, Vyacheslav 40 Hesse, Hermann 20, 36–7, 80 Heyman, Katherine Ruth 6 Jackson, Andrew 19 Hinduism 43 James, Henry 37, 47 Hobson, J. A. 21 James, William 34–5, 36, 114–15 Hoech, Hannah 78 Janet, Pierre 36 Hoeflich, Eugen 87 Japan 4, 39, 109–10, 124, 139 Hoffmann, E. T. A. 35, 66, 67 Japanese Buddhism 37–8, 44, ch. 5 Hofmannsthal, Hugo von 52, 104, 141 passim Höppener, Hugo 13 Japonisme 103, 106, 108, 110–11, 116–17, Hopper, Dennis 18 118, 142 Hopper, Edward 62 Jazz Age, the 20–1 Huelsenbeck, Richard 76, 77, 78–9 Jewish Orientalists 86–8 Huidobro, Vicente 53 Joachim of Fiore 56, 82 Hulme, T. E. 12 Jones, George Stansfield 124 Huxley, Aldous 10, 30, 32, 38, 42, Jung, Carl 32, 34–5, 38, 39, 45, 101, 113, 44, 125 115, 123 Huysmans, J.-K. 10, 65 Junger, Ernst 141 hypnotism 35, 37, 44 Jung-Stilling, J. H. 67 hysteria 46 Kafka, Franz 49, 76 I Ching 122, 126 Kahn, Albert 8, 9, 18 identity, 97 Kandinsky, Wassily 9, 11, 13, 53, 64, 65, imaginal world 30, 59, 100 75, 125 imagination, the 2, 28–9, 45–6, 47, Kandinskyism 116 135, 143–4 Kayser, Rudolph 99 Imagism 62, 71, 75, 108 Kerouac, Jack 124 imperial culture 6, 7 Kessler, Harry 104 Imperial Gothic 21–7, 36, 64, 138 Khan, Inayat 104 imperial museums 12–13 Khlebnikov, Velimir 51–2, 52 imperial values 11–12 Khnopff, Fernand 14, 59, 60 INDEX 173 kinetic spirituality 31 life force 40 Kipling, Rudyard 22, 23 Life of Milarepa, The 29 Kiralfy, Imre 103, 105 little Orients 34 Kitaro, Nishida 114–15 little religions 55 Klee, Paul 127, 129 living pre-modern, the 6 Klein, Yves 128, 131 local customs, respect for 7, 16 Klimt, Gustav 9 Loti, Pierre 63 knowledge, Western 18 Lotus Sutra 29 Kokoschka, Oscar 86 Lowell, Amy 74–5 Kripananda (Leon Landsberg) 43 Lowell, Percival 74–5 Krishnamurti, Jiddu 30, 32, 123 Lowry, Malcolm 124 Kruchenykh, Alexei 51, 52, 53 LSD 42, 113, 136 Kubin, Alfred 9, 59 Lucas, George 32 Kunio, Yanagita 39 Lukacs, Georg 76 Kupka, Frantisek 11, 64 Luytens, Edwin 18 Lynch, David 62 Laban, Rudolph 20 Laforgue, Jules 59, 96 McCormick, Fowler 115 Laing, R. D. 47 MacDonald, Margaret 13 Lamantia, Philip 124 MacDonald-Wright, Stanton 131 Landsberg, Leon 43 Mach, Ernst 37, 59 Lang, Andrew 26 Machen, Arthur 49–50, 64 Lang, Fritz 10 Mackintosh, Charles Rennie 13 language crisis 12, 28, 52 madness 29, 47, 51 Lasker-Schuler, Elsa 86–7 Maeterlinck, Maurice 59 late Surrealism 117, 129–31 magic realism 59 Lawrence, D. H. 5, 6, 7, 8, 21, 37, 38, 40, magic worldview 33, 34, 55, 105, 109 43, 56, 57, 66, 69, 82–3, 93, 94–5, magical cultures 9 100, 101, 139, 141 magnetism 45–6, 67 Fantasia of the Unconscious 50 Mahoney, Eric 3 Phoenix 82–3, 94 Malevich, Kasimir 11, 38, 43, 56, 64, 71, The Plumed Serpent 12, 94, 111 72, 73, 79, 99, 130, 142 Lawrence, T. E. 17, 20, 87 Mallarme, Stephane 58–9, 62 Leach, Bernard 20, 109, 110, 121 Malraux, André 24, 34 Leadbeater, Charles 4, 14, 74 Man Ray 89 Lears, T. J. Jackson 22, 23 Mann, Thomas 34, 58, 93 Leary, Timothy 32 Marc, Franz 11, 57, 74 Lebensphilosophie 97 marvellous, the 28 Leblond, M. A. 23 Marx, Karl 88, 141 Lee, Arthur 38–9 Maslow, Abram 37 Leiris, Michel 139 Massis, Henri 88, 90–1, 93, 98, 112, 119 Lenin, V. I. 82 Masson, Andre 110–11, 118, 126, 128, 129 Levi, Eliphas 15, 36 Masterman, Charles 87 Lewis, Percy Wyndham 7, 26, 75, Mata Hari 104 92–3, 95 Mata Hari (film) 5 Librairie du Merveilleux, Paris 2 Mathers, MacGregor 56–7, 89–90 Liebersohn, Harry 19, 23, 24, 25, 41 Matiushin, Mikhail 33, 71 life, celebration of 6 Maugham, Somerset 23 174 INDEX

Mead, G. R. S. 4, 43, 47 Mondrian, Piet 3, 11, 64, 130 medievalism 6 Mormonism 31 Mellon, Mary 33 Morrison, Jim 136 Melman, Billie 17 Muhsam, Eric 86–7 Merrill, Stuart 57 Muller, Max 29, 120, 135 Mesmerism 4 Munch, Edvard 59, 64 Messiaen, Olivier 12 museums, imperial 12–13 messianic time 73 museum without walls, 132 meta-language 29, 49–54, 129 Musil, Robert 30, 31, 73, 81–2 metaphysical codes 28 Muslim-Christian-Jewish esotericism 1 Metropolis (film) 10 Myers, F. W. 26–7, 36, 38, 47, 49, 81 Meyrinck, Gustav 13, 36 mystic East, the 3 Michaux, Henri 119, 129 mystical anarchism 56 Miller, Henry 124, 137 mystico-scientistic re-synthesis of mimetic realism 57 modernity 9–10 mission civilisatrice 6 myth-making 8, 81ff., 107ff. Mitrinovic, Dimitrije 121 modern dance 27, 84, 102–6, 135 Nambiar, O. K. 69 modern mystics 30 nationalism 24, 85, 86 modernism 2, 135–7 Naturphilosophie 31–2, 96, 97 East Asian influences on 110–11 Nazism 82, 83, 93, 113 emergence of 141 Negro-poetry 48 and imperial culture 7 neo-liberalism 137 as ‘impossible romance’ 26–7 neo-Romanticism 24, 31, 96, 97, 135–6 Promethean strain in 38 neo-Dada 119, 132 the role of the occult in 2–3 Neoplatonism 47 and Romanticism 5–6 Nervenkunst 46 Smith’s theory of 10–16 Nesbit, Edith 64 modernism’s Orientalist canon 29–34 , the 32, 56, 94, 132–3, 137 modernist music 12 New England Transcendentalism 107 modernist occultism 64, 119, 134–5 New Man 99, 141 modernist studies 135 New Mexico Transcendental Painting modernist supernaturalism 139–40 Group 116 modernist syncretism 2–3, 92, 139–44 New Myth 99 modernist unconscious 34–7 New Objectivity 59 modernity Newman, Barnett 119 expansion of 143 Nietzsche, Friedrich 8, 21, 24, 56, 83, ghostly experience of 140 103 home-front crisis of 12 nihilism 5, 98 reframing of 6 Nijinsky, Vaslav 105 rejection of 8–10 Nikhilananda, Swami 32, 104 the role of the occult in 3 Nin, Anaïs 42, 54 Smith on 12 nirvana 38, 61 strangeness of 2 noble savage, the 7, 8–9, 19–21 moderns (versus ancients) 5–6 Noguchi, Isamu 120, 131 Moeller van den Broek, Artur 88–9 Noh plays 110, 120 Moffitt, John 52 non-European religions 11 Moghul Empire 16 non-objectivity 57 INDEX 175

Nordau, Max 46, 53, 68, 98, 138, 139, 142 Peladan, Josephin 63 Degeneration 26, 65 Pessoa, Fernando 36 North American Review 37 phallic consciousness 101 Northwest School of Visionary Art 121 phantasmagoria 42, 49 Norton, Louis 80 Phelps, Elizabeth 43 Nussimbaum, Lev 86, 87 phonemic shamanism 53 Pick, Daniel 142 O’Keeffe, Georgia 108 Pirandello, Luigi 31 occult, the Poe, Edgar Alan 35, 37 definition 1 politico-cultural exoticism 40 role of in modernism 2–3 Pollock, Jackson 41, 50, 116, 117, 119, occult revival 2, 14, 34, 55, 63–5, 144 120, 122–3 occultist geopolitics 81–106 pop Buddhism 138 occult/syncretic, the 2 positivism 18, 140 Olcott, Henry Steel 4 postmodernism 137 O’Neill, Eugene 76–7 poststructuralism 137 Onslow-Ford, Gordon 119, 124, 129 Pound, Ezra 6, 12, 17, 41, 74, 110, 113 Orage, A. R. 10, 38, 41, 56, 95, 121 Pousette-Dart, Richard 119, 123 Oriental Gothic 14 Pouvoirville, Albert de 23 Orientalism 8–9, 11, 15, 20, 112, 126 Prabhavananda, Swami 30, 43, 44 anti-dynamic 91 Prampolini, Enrico 105 Bloomsbury 101 primal markings 52 Jewish 86–8 primitivism 8–9, 11, 40, 48, 95 Orientalist monochrome 129–31 process-continuum sculptors 119 Orientalist school of imperial progress 9 thought 7, 16 progress-through-primitivism 40 Orlovsky, Peter 132 prophecy 83–4 orthodox closure 3 Protestant Buddhism 33–4 orthodoxy, challenges to 3 Protocols of the Elders of Zion 91–2 Ossendowki, Ferdinand 82–3, 94 Pryse, James 41 Otto, Rudolph 34, 110 Psyche 29 Ottoman Empire 16 psychic automatism 117 Ouspensky, Pyotr 10, 31, 71–2, 104 Pynsent, Robert 57, 62

Paalen, Wolfgang 124 racial consciousness 39 Pacific axis art 107–9, 115, 116, 121–2 racial memory 39–41 paganism 138 racial unconscious 40–1 Pali Text Society Buddhism 33–4 Ramacharaka, Yogi 72 Pallis, Marco 91 rationality 42–3 Pan 8 Rauschning, Hermann 93 pan-coloured exoticism 85–6 Read, Herbert 101 pan-Oriental menace 86 Rebay, Hilla von 89 Paracelsus 45, 47 Redon, Odilon 63, 65 Paramananda, Swami 104 Reinhardt, Ad 80, 112, 117, 119, 127, paranormal consciousness 33 129, 130 Paris Reiss, Tom 86, 87 Librairie du Merveilleux 2 religio-cultural interchange 135 little religions 55 Religionsgeschichte school 3 176 INDEX

re-magicalization 10 Schwab, Raymond 31 revitalization movements 19–20 Schwankovsky, Frederick 122 revolutions 81 science, rise of 140–1 Rexroth, Kenneth 46, 117, 123–4, 132 Scott, Cyril 14 Ribot, Theodule 58 Scriabin, Alexandr 14, 14–15, 63, 66–7, Richards, Sam 40 73, 91, 123, 128 Ridley, Hugh 23 Scriabinism 6, 126, 128 Rimbaud, Arthur 42, 48 second industrial revolution, the 9, 62 Robsjohn-Gibbings, T. H. 136 second Orientalism, the 2, 3 Rodenbach, Georges 59 second state, the 28, 94 Roerich, Nicholas 82, 112 Sedir, Paul 63 Rolland, Romain 90, 134 self, the 36–7, 38, 100 Romains, Jules 70 self-ancestral, the 39, 94 romantic conservatism 6–7 self-annulment 79 Romanticism 1, 5–6, 18, 136 self-deception 49 Roosevelt, Theodore 22 Sergeant Pepper album sleeve 137 Rosicrucian Society, French 63 Seuphor, Michel 78 Rosicrucianism 4, 63, 128 shamanism 138 Ross, Nancy Wilson 77, 110, 121 Shambhala 82, 94 Rothko, Mark 119, 128 Shankar, Uday 101 Rudhyar, Dane 126 Sharf, Robert 114–15 Ruskin, John 6 Sharp, William 64 Russell, Mrs Alexander 44 Sherman, Jane 105–6 Russell, George (AE) 39, 57 Shingon Buddhism 44, 111, 124 Russia 55, 56, 71–3 Shklovsky, Victor 28, 52, 54 56 shock of the old 1–8, 25, 86 Shuzo, Kuki 111 sacred geometry 13, 14 Sidis, Boris 36 St Denis, Ruth 27, 84, 102–6, 135 sixties, the 3, 13, 32, 113, 136 Saint-Yves d’Alveydre, Alexandre 51, Slick, Grace 135 54, 94 Smith, Bernard 54, 76, 85, 134, 143 Saku, Soyen 42, 44, 113 theory of modernism 10–16 Salisbury, H. E. 53 Smith, Hélène 51, 54 Saltus, Edgar 62 Snyder, Gary 132 samahdi 43–4 social modernism 3, 15 Sand, George 19 Societe Anonyme 89 Santiniketan 34, 105 Society of Spiritual Arts 104 Sartre, Jean Paul 111, 127 Soetsu, Yanagi 20 Satanism 10 solipsism 49 Satie, Eric 63 Solov’ev, Vladimir 67 Saussure, Ferdinand de 54 sonic symbolism 53–4 savage philosophy 26 soul codes 28, 49, 54, 127, 129 Schlemmer, Oscar 127 Soviet occultism 82–3 Schoenberg, Arnold 127 Spare, Austin Osman 13 Schopenhauer, Arthur 4, 9–10, 13, 14, spectrum of consciousness, theories 57–62, 65, 67, 127 of a 35 Schuffenecker, Emile 13 Spencer, Herbert 98 Schuon, Fritjof 91 spiritualism 22 INDEX 177 spiritualist art 50 Taylor, E. B. 26 spiritualist automatists 49 Tarzan 19 spirit-wars 80, 93, 102 , the 4 Stebbins, Genevieve 104 Theosophy 3, 4–5, 10, 11, 13, 14–15, 18, Stein, Gertrude 50, 52 22, 34, 50, 56, 74, 89, 97, 116, 137 Steiner, Rudolph 10, 13, 14, 52–3, 66, 67 Thesiger, Wilfred 17 Sternberg, Roman Ungern von 82–3, Thurn und Taxis, Marie von 105 94–5 4, 94, 132–3 Stirner, Max 98 Tibetan Book of Dead, The 29, 38, 66 Stoll, Otto 35 Tibetan Buddhism 100, 132–3 Stravinsky, Igor 21, 22, 82 tikkun (restoration) in Cabala 10, 16, strenuosity, cult of 22 139 Strindberg, August 9, 29, 59, 60–1, 68, Tilak, B. G. 24 73, 74, 142, 143 Tobey, Mark 108, 115, 116, 120, 121–2, A Dream Play 37, 61, 66 123, 131 Sublime, the 74 Toorop, Jan 13 subliminal consciousness 38 trance, the culture of 41, 44, 45–6 superconscious poetry, 52 Transcendentalist pantheism 61 Suprematism 56, 72–3 travellers, responses to foreign lands Surrealism 59, 77, 90, 95, 107, 117, 124, 17–18 129–31, 139 triple world theory 66 Surrealist automatism 52 Tzara, Tristan 79 Surrealist primitivism 41 Suzuki, Beatrice Lane 44 Ufology 43 Suzuki, D. T. 32, 38, 107, 111–12, 113–14, uncanny, the 4, 84 116, 128 unconscious, the 34–7, 38, 49–50 Sykes, Sir Mark 17 ancestral 39 Symbolism 3, 6, 25–6, 28–9, 31, 42, 56, racial 40–1 63, 68, 73, 117, 139 United States of America 55, 61–2 Belgian 61 anti-Decadent modernism 70 prismatic 33 anti-modern vitalism 22 rudimentary 49–50 Pacific axis art 107–9, 115, 116 Symbolist musicalism 123 Zen in 111–15, 116–20, 120–1 symbols 40 universal restoration 4 sympathetic-magical worldview 31–2 universalising spirituality 11 synaesthesia 14, 33, 117 Upanishads, The 29, 43 syncretism 1, 3, 28, 98, 134 urban folklore 142–3 Synesius 47, 48 Varese, Edgard 53–4, 75–6, 125 Tagore, Rabindranath 8 Varian, John 124–5 Tantra 84, 93, 100–2 Vechten, Carl van 80 Tao Te Ching 29, 78 56, 69, 92, 97, 99, 104, 116, 123, Taoism 76, 78–9, 80, 104, 106, 116 128, 130, 134 Taos 16, 18, 20, 34, 93 Verhaeren, Emile 70 Tapie, Michel 126, 127 Vivekananda, Swami 8, 42, 43–4, 52, Tapies, Antoni 129, 131 69, 71, 72, 99, 116, 124 Tartary 94–5 Voltaire 17 Tauler, Johannes 78 Vrubel, Mikhail 64 178 INDEX

Wagner, Richard 29, 58, 61, 83 World’s Parliament of Religions 8, 42 Waley, Arthur 30, 102, 116, 123 worldviews 21–2, 97 Wallace, Edgar, Sanders of the River 23 writerly painters 119 Wallace, Henry 112 Wronski, Hoene 125 Warburg, Aby 41 Warren, Henry Clarke 29 Yanagita, Kunio 39, 41, 97 Watkins, Glen 75 Yates, Frances 135 Watts, Alan 32 Yeats, W. B. 8, 12, 17, 36, 39, 42, 44, 56, Webster, Nesta 91–2 91, 110, 132 Weil, Simone 128 ‘The Second Coming’ 57 Western occultism 1, 2, 4 ‘The Valley of the Black Pig’ 57 Westernization 3–4 A Vision 45 Westgeest, Helen 118 Yoga 70, 93 White, William Hale 22 white Arabs 17 Zaehner, R. C. 138 Whitman, Walt 38, 56, 61, 66, 68–70, zaum 51, 52, 54, 75 96, 112 Zen 38, 78–9, 110–11, 124, 132 Wigman, Mary 84, 103 and absurdism 77 Wild Jews 86 in America 111–15, 116–20, 120–1 Wilde, Constance 64 destructive capability of 114 Wilder, Alexander 4 in Europe 126–9 Wilfred, Thomas 123 Kyoto School 111, 114–15 Williams, Charles 64, 68 political record 113 Wilson, Woodrow 112–13 reinvention of 107–9 Winther, Bert 109 Zen Gruppe 49 117, 127 Wolff, Toni 34 Zen monasteries 34 Wols 119, 126, 127, 129 Zen-voidness 130 World’s Fairs 5 Zimmer, Heinrich 32