Chapter - III
BRAHMAVIHĀRA IN BUDDHISM
In the earlier chapter, the theme of Patañjali’s Cittaprasādana was taken up. In this chapter, the other part of the thesis, the Buddhist concept of Brahmavihāra-s, is taken up for consideration.
1.0 Introduction of Brahmavihāra in Buddhism:
The term “Brahmavihāra” has two component namely, Brahma and Vihāra. The literal meaning of word ‘Brahma’ is superior or noble and ‘Vihāra’ means living. Thus, Brahmavihāra means a noble/sublime way of living. There are four types of Brahmavihāra, mentioned in Pāli canon: cattāri Brahmavihāra1 and catvāri Brahmavihāra in Sanskrit. Loving-kindness (Pāli: mettā, Sanskrit: maitrī); Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: karuṇā); Sympathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: muditā); and Equanimity (Pāli: upekkhā, Sanskrit: upekṣā) are the man’s sublime states of mind. All together, these four states of mind, constitute Brahmavihāra, which are outgoing social virtues. When developed to a high degree through meditation, these attributes are said to make the mind "immeasurable", like the mind of the loving Brahma (god). They are called as Brahmavihāra-s, divine, sublime states because they are the mind houses of the Brahma divinities (in the Brahma- world). These four sublime or divine Abodes can be reached with the development of Loving-kindness (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), sympathetic joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekkhā). The word Bhāvanā is used for meditation on all the four Brahmavihāra-s viz. mettābhāvanā , karuṇābhāvanā, muditābhāvanā and upekkhābhāvanā .
Brahmavihāra-s are to be understood as divine in the sense of ‘best’ (or highest, excellent) due to their faultless nature and superlative mode of conduct towards others. Brahma divinities live with faultless thoughts. Aspirants associated with these four states live like the Brahmas. Thus, because of their ‘divine’ characteristic and their faultless nature, they are called the divine states.”2 These four states of mind are the paths to purity. Their scope is found to be immeasurable, hence also
1 AN.iii.225 Dona Sutta 2Expo.262 ; PP.315; Vism.320
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called as ‘measureless states.’3 Buddha projects a very high ideal through this concept, possibly attempting to bring these qualities into practice in day to day life.
In the Buddhist philosophy, the Brahmavihāras together with higher meditation, move towards Nibbāna (Nirvāna) as the ultimate goal. When not developed to that height, the immediate result is the attainment of the Brahma world. “Brahma is free from hate; and one who attentively develops these four sublime states, by conduct and meditation, is said to become an equal of Brahma (Brahma-samo).”4 Brahma, the chief of the Gods, is often represented as the creator of the universe.5 Here Brahma means sublime, as in sublime life (Brahmacariya), the holy conduct6. Vihāra means sublime or divine state of mind, blissful meditation.7 Vihāra means Buddhist monastery as well as the noun form of the verb vihārati, which means to dwell or reside (in a place). The term Brahmavihāra is translated as Brahma Abode, Divine States, Supreme Conditions, Sublime-Moods or Livings and Appamañña, Immeasurable, Infinite or Illimitable, etc. In this manner, the word Brahma, is to be understood as Sublime, Excellent, or Highest, in the sense of faultless, clean and pure.
Brahmavihāras are called abodes i.e. vihāra-s because they become the mind's constant dwelling-places. Our minds should be thoroughly saturated with them. They are our inseparable companions. We are mindful of them, all the time in our daily activities. Hence they are called Brahma vihāras, highest modes of Living or Divine Abidings in the sense of best and in the sense of immaculate.8
Brahmavihāra is called Appamañña or illimitable for they are the mental qualities to be developed and extended towards all beings whose number is limitless.9 “As the object of these virtues is the infinite number of beings they are called Appamañña lit. illimitable, skt. Aprāmānya. They are also called Brahma vicara sublime modes of living. Mettā , Karuṇā, Muditā and Upekkhā are four illimitables. Mettā and Upekkhā are represented by Adosa and Tatramajjhattatā.”10
3 Vism.321;PP.314;Expo.262 4So ime cattāro brahmavihāre bhāvetvā kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā sugatiṃ brahmalokaṃ upapajjati. Evaṃ kho, doṇa, brāhmaṇo brahmasamo hoti.-AN.iii.225 5 vasavatti issaro katta nimmata etc-DN.i.18; iii.30. 6 DN.ii.219-Mahagovinda sutta 7 PED-494 8PP.314 9 GoB. Vol.I-Part-I-pg.324 10 MoA.pg.135-136
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Buddha has adopted his teachings to suit the worldlings (putthujana). “One who receives kindness from gods always enjoys happiness”11. In this way, the divine beings are depicted as having close relations with human beings. “Mother and father are said to be Brahma (an early god). Children must revere them. The wise should revere and care for them by providing eatables, drinks, clothes, beds, massaging, bathing and washing their feet. The wise who enjoy attending to their parents later gain heavenly bliss.”12
The Buddha is regarded as having the thirty-two Characteristics of a Great Man (Skt. mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa). One of the two are brahmujugatto which means the limbs are straight like that of Brahma and Brahmasaro hiravikabha ni means the voice is like Brahma’s or like the sound of the cuckoo.13
These four attitudes are sublime, being manifested as the perfect conduct towards living beings. They are the right answers to conflicting situations in social contact. They remove tension, making peace in social conflict, healing wounds suffered in the struggle of existence. They level societal barriers, build harmonious communities, awaken liberal views, rekindle kindness of spirit long forgotten, revive joy and hope long neglected, and promote human brotherhood against the forces of self- centeredness. Rebirth in the Brahma world is the result of great virtue accompanied by meditation.
2.0 The Three Categories of Vihāra:
According to canonical Pāli text like Dīgha Nikāya there are three kinds of good abidings of the mind (Sanskrit: Trayo vihārāh; Pāli : tayo vihārā) – dibbo vihāro (heavenly dwelling), Brahma vihāro (four jhānas mettā , karuṇā, muditā and Upekkhā) and ariyo vihāro (abiding in the four ariya phala). But in Pāli commentarial text (Aṭṭhakathā), vihāra is Iriyapatha, namely, walking, standing, sitting and lying down postures.
11devātanukampito poso sada bhadrani passatīti-DN.ii.89
12Brahmāti mātāpitaro, pubbācariyāti vuccare; Āhuneyyā ca puttānaṃ, pajāya anukampakā. Tasmā hi ne namasseyya, sakkareyya ca paṇḍito; Annena atha pānena, vatthena sayanena ca; Ucchādanena nhāpanena, pādānaṃ dhovanena ca. Tāya naṃ pāricariyāya, mātāpitūsu paṇḍitā; Idheva naṃ pasaṃsanti, pecca sagge pamodatī”ti. – AN.i.132; AN.ii.70;Itv.109-111;AN.iv.63-Sabrahmasutta
13 DN.iii.142-179- Lakkhana sutta
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Brahmavihāra means the four Jhānas, viz., mettā karuṇā muditā and Upekkhā jhāna. In particular, by means of being faultless and due to its noble qualities, it is said to be abiding or remaining in a perfect and holy state (Brahmaviharo cattari appamanani)14. The Four Divine Abodes belong to “Freedom of Mind” (ceto- vimutti). Due to this, calm is cultivated (samatho bhāvito); the mind is developed (cittaṁ bhāviyati) and desire is expelled (rāgo pahiyati). These steps lead to “freedom of mind” (ceto-vimutti). The Four Divine Abodes belong to samatha (tranquility, calm abiding) or samādhi (absorption).
Sometimes abode has manifold meaning; “Bed is abode; chair also is abode; cushion also is abode; pillow also is abode; vihāra also is abode; pent-roofed (house) also is abode; gable-roofed (house) also is abode; watchtower also is abode; circular (house) also is abode; cell also is abode; cave also is abode; foot of a tree also is abode; bamboo thicket also is abode or wherever else bhikkhus retreat; all this is abode.”15
3.0 The Purpose of the Four Sublime States:
The general purpose of these four divine abiding (Brahmavihāra ) is the bliss of insight, leading to excellent (form of future) existence. Loving-kindness aims to ward- off ill-will, while compassion aims to ward-off cruelty; muditā aims to ward-off aversion (boredom) and Upekkhā aims to ward-off greed or resentment.16
4.0 Meaning of word ‘Bhāvanā’:
The word ‘bhāvanā’ is a Pāli term which literally means “development” or “cultivation”. It is cultivation of mind culture.17It is an important concept in Buddhism. As per Pāli English Dictionary, bhāvanā means producing, dwelling on something, putting one’s thoughts to application, developing by means of thought or meditation, cultivation of mind culture.18Brahmavihāra bhāvanā, the cultivation of the Four Divine states, occupies a central position in Buddhist life. It forms an essential introduction, in the field of mind-training in Buddhism. From the ethical
14 KN-Petakopadesa.260 15 The Book of Analysis (Vibhanga) by Pathamakyaw Ashin Thittila (Setthila) henceforth called as BoA.pg. 327 16 AN.iii.291; DN.iii.248; Expo.259; PP.312 17 Vism.130;314;317. 18 PED.503
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point of view, these principles constitute the moral foundations of man and are very important to his happiness and peace.
5.0 Pre-Requisites for Meditation:
There are the five pre-requisites, an aspirant should fulfill before the actual practice of meditation as briefly mentioned in Visuddhimagga. They are; i) sīla, ii) cutting off impediments, iii) seeking guidance from a competent teacher, kalyāṇamitta, iv) learning the suitable meditation technique in accordance with one’s own temperament, and v) finding a suitable place, time and posture for meditation.
5.1 We shall consider below these pre-requisites for meditation. The first is Sīla. A brief description of Sīla is as follows:
In Buddhism, there are five precepts for lay follower called pañca sīla or five precepts for laymen. The pañca sīla are:
i) abstain from killing (Pāṇātipātā),
ii) abstain from what is not given (Adinnādānā),
iii) avoid sexual misconduct (Kāmesumicchācāra),
iv) abstain from false speech (Musāvādā),
v) refrain from intoxicating drinks and drugs (Surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā).
Morality has two aspects - practice of the prescribed rules (caritta sīla) and avoidance of immoral actions (varitta sīla). The moral training for monks has been shaped into a scheme called the fourfold purification of morality / catuspārisuddhi sīla,19 viz. the restraint of “Patimokkha” is the basic code of monastic discipline consisting of 227 rules of discipline for the monk and 311 for nuns, the restraint of the sense faculties (indriya saṁvara sīla), the purity of livelihood (ajīva parisuddhi sīla) and the use of the four requisites of robe, dwelling, food and medicines, that is purified by reflection (paccaya sannissita sīla).
19 Vism.13-37;PP.16-46
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6.0 Ten Impediments (Paḷibodha):
The meditator has to give more attention to the meditation practices, to gain good results by keeping his mind free from distractions. He has to overcome ten impediments before meditation practice. These ten impediments are nicely summed up in the following verse.
“A dwelling, family, and gain,
A class, and building too as fifth,
And travel, kin, affliction, books,
And supernormal powers: ten.”20
These Ten impediments (Paḷibodha) will be discussed in the fourth chapter in detail.
7.0 Seeking Guidance from a Good Friend (kalyāṇa mitta) spiritual teacher, the giver of meditation subject:
Kalyāṇamitta means a friend who acts as a sort of mentor, a spiritual advisor who wishes well for the welfare of his disciple and can assign the object of meditation as per the temperament to disciple. In Pāli text, the designated teacher of meditation, Kalyāṇamitta means a good friend, a spiritual teacher who is an elder friend and guide. .
8.0 Six Types of Temperament (carita):21
There are six kinds of temperament, that is, greedy temperament (rāgacarita), hating temperament (dosacarita), deluded temperament (mohacarita), faithful temperament (saddhācarita), intelligent temperament (buddhicarita) and speculative temperament (vitakkacarita). The temperament can be known22 by the posture, by the action, by eating habits, by seeing, and so on. The Temperaments (carita) and corresponding 23 suitable objects of meditation are prescribed.
20 PP.87:Vism.90 21 PP.96; Vism.101-102;MoA.441 22 PP.99; Vism.104 23 PP.109
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8.1 Lustful/Greedy Temperament (rāgacarita) - the suitable objects of meditation are the ten foulness meditations (dasa asubha) and mindfulness of the body ( kayagatisati). These are clearly intended to attenuate sensual desire.
8.2 Hateful Temperament (dosacarita): The eight suitable objects of meditation here are the four Brahmavihārā, and four colour kasiṇa [Blue (nīla kasiṇa), yellow (pīta kasiṇa), red (lohita kasiṇa), and white (odāta kasiṇa)].
8.3 Deluded Temperament (mohacarita): The suitable object of meditation is here is mindfulness of breathing.
8.4 Faithful Temperament (saddhācarita): The suitable objects of meditation here are the six recollections viz., Buddhanussati, Dhammanusati, Sanghanussati, Silanussati, Caganussati and Devatanussati.
8.5 Intellectual Temperament (buddhicarita): The suitable objects of meditation effective here are Mindfulness of death (marananussati), the recollection of peace (upasamanussati), the defining of the four elements (catudhāvavathāna), the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment (āhārepaṭikūlasaññā).
8.6 Discursive / Speculative Temperament (vitakkacarita): Kasiṇa is the device representing a particular quality used as a support for concentration), should be limited in size for one of speculative temperament and measureless in size for one of deluded temperament. 24
9.0 Subjects of Meditation to all temperaments:
The kammaṭṭhānas means a place of work. It is applied to the subjects of meditation since these are the places where the meditator undertakes the work pertaining to meditation which are suitable to all types of temperaments are Earth (pathavi) kasiṇa, Water (àpo) kasiṇa, Fire (tejo), Air (vàyo), Light (aloka), Space (àkàsa) kasiṇa and the four arūppas ( the four immaterial spheres). There are total eight jhāna the first set of Jhāna is rupa jhāna (four jhāna) and the second set is arūppa jhāna (another four jhāna). The second set has the four immaterial states (arūppa) they are: infinite space (Pāli ākāsānañcāyatana, Skt. ākāśānantyāyatana); infinite
24 PoS.26
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consciousness (Pāli viññāṇañcāyatana, Skt. vijñānānantyāyatana); infinite nothingness (Pāli ākiñcaññāyatana, Skt. ākiṃcanyāyatana); neither perception nor non-perception (Pāli nevasaññānāsaññāyatana, Skt. naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana).
10.0 The posture for practicing Mettā:
Meditation can be done while walking, standing, sitting or lying down, which are the four usual postures. Developing mettā is also a kind of meditation so one can cultivate mettā in any posture what one likes and it should be easy and comfortable.25
11.0 Choosing a suitable dwelling:
There are eighteen kinds of monasteries which are unfavorable to the development of jhāna (skt. dhyāna). They are as follows: a large monastery, a new one, a dilapidated one, one near a road, one with a pond, leaves, flowers or fruits, one sought after by many people, one in cities, among timber fields, where people quarrel, in a port, in border lands, on a frontier, a haunted place, and one without access to a spiritual teacher.26 Buddha himself has mentioned that five places are favorable for dwelling to meditate. They are:27 i) Not too far or too near to village, for alms resort and should have clear path, ii) quiet and secluded, iii) free from stormy weather and from harmful insects and animals, iv) easy for four requisites (robe, dwelling, food and medicines), v) easy access to learned elders and spiritual friends for consultation. Also the types of dwelling places recommended by the Buddha most frequently in the suttas as conducive to the jhānas are a secluded dwelling in the forest, at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a cleft, in a cave, in a cemetery, on a wooded flatland, in the open air, or on a heap of straw.28
25Tiṭṭhaṃ caraṃ nisinno vā, sayāno yāvatāssa vitamiddho, etaṃ satiṃ adhiṭṭheyya-Sn-I.8-pg.19: Khp.290-292 26 PP.113-117; Vism.118-121 27 AN.v.15 28 MN.i.181; 269, 274; PoS.27
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12.0 Types of meditation:
There are two types of meditation. Samatha bhāvanā and Vipassanā bhavānā
12.1 Samatha bhāvanā: Concentration Meditation.
In this type of meditation, Samatha kammaṭṭhāna, forty objects of meditation are mentioned in seven categories (dasa kasiṇa, dasa asubha, dasa anussati, cattāro Brahmavihāra, cattāro aruppa, ahārepaṭikulasaññā, and catudhātuvavatthāna.) for samatha i.e. tranquility, in volitional activities, is required to control and cool down temporary distress.
12.2 Vipassanā bhavānā- Insight Meditation:
Vipassanā is insight knowledge because it sees conditioned things in a special ways such as impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anatta). Samatha and Vipassanā are needed to abandon lust and ignorance respectively, which are two typical defilements. Samatha means suppression/ pacification / concentration / tranquilization that calms down the heat of defilement. The aim of samatha is to reach the deep level of concentration (Samādhi). Samatha cannot lead to the final attainment of Nibbāna. It can only tranquilize the mental disturbances and help an aspirant to reach a serene state of mind. When samatha is attained, the mind is trained and lust is eliminated. When vipassanā is attained, wisdom arises and ignorance is removed. “By cultivating both samatha and vipassanā i.e. by cultivating mind (citta) and wisdom (paññā) - a practitioner is said to abandon lust (rāga) and ignorance (avijjā) respectively.”29The Buddha studied human psychology in great depth. It is said that Buddha knew human temperament well and he divided it into six broad categories as mentioned above. He could prescribe a kammaṭṭhāna suitable to all.30
29 AN.i.61 30 PP.96
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13.0 Purpose of meditation:
The purpose of samatha is to induce concentration in the mind and free it from all distractions (vikkhepa). The essence of vipassanā is to see the truth as it is (anupassanā). Both samatha and vipassanā together act as a single harmonious entity, as the way to Nibbāna. “The old is destroyed, the new is not arising. Those whose minds are disgusted with future existence, their seeds [of rebirth] have been destroyed, [and] they have no desire for growth.”31 In other words, samatha helps one not to create new sankhara-s and vipassanā helps exhaust all old sankhara-s. Aṅgutara Nikāya says samatha (serenity) and vipassanā (insight) when developed lust (rāga) is abandoned and when insight is developed ignorance (avijjā) is abandoned.Thus, through fading away lust, there is liberation of mind; through fading away ignorance, there is liberation of wisdom.32
Samatha meditation practices are in two realms viz. in the fine material sphere called rupavacara and in the immaterial sphere called arūpāvacara.
14.0 Four Sublime States (Brahmavihāra):33
In order to concentrate one’s mind, one needs suitable subjects of meditation. The meditational subjects (Kammaṭṭhāna) for Samatha are enumerated in seven categories as already mentioned in chapter I. The four Sublime States (Brahmavihāra), will be discussed here, in detail. Also, seven factors of Enlightenment i.e. Bojjhaṅgas and Buddhist concept of perfection i.e. pārāmī will be discussed.
The Four Sublime States of mind taught by Buddha are as follows: i) Love or Loving-kindness (Pāli mettā : Sankrit maitrī), ii) Compassion (karuṇā in Pāli , Sanskrit), iii) Sympathetic Joy (muditā in Pāli , Sanskrit),
iv) Equanimity (upekkhā in Pāli ; Sanskrit upeksā).
31Sutta Nipata Translated by K.R. Norman, PTS-Oxford-2001-pg.41 henceforth in the thesis refer as Sn-235 32 AN.i.61 33 mettā, karuṇā, muditā upekkhā ti ime cataro brahmavihāro- PP.291-320 ;Vism.294-325
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The above four are collectively called the four Brahamavihāras, the Four Divine or Noble States of mind. These four divine abidings are described in detail as follows:
14.1 METTĀ –LOVING KINDNESS IN BRAHMAVIHĀRA:
Pāli: mettā , Sanskrit: maitrī derived “from √mid, to soften, to love. According to skt.mitrasya bhāvah=maitrī; state of a friend. That which softens the mind, or friendly disposition is mettā.”34
There is no equivalent term for mettā in English. Hence, it can be taken as Loving- kindness, goodwill, benevolence, friendliness, amity, etc. Mettā is greater than ordinary affection, warm affection, etc. It embraces all beings without exception. The culmination of mettā is the identification of oneself with all beings (Sabbattata). The Pāli commentators define mettā as the strong wish for the welfare and happiness of others (parahita-parasukha- Kamana ).
Mettā is derived from the root `mid' – ‘to love’. It does mean ‘one loves’.35 It signifies one’s good wish. Mettā is so called because it concerns a loved one, or because of the state of being loved. It goes on concerning a loved one (mettā , mitte), or because of the state of being a loved one. Mettā is different from the term ‘pema’, which is used for love as a kind of longing between the beloved, relatives and family members which produces distress, sorrow and lamentation.
S.Radhakrishnan(1950) says, “From affection springs grief, from affection springs fear. To one who is free from affection there is no grief. How (then can there be)fear?”36
Mettā is the highest form of love different from sensual/carnal/ lust or emotional love. It is a universal love which is much higher ; in fact it is the highest form of love. It is much higher than sentimental, sensual love. In the Mettā Sutta, the Buddha expounded the nature of love as, “Just as a mother would protect with her life her own son, her only son, so one should cultivate unbounded mettā mind towards all
34 MoA.136 35Mettā(love) is thus derived from √mid-to love. It is implied that it is a dhamma that loves, and not a person; therefore the view of the heresy of the self is inhibited.- Expo-pg.258
36 Dhp.213. pg. 129
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beings.”37 So mettā only gives and never wants anything in return. The Expositor says, ‘The state of friendliness knows gentleness, causing equal happiness to all is termed ‘amity’ just as the presence of other leaves no gap around us, so courtesy is a spreading out with things spiritual and material.’38 Although mettā is the sublime love, it is an ability to be kind without any hatred at all, not harming anybody, is a genuine wish for welfare and happiness of others. For this reason mettā is often rendered as ‘Loving-kindness’.
“Mijjati siniyhati’ti mettā ‘That which inclines one to friendly disposition is mettā.’ It is a sincere wish for the good and welfare of all. It is diametrically opposed to hatred or ill-will and hence can be defined as their absence: Adoso’ti mettā — Non- aversion is mettā . The chief characteristic of mettā is a benevolent attitude. Its culmination is the identification of oneself with all beings, a recognition of the fellowship of all life.”39
As per Visuddhimagga, mettā is a solvent (siniyhati) that melts not only one’s own impurity i.e. anger, resentment and impoliteness but also of others. Also, it comes about with respect to a friend (mitta) or it is behaviour towards a friend, thus it is Loving-kindness. 40 With mettā even a hostile one turns into friend. The Abhidhamma Vibhanga says, “That which in beings is loving, act of Loving-kindness, state of Loving-kindness, Loving-kindness that is mental freedom (from ill-will). This is called Loving-kindness.”41
The term adosa and mettā are interchangeable, “adosa does not merely mean non- anger or non-hatred, but also goodwill, benevolence, Loving-kindness (mettā ). Adosa is synonymous with mettā, Loving-kindness, which is one of the four illimitables.”42Adosa is also one of the three roots of good (Alobha, Adosa, Amoha). Like an agreeable friend, its chief characteristic is absence of churlishness or coarseness (Caṇd̤ikka).
37Mātā yathā niyaṁ putta-, Māyusā ekaputta-manurakkhe, Evam pi sabbabhūtesu, Mānasaṁ bhāvaye aparimāṇaṁ.-Sn.i.8-pg-19 38 Expo.71 39 Vipassana Newsletter vol.14 No.2 June 1987 40Vism.317; PP.311 41 BoA.358 42MoA.126
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S.Radhakrishnan (1950) says, “The mendicant who lives in friendliness and calm (has faith) in the doctrine of the Buddha, he will attain the tranquil, blessed place where (bodily) existence is at rest.”43As per Buddhism, mettā is one kind of ethics. It is Sīla (Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood) of the Eight Noble Paths, which constitutes the Right Conduct. It brings peace of mind and removes worry.
14.1.1. Characteristics of Mettā:
It is characterized as promoting the aspect of bringing good. Its function is to prefer welfare. Its manifestation is taking hatred and annoyance away. Its proximate cause is seeing lovable-ness of beings. It succeeds when it makes ill-will subside and it fails when it produces (selfish) affection.
“Love has the characteristics of being a procedure of modes of beneficence; the function or property of bringing good; the manifestation or effect of taking hatred away; the proximate cause of seeing the lovableness of beings. Its consummation is the quietening of ill-will; its failure is the production of lust.”44 Before starting meditation one should analyze the danger in hatred and advantage in patience.
14.1.2 Danger in Anger:
We know that anger is a great vice; a powerful destructive force in man. It is so destructive that it destroys the peace of man and when we are angry we cannot love others. To subdue this evil force and make man sublime is the aim of Loving- kindness (mettā ). One has to work constantly on building the inner peace and contentment by practicing compassion. This will help one to become calm and prevent getting angry. To eliminate anger and hatred, cultivation of patience (khanti) is necessary.
S.Radhakrishnan (1950) says, “Not at any time are enmities appeased here through enmity but they are appeased through non-enmity. This is the eternal law.”45Anger and love have no limits; choose the latter to have a beautiful, lovely life. Things are to be used and people are to be loved. The problem in today’s world is that people are
43 Dhp.368.pg.173 44 Vism.318;PP.311;Expo.258-259
45 Dhp-5.pg.60
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used and things are loved. Watch your thoughts, words, actions, habits and character. Good character determines one’s destiny.
14.1.3 The Advantage of Patience (Khantī):
Khantī is a Pāli word that means forbearance or patience. It plays a very important role in daily life. Sometimes we encounter problems in life and tend to get angry easily. Khantī is the ability to keep the person calm. Through khantī a person remains unaffected by all the problems, troubles, disturbances. Khantī plays a great role in practising mettā bhāvanā. Samyutta Nikaya says, “No greater thing exists than patience.”46 The advantages of patience have been described in the Visuddhimagga as, "Patience which is long suffering is the highest austerity. The awakened declare nirvāṇa to be the highest (of things). He verily is not an anchorite who oppresses (others); he is not an ascetic who causes grief to another".47 It is the noblest and pious practice of virtue that can lead to nibbāna. When developing Loving-kindness, practice of patience is important. Only in the absence of ‘anger’, and by practicing ‘patience’, mindfulness on Loving-kindness will be developed. This is the reason why it has been instructed to reflect upon the advantages of patience prior to developing Loving-kindness.
14.1.4 Radiation of Loving Kindness / Mettā:
In the initial practice of mettā bhāvanā, the following types of persons can be avoided:
i) Antipathetic Person,
ii) A very dearly loved friend,
iii) A neutral person
iv) A hostile (enemies) person
v) Opposite sex
vi) Dead
46 SN.i.222 47Khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhāNibbānam paramam vadanti Buddha na hi pabbajito parupaghati na samano hoti param vihethayanto –DN. i.49; Dhp.184.pgs. 121-122
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The reasons interestingly provided for the above stance are as follows:
An Antipathetic person -To put an antipathetic person in a dear one’s place is tiring.
A very dearly loved friend-To put a very dearly loved friend in a neutral person’s place is tiring; and if the slightest mischance befalls the friend, he feels like weeping.
A neutral person - To put a neutral person in a respected one’s or a dear one’s place is tiring.
A hostile person - Anger springs up in him as he recollects a hostile person.
Loving-kindness should not be developed first towards beings of opposite sex as it arouses lust and should not be radiated towards the dead because he neither reaches absorption or access samādhi.
Mettā bhāvanā or Loving-kindness should be radiated in the following order:
1. towards Oneself,
2. towards the respected teacher,
3. towards the dearly loved friend,
4. towards the neutral Person and
5. towards the enemies.
Priority should be given to oneself. One must radiate Loving-kindness to oneself repeatedly before others. The formula for Loving-kindness towards oneself is as follows:‘May I be happy and free from suffering’ or ‘May I keep myself free from enmity, affliction, anxiety and live happily.’
The formula for developing Loving-kindness towards the respected teacher is by saying, “May this good man be happy and free from suffering.” The meditator attains absorption. If the meditator is not content and wants to break down the barriers, he starts developing Loving-kindness towards a dearly loved friend, neutral person and enemies. In each instance, he makes his mind flexible, malleable and wieldy before
passing on to the next.
Mettā bhāvanā, is especially important for our own welfare as it enhances our appreciation, potential, nourishes our self confidence, self-image (normally we like
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appreciation from others). It begins with ability to appreciate one’s own existence. Friendship is the whole of the spiritual life, it offers many opportunities for overcoming negative emotions and developing positive emotions.
According to Buddha, just as one wants to be happy and dreads pain, as he wants to live and not to die, so do other beings, too. Making himself as the example, then, desire for other beings’ welfare and happiness arises in him. Buddha says: “I visited all quarters with my mind nor found I any dearer than myself; self is likewise to every other dear; who loves himself will never harm another”48
In Mettā bhāvanā one must go on expanding up to the whole universe. During this process, Loving-kindness is meant to remove anger, hatred and delusion, and transform things which would normally start these emotions into opportunity for creative problem solving.
For hostile person the meditator should reflect ‘As he (or she) is, so am I. As I am, so is he(or she)’. We are both bound by ignorance and craving, law of cause and effect, and whatever evil we do, for that we must suffer. Why then should I blame or call anyone my enemy? Rather, I should purify my mind and wish that he may do the same, so that both of us may be freed from suffering; thereby enmity will be cast out. When the thought of Loving-kindness becomes exactly the same, in quality and degree, for all these four objects - oneself, one's friend, the person towards whom one is neutral, and the enemy, then the meditation can be considered to be successful.
14.1.5 How to Radiate Loving-kindness to Enemies and ways to subdue it:
The Buddha taught that if a monk can remain serene without getting angry, while being fully aware that another is angry, he is a disciplined person for the benefit of himself as well as for the other. While developing Loving-kindness towards enemies anger is likely to occur if one recollects the wrong done by a person. If this happens, one may recall and enter again repeatedly into the absorption on the Loving- kindness that was previously achieved in respect of any other person. Then, after emerging from that absorption, one should extinguish anger by developing Loving- kindness towards one’s enemy. By doing so, he will be able to dispel the anger
48 SN.i.75; Ud.47
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towards his enemy. If one’s anger still remains active one must reflect on the advantage of Loving-kindness, such as enjoying a sound sleep, waking up peacefully, etc.
14.1.6 Subdue Anger by Gifting as per Visuddhimagga:
There are many ways to get rid of resentment as mentioned in the Visuddhimagga. Buddha was patient in his many previous lives and did not get angry with those who tortured and mistreated him in many different ways. He mastered patience in some of his lives. Buddha says, “A person who can tolerate an angry man refraining himself from getting angry, is a victor in battle which is hard to be won?”49
One of the instances is stated in this regard: On a mountain known as Cittala where Piṇḍapātika Thera resided, an old Thera who bore an hardened hatred against the Piṇḍapātika Thera, made three attempts to oust him from his place of residence. In a Saṅghika monastery, i.e. a monastery which has been bestowed on the Saṅgha as a gift, the Bhikkhu who is younger in status is responsible to offer the place or make room for the senior Bhikkhu to reside. Contrary to this rule of discipline, the attitude of the old Thera amounted to causing annoyance to Piṇḍapātika Thera. With a view to expel the feeling of revenge borne by the other, Piṇḍapātika Thera offered the other a bowl stating: Sir, this is the begging bowl worth eight kahapanas50 which my mother had donated to me. You may please accept it and make use of it so that my mother, the donor, will derive merits. Since the time of acceptance of the gift of the said bowl, feeling of animosity and vengeance had totally subsided in the old Thera.
This formula we can apply in day to day life also.
When his resentment towards that hostile person has been thus allayed, then he can turn his mind with Loving-kindness towards that person too, just as one who is dear, very dear friend, and the neutral person. Then he should break down the barriers by practicing Loving-kindness over and over again, accomplishing mental impartiality towards the four person.
49SN.i.162 50A coin of significant value
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14.1.7 Foundation to develop Loving-kindness:
There is a list of disciplines mentioned in the Mettā sutta of Khuddakapāṭha Pāli that forms the necessary foundation to develop mettā effectively.51 This is what should be done by one skilled in goodness and one who knows fully the peaceful path. Mettā Sutta was delivered by the Buddha. The sutta first describes fifteen virtues, those desirous of developing mettā, should be endowed with to be acquired before developing mettā are enumerated below.
The Karaniya Mettā Sutta of Khuddakapāṭha is divided into three Parts:52 The first part talks about the preparation of Moral Conduct; the second part talks about methods and levels of meditation and the third part talks about Wisdom. A brief description of the three parts are as follows:
a) Preparation of Moral Conduct before cultivating Mettā:
One who practises Loving-kindness meditation (mettā bhāvanā) should possess and undertake fifteen qualities or virtues mentioned below, before cultivating Loving- kindness. This is what should be done by one who is skilled in achieving his own good of peace and tranquility. One must be: 53
i) Capable of practising (Sakko)
ii) Frank and right (Uju)
iii) Upright and honest (Suhuju)
iv) Docile or disposed to obedience ( Suvaco)
v) Gentle (Mudu)
vi) Not proud and arrogant (Anatimāni)
vii) Easily contented (Santussako) viii) Easy to support (Subharo)
51 Khp. Pgs. 270-294;Sn I.8-pg.19 52https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4eYdtEQVNzo by Ajaan Shah 53Khp.270-294 Karaniyam atthakusalena yan tam santam padam abhisamecca Sakko uju ca suju ca suvaco c'assa mudu anatimani santussako ca subharo ca appakicco ca sallahukavutti santindriyo ca nipako ca appagabbho kulesu ananugiddho Na ca khuddam samacare kiñci yena viññuu pare upavadeyyum.;Sn I.8
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ix) Not too busy or free from care (Appakicco)
x) Moderate in the way of living (Sallahukavutti)
xi) Serene of faculties (Santindriyo)
xii) Prudent and wise (Nipako) xiii) Free from rudeness (Appagabbho) xiv) Free from attachment to both male and female benefactors (Kulesu ananugiddho)
xv) One who does not do even the slightest thing those otherwise men might condemn.
These virtues cover that aspect, which requires a thorough and systematic application of Loving-kindness, in one's day to day conduct. These are the fifteen qualities required for the successful practice of mettā. One should fulfill these factors before practicing mettā meditation. By doing so, it becomes much more beneficial for him.
b) Methods and Levels of Meditation (Samādhi and Concentration)
i) First (‘being’) Method - Cultivation of Loving-kindness:
It is an intentional wish that facilitates generating mettā as: ‘May they have happiness and peace; May all beings be happy in themselves.’54 Cultivation of Loving-kindness should be extended to every living thing without exception: the weak and the strong, from the smallest to the largest, whether you can see them or not, living nearby or far away, beings living now or yet to arise; may all beings become happy in their heart of hearts.55 sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhi-tatta means let every creature’s heart rejoice’ is repeated twice. This is the ‘beings’ method of cultivating Loving-kindness.
54Khp.282 Sukhino vā khemino hontu; sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā-verse 3 ending. 55Khp.283 Ye keci panabhut'atthi tasa va thavara va anavasesa digha va ye mahanta va majjhima rassaka anukathula-verse-4 &Dittha-va ye va adittha ye ca dure vasanti avidure bhuta va sambhavesi va sabbe satta bhavantu sukhitatta-verse -5.
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ii) Second (‘Social’) Method-Cultivation of Loving-kindness:
May no one deceive or decry or look down on anyone anywhere, for any reason. Whether through feeling angry or through hate to someone else, may no one want another one to suffer.56 This is Loving-kindness as a social virtue and the overcoming the conceit ‘māna’.
iii) Third (‘Mother’) Method-Cultivation of Loving-kindness:
The mother is known for her importance and strength in the family. She is responsible for the growth of the family as well as the love she spreads equally to all the family members especially to her own children. The Mettā sutta exercise of friendliness to all sentient beings has its origin in mother’s love.
Just as a mother guards her own son, her only son born to herself, in the same way cultivate a boundless mind towards all creatures; cultivate a boundless loving mind towards the entire world - upward, downward and across - unhindered free of hatred and enmity.57
A meditator having the wish of welfare and happiness of others and ready to do good to them and has no intention of harming or causing injury to others, feels like a mother. He cultivates boundless Loving-kindness, unselfish pure love towards all sentient beings without any passion and expectations.
iv) Fourth (‘direction’) Method- Cultivation of Loving-Kindness:
Develop an unlimited heart of friendliness for the entire universe, sending Mettā above, below and all around, beyond all narrowness, beyond all malice, cruelty, rivalry, beyond all hatred.58
We should develop this mindfulness of Loving-kindness in our heart in all postures at all times - whether standing or walking or seated or lying down, while sleeping or without sleepiness. When it is practised effectively, constantly, continuously and uninterruptedly all the day, then defilement will not enter the mind and no lapse in
56Khp.287 Na paro param nikubbetha natimaññetha katthacinam kiñci vyarosana patighasañña naññamaññassa dukkham iccheyya. 57Khp.288 Mata yatha niyam puttam ayusa ekaputtam anurakkhe evam pi sabbabhutesu manasam bhavaye aparimanam. 58Khp.289 Mettāñ ca sabbalokasmim maanasam bhavaye aparimanam uddham adho ca tiriyañ ca asambadham averam asapattam.
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concentration will happen thereby saving the energy, and concentration will not decline. This divine abiding refers to absorption in Mettā jhāna.59
v) Conclusion –Insight and Liberation (Paññā-Wisdom):
This last part describes the development of insight (vipassanā) that leads to ultimate liberation, which is happiness, peacefulness and complete freedom of mind (Nibbāna). The sutta says, ‘In this way, you will come to let go of views, be spontaneously ethical, and have perfect Insight. And leaving behind craving for sense pleasures, from the rounds of rebirth you will finally be completely free, or no more birth to any womb’. 60
All the aspects covered require a thorough and systematic application of Loving- kindness, in one's day to day conduct. Expressing Loving-kindness is a distinct technique of meditation, culture of mind leading to Samādhi and higher consciousness induced by absorption. In the Paṭisambhidāmagga, the benefits of mettā bhāvanā are enumerated as causing interest, confidence and enthusiasm in the practice, which arouse faith in the aspirant.
14.1.8 Reflection on the Eleven Benefits of Loving-kindness as per Mettā sutta:61
Another form of contemplation on which leads to elimination of anger is to contemplate on the benefits of Loving-kindness. In Buddha’s words, the monks stand to gain eleven benefits by diligently developing deliverance by Loving-kindness (Mettā -cetovimutti). These are as follows:
1. Sukaṃ Supati- Sleeping happily.
59Khp.290-292 Tittham caram nisinno va sayano va yavat'assa vigatamiddho etam satim adhittheyya brahmam etam viharam idhamahu. 60Khp.292 Ditthiñ ca anupagamma silava dassanena sampanno kamesu vineyya gedham Na hi jatu gabbhaseyyam punar eti.
61Sukhaṃ supati, sukhaṃ paṭibujjhati, na pāpakaṃ supinaṃ passati, manussānaṃ piyo hoti, amanussānaṃ piyo hoti, devatā rakkhanti, nāssa aggi vā visaṃ vā satthaṃ vā kamati, tuvaṭaṃ cittaṃ samādhiyati, mukhavaṇṇo vippasīdati, asammūḷho kālaṃ karoti, uttari appaṭivijjhanto brahmalokūpago hoti. –AN.v.342; Vin.v.140; jt.ii.12,16; PoD.317; Miln.276; Vism.311-314;PP.306-308; PoP.358-361; Vimt.181.
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2. Sukaṃ paṭipujjhati-He wakes up comfortably without bending like a lotus opening.
3. Na pāpakaṃ supinaṃ passati–He sees only auspicious dreams and not the evil dreams.
4. Manussānaṃ piyo hoti–He becomes dear and beloved to humans beings
5. Amanussanam piyo hoti–He is just as dear to non-human beings, as he is to human beings.
6. Devtārakkhanti–Deities guard him as a mother and father guard their child.
7. Nāssa aggi vāvisaṃ vāsatthaṃ vākamati- Fire, poison or weapons will cause no harm on his body.
8. Tuvataṃ cittaṃ samādhiyati-The mind becomes concentrated quickly; there is no sluggishness about it.
9. Mukhavaṇṇo vippasīdati -The face glows with peace and calmness.
10. Asammuḷho kālaṃ karoti–He dies without confusion, he passes away un- deluded as if falling asleep.
11. Uttariṁ appaṭivijjhanto-If he is unable to reach higher than the attainment of Loving-kindness and attain Arhatship, then when he dies he will be reborn in the Brahmaloka after death.
If anger still persists, the meditator should auto-suggest: I will be estranged from the benefits of Loving-kindness; why am I still angry? Thereafter, one should try to share Loving-kindness often, in order to help others feel Loving-kindness in their minds.
14.1.9 Basic Formula for Radiating Loving-Kindness:
"He abides, having suffused with a mind of Loving-kindness, one direction of the world, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth, and so above, below, around and everywhere, and to all as to himself; he abides suffusing the entire
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universe with Loving-kindness, with a mind grown great, lofty, boundless and free from enmity and ill will.”62
Mettā bhāvanā is the most commonly practised Brahmavihāra among all the Brahmavihāras. It keeps the mind away from hatred which is harmful for self and others.
In Paṭisambhidāmagga, a Pāli text, 528 kinds of development of mettā is taught. The reason is that the mind of the meditator roams continuously from one sense object to another. It is difficult to keep the mind steady on the object of mettā by adopting one means only. Steady concentration of mind can be achieved by repeated change of method of contemplation.
14.1.10 Breaking down the Barriers i.e. Sīmāsambheda:
Sīmāsambheda is the combination of two words sīmā means boundary limit and sambheda means mixing up of the boundary lines. Also means removing away of all differences amongst ourselves and others. He should break down the barriers by practising Loving-kindness over and over again, accomplishing mental impartiality towards the five persons, that is to say, himself, the respected teacher, dear loved friend, the neutral person and the hostile person. This is very important aspect in mettā meditation. An ability to see people equally without discriminating each other is called Sīmāsambheda.
Ācariya Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhimagga gives a very apt analogy for the breaking of the barriers:
Suppose bandits were to come to the meditator who is sitting in a place with a respected teacher, a dearly loved friend, a neutral person and a hostile person and demand, ‘Friend, we want one of you for the purpose of offering human sacrifice.’ If the meditator were to think, ’Let him take this one or that one,’ he has not broken down the barriers. And even if he were to think, ’Let none of these be taken, but let them take me, even then he has not broken down the barriers since he seeks his own harm, and mettā meditation signifies the well-being of all. But when he does not see
62So mettāsahagatena cetasā ekaṃ disaṃ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṃ. Tathā tatiyaṃ. Tathā catutthiṃ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṃ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṃ lokaṃ mettāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharat.MN.i.38-Vatthupama Sutta; DN.ii.186
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the need for anyone to be given to the bandits and impartially projects the thought of love towards all, including the bandits, it is then that he would break down the barriers.
In this way keep on changing, the object of meditation, continue to do this again and again many times so that, the mind is developed with Loving-kindness without a break and is always without distinction towards any person. When you are able to develop Loving-kindness to any person evenly without distinction it means you have broken down the barrier between individuals, which is called sīmāsambheda, and you will be able to continue to develop Loving-kindness according to the method as shown in Paṭisambhidāmagga.
14.1.11 Meditation on Mettā bhāvanā:
You are choosing a ‘being’ as an object of meditation and then using a mettā phrase, such as ‘May I be happy and free from suffering’ Or ‘May I keep myself free from enmity, affliction and anxiety and live happily’ You hold the phrase in your heart, as you cherish each phrase; distractions inevitably arise. When distracted, you drop the distractions as quickly as possible and come back to the phrase, the chosen object of meditation. Choosing a particular object to stay focused on, makes mettā a concentration practice. Since it is a concentration practice and you have a chosen object of meditation, you keep directing your attention back to that object. This means that, you are letting go again and again of everything else that comes up in your awareness. That moment of letting go is very instructive, because it shows you where you are holding on.
14.1.12 Two Main Methods of Meditation on Mettā:
There are various methods of practising mettā bhāvanā, the meditation on universal love. Two of the principal methods will be explained here. One is as per the Visuddhimagga and the other is as per Paṭisambhidāmagga. i) Meditation as per Visuddhimagga:
The Visuddhimagga is definite about the order of radiating mettā . According to Ācariya Buddhaghosa, one must start the meditation on mettā by visualising oneself, and thereafter a respected teacher, then one’s dearly loved friend, a neutral person and
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then enemies. As one radiates thoughts of love in this order, the mind breaks all barriers between oneself, a respected teacher, a dear one, a neutral one and a hostile one. Everyone comes to be looked upon equally with the eye of Loving-kindness. If one develops Loving-kindness in this way ‘ I am happy. Just as I want to be happy and dread pain, as I want to live and not to die, so do other beings too,’ making himself the example, then desire for other beings’ welfare and happiness arises in him.
The formula for developing Loving-kindness towards oneself doing it repeatedly as “May I be happy and free from suffering’ Or ‘May I keep myself free from enmity, affliction and anxiety and live happily’ Then changing the object of meditation to ones teacher by using the formula as ‘May this good man be happy and free from suffering’ with such a person of course, he attains absorption. Then one should start developing Loving-kindness towards a neutral person, a very dearly loved friend and then towards a hostile person. While doing so he should make his mind malleable and wieldy in each instance before passing on to the next. When his mind has become malleable and wieldy it can be extended upto the entire world –sphere.
“There is no counterpart sign in the four divine abiding. In case of the divine abiding the breaking down of boundaries itself is the sign.”63
“If the meditator had attained the fourth jhāna, using mindfulness of breathing or the white kasiṇa, then it is very easy to develop loving-kindness meditation. The reason being the concentration of the fourth jhāna has purified the mind from greed, anger, delusion, and other defilements. In the fourth jhāna, the mind is pliant, workable, pure, bright and radiant and because of this, you will, in a very short time be able to develop powerful and complete Loving-kindness, with the assistance of this fourth jhāna concentration.”64
ii) Meditation as per Paṭisambhidāmagga:
This second method presents an impersonal mode of radiating mettā, which makes the mind truly all-embracing, as suggested by the Pāli term mettā cetovimutti, the liberation of mind through universal love. In the Paṭisambhidāmagga five hundred and twenty eight (528) kinds of mettā are described. It shows the ways of
63 PP.181 64 The chariot of Nibbāna by Pa Auk Sayadaw compiled and translated by U Dhamminda.Pg.45
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developing mettā to members of five unspecified groups (anodisa), members of seven specified groups (odisa) and suffusing through the ten directions or quarters (disāpharana ). The method of radiation is known in Pāli as ‘pharanā’.
One should radiate thoughts of boundless love i.e. mettā towards all being in three ways:.
1. Generalised Method - Deliverance of will by Loving-kindness with unspecified intentness ( Anodisha pharaṇa Mettā Bhāvanā) – there are five ways of doing this.
2. Specified Radiation - Deliverance of will by Loving-kindness with specified intentness- (Odisha pharaṇa Mettā Bhāvanā )- there are seven ways of doing this.
3. Directional Radiation - Deliverance of will by Loving-kindness with directional intentness- (Disha pharaṇa Mettā Bhāvanā )- there are ten ways of doing this.65
It can be practised only by those who have attained jhānas. Those who have not attained any of jhānas, can also practise this method in order to gain merit by meditation. Initially it is difficult to develop concentration because the object of meditation is very wide. Therefore, one should develop jhānas by radiating Loving- kindness to a specific person first, and then to other persons.
Loving-kindness (mettā) is to be developed towards all beings, in all directions, wishing all of them happiness. There should not be any limit while radiating mettā to all the people, who are being present in those places. There should not be any ill feeling against any living being, no animosity no grudge etc.
When one projects this total wish for others to stay happy, free from hostility, affliction and distress, not only does one elevate oneself to a level where true happiness prevails, but one sets in motion powerful vibrations conducive to happiness, cooling off enmity, relieving pain and sorrow. It will be seen, therefore, that universal love simultaneously infuses well-being and happiness, removes the mental and physical suffering caused by the mental pollutants of enmity and anger.
65 All these methods will be discussed in detail in Annexure-I
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14.1.13 Mettā as Kamma (Action):
Mettā is recognized as the threefold kamma66 viz. vocal (vacīkamma), physical (kāyakammā) and mental (manokamma). A brief description of these is as follows:
i) Mettā kāyakammā: This is the method of developing Loving-kindness by friendly actions performed with the body.
ii) Mettā Mano Kamma: This is the method of developing Loving-kindness mentally. Whatever you thought with Loving-kindness in your mind is called mettā manokamma; mentally saying ‘May all beings be happy’. iii) Mettā vacīkamma: This is a method of developing Loving-kindness by expressing verbally. This is done in four ways:
a) Truthful and skillful speech motivated by Loving-kindness,
b) Unifying speech and not divisive,
c) Sweet, pleasing speech and
d) Meaningful speech.
S.Radhakrishnan(1950)-“In the body restraint is good, good is restraint in speech; in thought restraint is good, good is restraint in all things. A mendicant who is restrained in all things is freed from all sorrow.”67 One should help a person to the best of one’s ability – through thought with good will, by speaking kind words and by giving physical help.
Of the three kammas, manokamma is always more important than the other two. The attitude of the mind matters most. As regards attitude, there are three Roots of Good68. They are alobha(absence of craving), adosa(absence of aversion) and amoha(absence of delusion). These three also have additional positive aspects. Accordingly, Alobha does not merely mean non-attachment but also generosity; Adosa does not merely mean non-anger or non-hatred but also good-will or benevolence or Loving-kindness (mettā); Amoha does not merely mean non-delusion, but also wisdom or knowledge (ñāna or pañña).
66Mettā Kāyakamma, Mettā Vacikamma, Mettā Manokamma-AN.v.350 67 Dhp-361. pg.171 68 MoA.126-127
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14.1.14 The Two Enemies of Mettā:
One who is practicing mettā should always take care, not to land in two pitfalls. These pitfalls are called as enemies of mettā. “Mettā has greed (lust) as its near enemy and ill will is far enemy.”69 Loving-kindness should be protected from degenerating lustful love or greed. So, practice of Loving-kindness should be well protected from it. Ill-will or hatred is the distant enemy. There may arise a tendency to feel anger. Anger and ill-will, which is dissimilar to the similar greed, is the far enemy of mettā. So Loving-kindness must be practised free from fear of that; for it is not possible to practise Loving-kindness and feel anger simultaneously.”70
In Maharahulovada Sutta, it is said that when you develop the meditation of good will, ill-will will be abandoned.71 Love wards off ill-will, which is the most damaging of emotions. Hence it is said: "For this is the escape from ill-will, friends, that is to say, the freedom of mind wrought by universal love.”72
14.1.15 Sigalovada Sutta on householders’ code of discipline Or Mettā in Daily Life:
Buddha has prescribed for the layman, sigala - a code of discipline. This sutta offers valuable practical advice for householders, on how to conduct themselves skillfully in their relationships with parents, spouses, children, pupils, teachers, employers, employees, friends, and spiritual mentors so as to bring happiness to all concerned.
The well known Sigālovāda-sutta, is the classic and standard work of the Buddha’s discussion, on social relations. Buddha explained to young Sigala the reciprocal relationship that should exist among the members of society. Six kinds of social relations have been enumerated there. The importance of mettā in daily life is discussed in the Sigālovāda Sutta.73
Once Lord Buddha saw a youth called Sigāla, in his morning stroll. The young man, in drenched attire, prostrated and worshipped the four directions (east, west, north
69 PP.312-313; Expo.260 70 D.iii.247-8 71 MN.i.424-MahaRahulovada sutta 72 D.iii.234 http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/buddharakkhita/wheel365.html 73 D.iii.180-singalovada sutta.;DoB.iii.173-184
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and south), as also the Earth (Down) and the Sky (Up). When asked by Lord Buddha why he did so, the youth Sigala replied that he had been told by his late father to do so and he thought that it was right to uphold his father's wishes. Lord Buddha then, based on Sigala's point of view, taught him on how a noble one should worship the six directions. Buddha says:
Mother and father are the Eastern view,
And teachers are the quarters of the South.
And wife and children are the Western view,
And friends and kin the quarter to the North;
Servants and working folk the nadir are,
And overhead the Brahmin and recluse.
These quarters should be worshipped by the man
Who fitly ranks as houseman in his clan.
How does a young man, (the noble disciple) protect the six directions? These six directions should be known: mother and father as the east, teachers as the south, spouse and family as the west, friends and colleagues as the north, workers and servants as the lower direction, and ascetics and Brahmans as the upper direction in five ways. a. Duties of a Child towards Parents in Eastern Direction and vice versa:
A child should fulfill his duties towards parents by: i.) supporting them, having being supported by them, ii.) doing their duties, iii.) keeping the family lineage, iv.) acting in such a way as to be worthy of inheritance, v.) offering alms in honour of departed relatives.
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Parents, who are thus ministered to by their children in Eastern Direction should:
i.) restrain them from evil,
ii.) persuade them to do good,
iii.) train them to a profession,
iv.) marry them to a suitable wife,
v.) hand over to them their inheritance at the proper time, the family lineage and tradition.
b. Duties of a Teachers towards Students/vice versa in Southern Direction:
A pupil should fulfill his duties towards teachers by:
i) rising (from seat in salutation),
ii) waiting upon them,
iii) showing eagerness to learn,
iv) rendering personal service, and
v) being attentive when receiving the teachings.
A teacher should fulfill his duties towards pupils by:
i) training in self discipline,
ii) ensuring the teachings are well-grasped,
iii) instructing in every branch of knowledge,
iv) introducing to their friends and colleagues, and
v) providing safety in every direction.
c. Duties of a Husband towards wife and vice versa in Western Direction:
A husband should fulfill his duties towards wife by: i) honoring her, ii) not disrespecting,
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iii) being faithful,
iv) handing over authority to her and
v) providing her with adornment (gifts).
A wife should fulfill her duties towards husband by: i) being well-organized, ii) hospitality to the kin of both, iii) being faithful, iv) looking after the household goods, and v) being skillful and diligent in all her duties. d. Duties of a Friend towards Companion and vice versa in Northern Direction:
A friend should fulfill his duties towards his companions by: i) generosity, ii) courtesy and benevolence, iii) looking after other’s welfare, iv) treating them as he treats himself and v) being as good as his word.
A companion should fulfill his duties towards his friends by: i) protecting them and their wealth when they are vulnerable, ii) being a refuge when they are in danger/ afraid, iii) not abandoning them in misfortunes (troubles), and iv) honoring their entire family (offsprings).
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e. Duties of an Employer towards Employee and vice versa in Lower Direction (Nadir)
An employer should fulfill his duties towards his employees by: i) allocating work according to their strength, ii) providing wages and food, iii) tending them when sick, iv) sharing with them unusual delicacies and v) by granting leave at times.
An employee should fulfill his duties towards his employer by: i) rising before him, ii) lying down to rest not before him, iii) being content with what is given to them, iv) finishing late when necessary, v) taking only what is given, vi) doing his/her work diligently and vii) professing his praise and good fame(for the employer). f. Duties of an Ascetic Brahman towards Laymen and vice-versa in Upper Direction (Zenith)
An ascetic Brahman should fulfill his duties towards a layman by: i) affectionate actions, ii) speech, iii) thoughts, iv) hospitality and v) supplying his temporal needs.
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A layman should fulfill his duties towards an ascetic Brahman by: i) restraining himself from wrong doing, ii) guiding himself to good actions, iii) thinking compassionately, telling him/her what he/she ought to know, iv) clarifying what he/she already knows, and v) showing him/her the path to heaven.
In this way, all the six directions are protected, made peaceful and secure.
14.1.16 Mettā Sutta Came into Existence as Protection:74
When Buddha sent his disciples to Jambudipa for meditation, the disciples could not meditate due to terror created by the deities, present on the trees. The spirits inhabiting the trees became resentful over their homelessness and tried to scare away the monks with an onslaught of ghastly visions, dreadful shrieks, and nauseating smells. As the monks grew pale and incapable of concentrating, they decided to ask Buddha for a different site and solution. Buddha used his powers and found that, no place other than the place where they were residing, is suitable. They had to return to that place again. Buddha gave advice in the form of Mettā Sutta, for escaping from dangers brought about by the deities.
Mettā is to be extended towards all beings, irrespective of creed, race, colour, or sex, including animals, until he has identified himself with all, making no distinction whatever. He merges himself in the whole universe and is one with all is no longer influenced by caste, class, national, racial, or religious prejudices. He can regard the whole world as his motherland and all as fellow beings, in the ocean of life.
14.1.7 How to Reach the Brahma World by Tevijja Sutta:75
The two young Brahmins, namely Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja, disputed concerning the right path to lead to communion with the Brahmas. They agree to consult Buddha because they are unable to reach to any satisfactory conclusion. The Buddha explains to them, the method for attainment of Brahma world. One who wishes to reach to the
74 Sn.I.8-pg.9 75 DN.i.236-253; DoB.i.298
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Brahma world after death, is to cultivate the noble, sublime attitudes during this very life. The way to reach Brahma world, is that one continually relates to the beings in one direction, such as east, etc, with a mind endowed with love. Then one cultivates to the beings in second, third, and fourth direction, upwards, downwards, and across with a mind endowed with love. He continually cultivates everywhere, equally, to the entire world with a mind endowed with love which is vast, enlarged, untroubled, free from enmity, and measureless.
Buddha gives further explanations to them that a weak conch-shell blower cannot resound a tone to the four directions, even though, he blows conch-shell. He does not spread the sound everywhere. On the other hand, a strong one spreads the sound everywhere. Only through the cultivated liberation of the mind which is loving (mettā cetovimutti) leads to communion with Brahma world (Brahmaṁ sahavyatāya maggo)76 Such four sublime attitudes are the ways leading to communion with Brahma world.
"Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself (or herself) heard without difficulty in the four quarters, so too, when the deliverance of mind by benevolence is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none persists there. This is the path to the company of Brahma."77
Buddha says that the Brahmavihāra leads to abode in the Brahma heaven is also repeated in the other suttas like Makhadeva sutta,78 Dhananjani sutta,79 Anuruddha sutta80 and Subhasutta81 of Majjhima Nikaya.
14.1.8 Mettā As One Of The Ten Paramita:82
The word Pāramitā divides into pāra and mita, pāra meaning ‘beyond,’ ‘the further bank, shore or boundary,’ and mita, meaning ‘that which has arrived,’ or ‘that which goes’. ‘Pāramitā, then means that which has gone beyond,’ ‘that which goes beyond,’ or ‘transcendent.’
76 DN.i.251;DoB.299 77 MN.ii.207-subha sutta; MN.ii.95-Dhananjani sutta; DN.i.236-Tevijja sutta 78 MN.ii.83 79 MN.ii.184 80 MN.iii.146 81 MN.ii.196 82Dānam Sīlam ca nekkhamma paññāviriyena pancamam khantisaccaadhiṭṭhāna mettā upekkhā ti te dasa.- GoB. Vol-I-part-2 pg.4.
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There are ten kinds of Pāramita viz., (1) Dāna-generosity, (2) Sīla-virtue, morality, proper conduct (3) Nekkhamma-renunciation, (4) Paññā- transcendental wisdom, insight, (5) Vīriya- energy, diligence, vigour, effort, (6) Khanti- patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance, (7) Sacca- truthfulness, honesty, (8) Adhiṭṭhāna- determination, resolution, (9) Mettā - loving-kindness and (10) Upekkhā - equanimity, serenity.
In Buddhism the term pārami is used to denote the virtues to be practised by a Bodhisattva in order to attain Buddhahood. In Buddhism, these virtues are cultivated as a way of purification, purifying Karma and helping the aspirant to live an unobstructed life, while reaching the goal of enlightenment.
14.1.19 Mettā pārami- Perfection of Loving-kindness:83
The perfection of Loving-kindness is the wish to provide for the welfare and happiness of the world, accompanied by compassion and skilful means, literally it means goodwill. If one does the task with genuine Loving-kindness upon the surrounding world, the Loving-kindness which can enable one to renounce one‘s life, wealth and riches for the sake of the world, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of Loving-kindness (mettā pāramī). One can contemplate ‘May I be kind, compassionate and friendly mettā pāramī’. Loving-kindness has the characteristic of promoting the welfare (of living beings), its function is to provide for their welfare, to remove resentment. Its manifestation is kindliness, seeing the agreeable side of beings is its proximate cause.
Mettā is generally understood as ‘Love’. There are three kinds of love. Love meant by Mettā is a specialized term while love meant by pema is a generalized term.
1. Mettā Pema is free from confusion, peaceful. It is the kind of love that wishes for the welfare and happiness, of other sentient beings.
2. Taṇhā Pema is love full of confusion, burning. It is the love between a couple generated by greed and craving.
3. Gehassita Pema is love among the family members.
83 GoB.vol.I.part.I.pg.323
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The Taṇhā love and Gehassita love are not mettā . They are lust, greed and craving. Mettā love is the pure form of love, which can bring peace and prosperity to all beings. Development of Loving-kindness is not development of impure Taṇhā love or Gehassita love, but it is pure and noble mettā love.
In ‘The Great Chronicles of Buddhas’ it is said, “People may be living poles apart and yet one is happy to hear that those living far away are prosperous. Such separation does not prevent one from feeling satisfied with their well-being. Therefore mettā is pure and noble and has been called also Brahmavihāra (Sublime Abode). That is to say developing such love is living in a sublime state of mind.”84
The attributes of Loving-kindness should also be reflected in this way: “Compassion is the first and foremost of all fundamental practices which lead to Buddhahood. For the Bodhisatta who delights in providing welfare and happiness of all beings without discrimination (mettā ), the desire to remove their suffering and misfortune (karuṇā) becomes firmly rooted and powerful. Thus, Loving-kindness which forms the foundation of compassion should be developed towards all beings.”85
Vimuttimagga says, ‘The Bodhisatta and Mahasatta develop Loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they identify themselves with all beings and fulfill the perfection of Loving-kindness’.86 Having practised Loving-kindness and fulfilled the ten perfections, they then fulfill the four resolves (truth, liberality, peace and wisdom) and attain the two states, namely, serenity and insight (samatha and vipassanā)87
In ‘The Great Chronicles of Buddhas’ it is said, if one desires to develop karuṇā one should incline one’s thought towards living beings like: ‘May all beings be free from suffering’; if one desires to develop muditā, ‘May all beings not suffer loss of what they have gained’; if one desires to develop Upekkhā, ‘All beings have their deeds, kamma as their own property’88 There are Mettaupaparami and Mettaparamatthaparami also which is not taken into consideration.
84GoB.Vol.I.part.2.pg.324 85GoB.Vol.I.part.2.pg.49 86 Path of Freedom Vimuttimagga henceforth in the thesis as Vimutt.189 87Cattari aditthanani. Pannaadditthanam saccaditthanam, cagaditthanam, upasamadhitthanam- Vimutt.190; DN.iii.229. 88 GoB.vol.I.Part.I.pg.327.328
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Having dealt with the Brahmavihāra of mettā in all its details, the second Brahmavihāra i.e. Compassion (karuṇā) is now taken up for consideration.
14.2. COMPASSION - KARUṆĀ IN BRAHMAVIHĀRA:
In general compassion is the feeling of sorrow for the suffering and misfortune of others, accompanied by the urge to alleviate it. Sympathy and empathy are the manifestation of compassion with very fine nuance between them. Sympathy is the pity one feels for another person’s trouble, grief or misfortune, with a deep desire to help the sufferer to overcome it, whereas empathy is to experience the suffering by putting oneself in another’s place. We can say that sympathy is a general feeling and sharing of sorrow, whereas empathy is a personal feeling of sorrow. In the extended sense, it is the power of projecting one’s personality into the object of contemplation.
Karuṇā is the desire to remove the afflictions of the afflicted. The heart that melts due to sufferings of others, is said to be compassionate. That which makes89 the heart of the good quiver at the pain of others is pity. In Visuddhimagga it is said, “Be mindful of others suffering, it makes the hearts of good people tremble, thus it is karuṇā “para dukkhe sati sādhānaṃ hadayakampana karotīti ti Karuṇā”90 Or it crushes, destroys the pain of others, thus it is pity (kiṇāti vā paradukkhaṃ hiṃsati vināsetīti karuṇā,)91 Or it is pity because it is scattered over92 the afflicted, stretched out over them by diffusion. The Buddha being one of the greatest human minds, has the great quality of dibbacakkhu, the divine eyes. It has been said that before the break of the dawn, the Blessed one, used to survey the world with his divine eye to help those beings who need his help. The Buddha saw all sentient beings with equal compassion, irrespective of any difference.
Karuṇā is one of the four divine abidings. Compassion is the quality of kind people who are moved by the suffering of others. A person who has compassion wishes to remove the sufferings and cannot ever think of hurting anybody. Wickedness is the direct enemy of compassion. It is epitomized by the heartfelt wish ‘May all beings be free from sufferings’.
89 i.e. karuna(pity) is derived from √kar to make –Expo.258 90 Vism.318;PP.311 91 i.e. the derivation is from √ki to destroy, kill.- Expo.258 92Expo.258 -Kiriyati vā dukkhitesu pharaṇavasena pasāriyatīti karuṇā. The derivation is from √kir to scatter.
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In Buddhism, compassion is one of the most lofty qualities of heart, that can be cultivated. Compassion means caring for those who are suffering, both ourselves and others. Infinite compassion helps to reduce the level of suffering, bringing its force down to controllable levels, and eventually, transforming it altogether.
“Karuṇā is one of the four qualities of character, significant of a human being, who has attained liberation of heart (ceto-vimutti) in the four sentiments viz., mettā , karuṇā, muditā and Upekkhā frequently found in this formula with karuṇā sahagatena cetasa.”93
Kāruṇika means compassionate, merciful. The Buddha is called mahākāruṇika nātha "the Saviour of great mercy," in introductory stanzas to Petavatthu and Vimanvatthu. It is also called compassionateness (karuññatāṃ).94 Karuṇā as ‘ahita dukkh-apanaya kamata,’ the desire of removing bane and sorrow from one’s fellow men, while Mettā is explained as ‘hita-sukh-upanaya kamata,’ the desire of bringing (to one’s fellow men) that which is welfare and good.”95 Diggha Nikaya refers to karuṇā as “sagara (ocean) of mercy.”96
S.Radhakrishnan(1950) says, “He who seeking his own happiness, inflicts pain (strikes with a stick) on beings who (like himself) are desirous of happiness, does not obtain happiness after death.”97 The words, anuddayā anukaṁpā, are used in Pāli to explain any kind of affection or compassion. Anukampā is a common substitute for both mettā and karuṇā. When specifically defined, it signifies emotional sensitivity to the suffering of others. For example: i) Dislike (oghata) is eliminated by practising the developing karuṇā, anuddayā anukaṁpā98
93 Vism.300, 319. 94 SN.i.138 95 PED.540 96 D.i.33 97Dhp.132 pg. 103 98 AN.ii.176
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ii) Do not kill beings and practise the developing of karuṇā, anuddayā anukaṁpā.99
iii) The enlightened one teaches others as a hitānukaṁpī. Hita means useful, beneficial, suitable and anukampi means friendly, compassionate.
“When a man fulfils compassion, he separates from harming and from killing. He is not afflicted. He separates from impure affection. Through two causes compassion is not fulfilled: through resentment produced within himself and through affliction”.100 The commentary on Sutta Nipata says hitacariyā, meaning beneficent conduct, is the development of compassion and Loving-kindness for others, wherein they are even more significant than one’s own welfare.
Karuṇā is an antidote to himsa or cruelty, which is responsible for many horrors and atrocities prevalent in the world.
14.2.1. Persons towards whom Karuṇā is not to be developed initially:
To begin with one should not develop compassion towards a dear person, a very dear companion, a neutral person, an antipathetic and hostile person, persons of opposite sex and dead persons. The reason for this is the same, as explained in the context of Mettā.
14.2.2 Persons towards whom Karuṇā is to be developed:
Karuṇā needs to be developed towards the person, who is suffering the utmost, in all respects. The commentary gives a graphic description of such a person. It says, first of all, on seeing a wretched man, unlucky, unfortunate, in every way a fit object for compassion, unsightly, reduced to utter misery with hands and feet cut off, sitting in the shelter for the helpless with a pot placed before him(no relatives to rely on), with a mass of maggots oozing from his arms and legs (no medical aid or medicine), and moaning(suffering in pain) compassion should be felt for him in this way; ‘May this man’s misery be reduced and free from suffering’ .
99 Jt.v.20 100 Vimutt.191
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Next is the person, who is a criminal. Karunā should be developed towards one who is committing crime, by comparing him with a man awaiting the order to be hanged, after receiving capital punishment. In the Visuddhimagga, the way of comparison is given: The man who received capital punishment was tied with ropes, showed to the people at the junction of road. The man in custody with death hanging over his head was generally offered with delicious foods, etc, by some kind-hearted people who pitied the fate of that condemned man. The guilty man enjoyed the foods, etc., for a moment. But people who see him, did not think of him as being happy and well off. On the contrary, people feel compassion for him thinking ‘This poor wretch is now about to die; every step he took brought him closer to death’. So too, a bhikkhu whose meditation subject is compassion, should arouse compassion for an evil-doing person even if he is happy: ‘Though this poor wretch is now happy, cheerful, enjoying his wealth, still for want of even one good deed done now in any one of the three doors (of body, speech and mind) he can come to experience untold suffering in the states of loss’.
Next in line for compassion comes ‘a dear person, a neutral person, and a hostile person’ in that order. But if anger towards the hostile person arises in the way already described, he should make it subside in the way described under mettā.
There is only one way of developing karuṇā and that is the all inclusive way as reflected in the saying, “Sabbe sattā dukkhā maccantu” meaning “May all beings be free from misery.” In the case of a specific person, the name should be uttered in the saying, ‘May he / she be free from misery’. Karuṇā should be sincere and rise from the depths of the heart.
‘Vibhanga’ says “And how does a bhikkhu dwell with mind accompanied by compassion, suffusing one direction? Just as (he), seeing, may have compassion for a miserable, wicked person; in the same way he suffuses all beings with compassion”101
The chief characteristic of karuṇā is the wish to remove / reduce the sufferings/woes of others, being rooted in not being able to bear other’s suffering. Its manifestation is non-cruelty or non-violence (avihiṁsā) in thought, word and deed and non-hatred. Its
101BoA.359
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proximate cause is to see helplessness of those who suffer.102It succeeds when it makes cruelty subside and it fails when it produces sorrow.
14.2.3 The Two Enemies of Karunā:
Compassion (Karuṇā) has two enemies: near enemy is grief (domanassa) and far enemy is cruelty (vihiṁsā).103 For example, when a frog has been caught by a snake, one feels sorrow for the frog on one hand and feels like hitting the snake with a stick, which is cruelty. Buddha says in Maharahulavada Sutta that when you are developing the meditation of compassion, cruelty will be abandoned.104When we feel compassion for a child, we feel like holding and bringing it close to us.
In domestic life, compassion gives rise to grief, its near enemy, as described herewith: “When a man either regards as a privation failure to obtain visible objects, cognizable by the eye that are sought after, desired, agreeable, gratifying and associated with worldliness, or when he recalls those formerly obtained that are past, ceased and changed, then grief arises in him. Such grief as this is called grief based on the home life”105 Compassion must be practised free from fear and cruelty, to living beings simultaneously.
14.2.4 The Method of Developing 132 Kinds of Karuṇā:
The manner of developing karuṇā bhāvanā is a little different from that of mettā bhāvanā as mentioned earlier. karuṇā is cultivated in the Generalised way as unspecified intentness (Anodisha karuṇā), in 5 ways, with Specified Radiation (Odhisa karuṇā) in 7 ways and with Directional Radiation (disapharana karuṇā) in 10 ways, in the same way as in mettā bhāvanā mentioned earlier. The only difference is in the aspiration which here is, ‘May all beings not suffer loss of what they have gained.’
The 5 Generalised Ways when added to the 7 Specialized ways becomes 12 ways. These 12 ways each applied to the 10 regions, amounts totally to 120 Ways. When
102dukkha apanayana karappavatti para-dukkha asahana avihimsa dukkha abhibhutanam anathabhavadassana vyapadupasamo tassa soka sambhavo- Vism.318;PP.312; Expo.259 103 PP.313 104 MN.i.424-MahaRahulovada sutta
105 domanassaṃ vipattidassanasabhāgatāya āsannapaccatthikaṃ sabhāgavisabhāgatāya vihiṃsā dūrapaccatthikā.-MN.iii.218
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you add to these 120 ways, the 12 kinds of odhisa-anodhisa, it will come to a total of 132 kinds of karuṇā aspirations. That is why all kinds of developing of karuṇā are total 132 aspirations (12+120 = 132).106
Both canonical and commentarial texts categorically state this: “There is one person whose birth into this world is for the welfare of the many, for the happiness of the many, who is born out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, welfare and happiness of gods and men. Who is that one person? It is a Tathagata, an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One.”107
The significance of karuṇā as regards the ultimate goal of nibbāṇa, is brought about by the Dhammapada when it says: “so long as an evil deed does not bear fruit, the fool thinks that it is like honey; but when it bears fruit, then the fool suffers grief.”108 Further it says, “All men tremble at punishment:all men love life. Likening others to oneself one should neither slay nor cause to slay.”109 The Buddha did not allow harm, even to the most trivial living creature. On one occasion, the Buddha says: “O Mogallana! do not do such a thing because the insect will be confused.”110
14.2.5 Six Kinds of Extra-ordinary, Incomparable Knowledge of the Buddha - Asādhāraṇa Ñāṇa:111
Out of the six extraordinary and incomparable Knowledge of the Buddha one is Mahā Karuṇā Samāpatti Ñāṇa i.e. boundless and beyond comparison compassion. The said six knowledge are enumerated below:
These six types of knowledge which are beyond the reach of his disciples or cannot be reached by his disciples, are called unrivalled knowledge Asādhāraṇa Ñāṇa.
i) Indriya Paro Pariyatti Ñāṇa: The Buddha’s senses are free from defilements and are always directed through the 5 virtues viz., confidence (saddhā), mindfulness(sati), calmness(Samādhi), energy(viriya) and wisdom ( paññā). His realization of all these qualities, enabled him to see the purity, impurity of others’ minds and to preach the Dhamma for their benefit.
106 All these methods will be discussed in detail in Annexure-II 107 AN.i.22 108 Dhp.69.pg. 81 109 Ibid.pg. 103 110 Vin.iii.34 111 Vin.iii.35;kh.viii.9;J.i.58;78;Miln.285; Sayadaw, Mahasi, Brahmaviharadhamma-pg.131-132
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ii) Asayanusaya Ñāṇa: This refers to knowledge of the Anusayas or inclinations / mental dispositions and kilesa that may arise of the living beings. Before he preached, Buddha had the supernormal power to understand and analyze the mental attitudes of the people - their understanding capacity, their mental background, hindrances and development, their capability of realizing the Dhamma, their characters and habits carried over from previous births in Saṃsāra. iii) Yamaka patihariya ñāṇa: Buddha had the supernormal power to perform the twin miracles of radiating red and white rays from his body simultaneously (often interpreted as fire and water). On rare occasions, He performed this miracle through his jhanic power to confound those who were devious, conceited and skeptical. The Buddha did not generally resort to miracles to convert others, and actively discouraged his disciples from performing them to prove the superiority of his Teachings. iv) Mahā Karuṇā Samāpatti Ñāṇa: The Buddha has great compassion to liberate others’ suffering. His compassion is boundless (permeating the entire universe) and beyond comparison with any other teacher. v) Sabbaññuta Ñāṇa: The Buddha is all knowing and there is nothing in the universe that He cannot understand, whether in the past, the present or the future. It is attainment of omniscience (all knowing wisdom). vi) Anavarana Ñāṇa: The Buddha’s enlightened mind is luminous, unobstructed and profound to realize the real nature of everything in the universe.
Compassion is often confused with the emotion of pity. Pity is when you feel sorrow for someone by witnessing their pain. However, compassion is when you feel the unconditional urge to help him. Everywhere, compassionate people are stepping into less fortunate people’s shoes and picturing themselves in them. By doing so, they understand the pain and suffering that has befallen them. It is easy to show pity, but difficult to execute compassion, especially towards everyone in the world. The benefits of Compassion, eleven in number, are the same as of Loving-kindness as per Mettā sutta.
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The world needs today compassionate men and women, to banish violence and cruelty from the face of the earth. Buddha manifested a complete compassion, is respectfully seen as the compassionate protector of all beings. The Buddhist moral path inspires generous compassionate friendly attitudes towards mankind and animals. Buddhists practise Loving-kindness toward non-harming the life of all beings, not only to protect mankind, but also to protect animals.
Personal experience also points to the fact that the greatest degree of inner peace comes from the development of love and compassion. The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being. Cultivating a close, warm-hearted feeling for others automatically puts the mind at ease. This helps remove whatever fears or insecurities we may have and gives us the strength to cope with any obstacles we encounter. It is the ultimate source of success in life.
As long as we live in this world, we are bound to come across a lot of problems. If, at such times, we lose hope and become discouraged, we become weak and incapable to face difficulties. On the other hand, if we remember that it is not just ourselves but every one who has to undergo suffering, this more realistic perspective will increase our determination and capacity to overcome troubles. When we face a new obstacle as an opportunity in adversity the quality of our mind improves. We obtain mental peace and strength. Thus, we can strive gradually to become more compassionate. We can develop both genuine sympathy for others' suffering and the will to help them to remove their pain; our own peacefulness and inner strength will increase.
S.Radhakrishnan (1950) says,“you yourself must strive. The Blessed Ones are (only) preachers. Those who enter the path and practise meditation are released from the bondage of Māra(death, sin).”112 Māra (the Buddhist counterpart of the Devil or Principle of Destruction) is death, the evil one, the tempter, the spirit which deceives and misleads man, making his path difficult and sorrowful, the power for the evil which makes for death.
112 Dhp.276 pg. 146
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14.3 Muditā bhāvanā(Sympathetic Joy) in Brahmavihāra (Sanskrit- Muditā):
The meaning of muditā is a feeling of joy and gladness in the happiness and well- being of others. It is actually a test to be in a happy state when someone is happier or more fortunate than we are. It is often rendered as sympathy, sympathetic joy, unselfish joy, altruistic joy, gladness, empathy, etc. Muditā as one of the divine abiding, is always in the sense of gladness at others’ success. It is a mental freedom (from jealousy), the plasticity of mind or thoughts. “Plasticity” means a soft state, smoothness, non-rigidity, etc. Muditā means ‘taking delight in one's own goodness and that of others’.
‘Vibhaṅga’ says, “And how does a bhikkhu dwell with mind accompanied by sympathetic joy, suffusing one direction? Just as (he), seeing, may have sympathetic joy for a lovely, pleasant person; in the same way he suffuses all beings with sympathetic joy.”113
‘Visuddhimagga’ says, “Those endowed with it are glad (modanti), or itself is glad 114 (modati), or it is the mere act of being glad (modana), thus it is gladness (muditā).” Vimuttimagga says, “When one fulfils appreciative joy, he removes unhappiness, does not arouse impure affection and does not speak untruth. Through two causes appreciative joy is not fulfilled: through resentment produced within oneself and through derisive action.”115
The three roots of evil116 (Pāli, akusala-mūla), the three poisons, the three unwholesome roots are attachment/greed (Lobho), aversion/hatred (Dosa), and delusion/confusion (Moho). These are the fires that burn us from within and thus a cause of dukkha which lead to rebirths. The whole aim of spiritual practice is to gradually subdue the three poisons by cultivating opposite virtues. The antidote to overcome greed, we learn to cultivate selflessness, generosity, detachment, and contentment; to overcome hatred, we learn to cultivate Loving-kindness, compassion,
113BoA.360
114modanti tāya taṃsamaṅgino, sayaṃ vā modati, modānamattameva vā tanti muditā. –Vism.318; PP.311;Expo.258
115 Vimutt.192 116 D.iii.275
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patience, and forgiveness; to overcome delusion, we cultivate wisdom, insight, and right understanding. Once we are relieved from three poisons the sublime peace, wisdom, unity, and bliss of Nibbāna shine forth as our essential nature. If these poisons are extinguished, then our heart becomes pure and clean and can rejoice in others joy i.e. muditā.
Muditā is a state of happiness felt after seeing the happiness of other without jealousy. We often come across in day to day life, a person or family which is progressing well in life, well settled and regarded as happy person / family. People generally develop jealousy towards such person. They also sometimes, finding people in a state of distress, like to increase the distress by creating an unfavorable situation for them. Muditā minimizes such wrong feelings/jealousy and in due course, removes them forever.
Out of the ten kusala kamma (meritorious actions), which are divided into three main heads viz. dana-sīla-bhāvanā, muditā figures under dana. These three classifications are as follows:
I. Däna (Generosity) group includes:
i. Dāna (giving),
ii. Transfer of merits to others (pattidāna), and
iii. Rejoicing (accepting or participating) in other’s merits (pattanumodana)
II. Sīla (Morality) group includes:
i. Sīla (morality), i.e., observing 5, 8, or 10 precepts,
ii. Reverence to elders and holy persons (āpacāyana),
iii. Pay homage to religious places, take care of such places, etc. (veyyāvacca).
III. Bhāvanā (meditation) group includes: i. Meditation (bhāvanā), ii. Listening to Dhamma discourses (Dhamma savanna), iii. Teaching Dhamma (Dhamma desanā),
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iv. Correcting one’s wrong views, especially on kamma (diṭṭhihijukamma).
Thus, for the thesis at hand, Dana group is important as it contains muditā. Here dāna, is called direct giving and pattidana is called indirect giving. Pattanumodana has the nature of muditā (sympathetic joy). Rejoicing when a donor shares his merits is known as pattanumodana. It is a combination of two words Patti(merit) and anumodanā (rejoicing), so pattānumodanā means rejoicing in others’ merit.
Expositor says, “Thanksgiving (or rejoicing in others' merit) as a basis of meritorious action is to be understood as giving thanks with the words ‘Good, well-done!’ when, for instance, others share their merits with us or when they perform another meritorious act.”117The thought accompanying Pattānumodanā is thus associated with gladness (muditā) and right view or understanding, when one approves of and rejoices in another's meritorious deed. One thereby gets a share of the merit gained by others. By saying ‘Thanks’, we verbally express our approval and thanksgiving thereby making the other party feel glad over his good deed. This wholesome volition will strengthen the potentiality of his acquired merit. Thus Pattanumodanā benefits both parties - the doer of the meritorious deed and the one rejoicing in the other's merit. The results of Pattanumodanā are success, beauty and joy wherever one is born because its cause is rejoicing and encouraging others to perform meritorious actions.
Also “when from a burning lamp a thousand lamps were lit, it would not be said that the original lamp was exhausted; the latter light, being one with the former (added) lights, becomes increased, thus there is no decrease in our sharing what we have attained. On the contrary there is an increase”118 Buddha has given this example which is an eye-opener to all in this world. Dāna plays a very important role in that it gives benefit to all.
S. Radhakrishnan(1950) says, “Do not follow evil law. Do not live in thoughtlessness. Do not follow false doctrine. Do not be a friend of the world”119
We appreciate the good qualities of other people inwardly and express how generous and kind the person is. Just try telling someone you know how much you appreciate them; you will be surprised by the effect it has on both of you.
117 Expo.211 118 Expo.210-211 119 Dhp. 167.pg. 115
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Therefore, dana, sila and bhāvanā constitute the “base” of a life of a moral person. The ‘dana group’ helps one overcome one’s greed (lobha). The ‘sila group’ helps removing hate (dosa) from one’s mind. The ‘bhāvanā group’ helps removing ignorance (moha) from the mind by learning Dhamma and getting rid of the wrong
views (micchādiṭṭhi).
“Muditā means those endowed therewith or with the co-existent states, rejoice, or one’s self rejoices, or just ‘rejoicing’. May they be without enmity, by removal of such ill-will, one contemplates with disinterestedness by attaining to a condition of centrality this is a hedonic indifference.”120Majority of people are jealous of others’ success, honour, name and fame. They do not wish to see happiness, prosperity and success in others. These are the nature of envy and jealousy. People often do many bad deeds to spoil others.
S. Radhakrishnan(1950) says, “An evil deed is left undone is better, for an evil deed causes suffering later. A good deed done is better for doing, it does not cause suffering”121
Muditā is opposite of envy or jealousy. A person who is envious or jealous will not be desirous to see others’ success. A person with Muditā gets pleased with others’ success. Muditā admires the achievement of others. This type of mind destroys the element of envy and jealousy from the heart.
14.3.1. Persons towards whom Muditā is not to be developed initially:
Dearly loved, un-beloved or neutral persons should not be taken up first in radiating Muditā.
14.3.2. Person towards whom Muditā is to be developed: Start with a good friend, who is a cheerful person. Contemplate this cheerfulness with appreciation and let it fill you. When this state of sympathetic joy is strong, then direct it toward a dearly loved person, a "neutral" person and an enemy in that order.
120 Expo.258
121Dhp. 314.pg. 158
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The next stage is to develop impartiality among the four viz. the loved one, the neutral person, the difficult person and oneself. Then, sympathetic joy is extended towards all beings. Obviously, this process is not going to happen in one day. Further, Buddhaghosa says, only a person who has developed powers of absorption will succeed. "Absorption" refers to the deepest meditative state, in which sense of self and other disappear.
The book ‘Path of Purity’ says ‘Breaking down the barriers through equality of mind towards the three persons, and himself as the fourth and practising, developing, repeating the sign, as already mentioned under love, he should increase the ecstasies by means of the threefold and fourfold jhānas.’122
14.3.3 The four Characteristics of Muditā:
i. Gladness produced by others’ success. ii. Absence of envy. iii. Elimination of hatred (boredom) or destruction of disaffection. iv. Seeing the prosperous state of other beings.
14.3.4. The two Enemies of Muditā:
Muditā has also two enemies, near and far. The near enemy of muditā is Joy (somanassa) which means happiness, (not just wholesome happiness) but merriment (pahāsa) comes in. The far enemy of muditā is aversion (arati) which means jealousy,123not happy with the success of others. Buddha says in Maharahulavada sutta, when you are developing the meditation of appreciation, resentment will be abandoned.124
14.3.5 How to develop Muditā?
‘Visuddhimagga’ says the development of gladness should not start with a dear person, a neutral person, a hostile person, a person of opposite sex and one who is dead.
122 PoP 363 123 Expo.260;PP.313. 124 MN.i.424- MahaRahulovada sutta
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A very close friend, however, can be a suitable subject, who in the Commentaries is called a ‘boon companion’. Such a person is always in a joyous mood, laughs first and speaks afterwards. That person should be the first to be pervaded with unselfish joy. Or on seeing or hearing about a dear person being happy, cheerful, and joyous, unselfish joy can be aroused in this way: "This being, truly, is happy! How good, how excellent!" 125
But if this affectionate friend or dear person was happy in the past but is now unlucky and unfortunate, then unselfish joy can still be aroused by remembering that person's past happiness, or by anticipating that the person will be happy and successful again in the future. Having thus aroused unselfish joy with respect to a dear person, the meditator can then direct it towards a neutral one, and after that towards a hostile one. But if resentment towards the hostile one arises, one should make it subside in the same way as described in the case of Loving-kindness (mettā ).
One should then break down the barriers by means of impartiality (Upekkhā) towards the four, that is, towards these three (dear, neutral and hostile one) and oneself.
14.3.6 The Method of Developing 132 Kinds of Muditā:
The manner of developing muditā bhāvanā is same as karuṇā bhāvanā as mentioned earlier. Muditā is cultivated in the Generalised way as unspecified intentness (Anodisha Muditā) in 5 ways, with Specified Radiation (Odhisa Muditā) in 7 ways and with Directional Radiation (disapharana Muditā) in 10 ways. The only difference is in the aspiration which here is, ‘May all beings not suffer loss of what they have gained.’
The 5 Generalised Ways when added to the 7 Specialized ways becomes 12 ways. These 12 ways each applied to the 10 regions amounts totally to 120 Ways. When you add to these 120 ways, the 12 kinds of odhisa-anodhisa, it will come to a total of 132 kinds of muditā. That is why all kinds of developing of muditā. are total 132 aspirations (12+120 = 132).126
125 PP.309 126 Please Refer Annexure-III for details.
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14.4. Upekkhā bhāvanā-Equanimity in Brahmavihāra (Sanskrit : Upekṣā).
The Pāli word for equanimity is Upekkhā (skt.upekṣā) from the prefix word ‘upa’ and the root ‘ikh’ meaning ‘to see’. upekkhāko vihārati means dwelling in equanimity. It is not indifference but even-mindedness, a state of inner equipoise.
In Pāli commentaries Upekkhā is referred as upapattito ikkhati, which means seeing fairly without partiality (a-pakkhapatita).127 The Pāli English Dictionary meaning says: “looking on” with hedonic neutrality or indifference, zero point between joy and sorrow, disinterestedness, neutral feeling, equanimity, sometimes equivalent to adukkham asukha-vedanā i.e. “feeling which is neither pain nor pleasure”128
‘A literal translation of the Pāli word Upekkhā would be ‘taking up a balanced view’ which means maintenance of a neutral position between the two extremes of sorrow and happiness.’129
‘Visuddhimagga’ says: “It looks on at (upekkhāti), abandoning such interestedness as thinking ‘May they be free from enmity’ and having recourse to neutrality, thus it is equanimity (Upekkhā).”130
Also ‘Vibhanga’ says, “And how does a bhikkhu dwell with mind accompanied by equanimity, suffusing one direction? Just as (he) seeing, may have equanimity for a person who is neither pleasant nor unpleasant; in the same way he suffuses all beings with equanimity.”131
Thus we can understand Upekkhā simply as equanimity or neutrality of the mental state. This equanimity is obviously not indifference.
14.4.1 Equanimity in General:
Equanimity is a state of inner balance that enables you to remain calm and centered in the midst of, all the turmoil in your life. People who are masters of equanimity remain even-tempered and unaffected by outside influences. They have learned
127 Vism.129;PP.152;Expo.230 128 PED.301
129 GoB.vol.I.340 130 Vism.317;PP.311;Expo.259. 131BoA.362
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neither to give in to their likes and dislikes, nor to react to situations according to their desires and aversions. This is not easy in the modern world. Whenever you feel a strong emotion coming on a response to pain or pleasure, success or failure, extreme stress or thorough relief, say to yourself, "This, too, will pass."
Equanimity does not mean that you are indifferent to events. Quite the opposite, it means that you care enough to admit that you do not have all the answers. You realize that you cannot control the future and what you think is the best, may or may not be the way to go in the long run or may not be the best path in the big picture. By maintaining equanimity, you remain open to possibilities, including God's grace.
In everyday life, we watch the news and always worry about something or the other; the worries are endless, which is disturbing. Worry captures our consciousness, diffuses our attention, and makes us prone to making mistakes. Equanimity practice enables us to see things as they are and, at the same time, not be attached to certain outcomes.
One of the best ways to get away from being driven by your desires and aversions is to use affirmations like, "I can do all things” etc. In the time of difficulty if one can stay calm and balanced, then things may happen the way we want.
Buddha was speaking on the life-span and had announced that he would die at the end of three months,132was entirely free from desire for any kind of future life and condemned them all. For he said, “I find no beauty in the smallest part of future life, just as even a small quantity of excrement is of bad smell”133.
132 D.ii.119 133 A.i.34
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14.4.2 The story of Venerable Lakuntaka (dwarf) Bhaddiya:134
The nature of equanimity is illustrated by a reference to the Venerable Lakuntaka Bhaddiya. He was a short, very good-natured monk (as a result of past kamma) at the Jetavana Monastery, and was gifted with a melodious voice like the Himalayan nightingale. Even young monks teased him by pulling his nose or ear, or patting him on his head etc. Lakuntaka never retaliated in anger, or abused them.
When told about the patience of Lakuntaka, the Buddha said, ‘an arahant never loses his temper, he has no desire to speak harshly or to think ill of others. He is like a mountain of solid rock, as a solid rock he is unshaken, so also, an arahant is unperturbed by disrespect or praise.’
S.Radhakrishnan(1950) says, “As a solid rock is not shaken by the wind, so wise men are not moved amidst blame and praise.”135
Ordinarily people tend to be shaken by changing fortunes / vicissitudes of life. When things go wrong, they are depressed. When things go well, they are elated. The wise remain unshaken, whatever the fortunes they face.
14.4.3 What is Aṭṭha Lokadhammā?
136 { In general, people face eight vicissitudes of life (aṭṭha lokadhammā) , which are the eight worldly conditions that affect all human beings viz. lābha – gain, alābha – loss, Ayaso – neglect, Yaso – attention, nindā – humiliation, pasaŋsā – praise, sukhaŋ – pleasure and dukkhaŋ – pain.
These eight(four desirable and four undesirable) worldly vicissitudes are always following living beings. If a man is in the sun, his shadow always follows him; he cannot prevent it from following him. So, like the shadow, these worldly vicissitudes always follow all beings. Man has to treat them alike with a balanced frame of mind. He should understand that these conditions are inevitable in life and that he has to confront them with undisturbed mind. These conditions affect human beings. Remaining undisturbed, unperturbed, unmoved and stable in such conditions of life is
134 SN.ii.279 135Dhp.81.pg. 85 136lābho ca alābho ca yaso ca ayaso ca nindā ca pasaṃsā ca sukhañ ca dukhañ ca-AN.iv.157-lokavipatti sutta
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practising equanimity (Upekkhā). It is a state of sthitaprajna; a state in which a man is in good mental balance, cool, equipoise and developed wisdom and is fully aware about the nature of impermanence. Buddha exhorts all to remain calm and equanimous in all the situations in life.
S. Radhakrishnan (1950) says,“Good people walk on whatever happens to them, Good people do not prattle, yearning for pleasures. The wise do not show variation (elation or depression), whether touched by happiness or else by sorrow.”137
While these worldly vicissitudes are the common lot of ordinary people, the Arahants, who are free from defilements, are also subject to worldly vicissitudes. However, their response is different. They can accept fortune and misfortune with equanimity. So in the Maṅgala Sutta, the Buddha says: “He whose mind does not flutter, by contact with worldly contingencies, remains sorrow-less, stain-less and secure, this is the Highest Blessing.”138Equanimity is perfect, unshakable balance of mind, rooted in insight. Of course it is not easy to attain and maintain balance of mind.
“The monk who abides in equanimity and puts his faith in the teaching of the Buddha will win through to the sphere of calm, the immovable sphere of nirvana.”139
Buddha has practised equanimity in his life-time and he has won the heart of foes who speak abusively. Akossa sutta140 refers to insult. Akossaka Bharadwaja Brahman used to abuse and criticize Buddha with foul and harsh words, a number of times. But Buddha did not feel offended. In return, he asked Akossaka what does he do when he gives an offerings or gifts to somebody who does not accept it. Akossa said he keeps it with himself. Buddha says calmly, ‘Even so, Brahman, you are abusing us, you are angry with us, you are quarreling with us. All this of yours we don't accept. You alone, Brahman, get it back; all this, Brahman, belongs to you’. This statement of Buddha brought about a complete transformation of character in him. Akossaka later received the highest ordination of a bhikkhu and became one of the arhats.
137 Dhp.83.pg. 86 138Phutthassa lokadhammehi Cittam yassa na kampati Asokam virajam khemam, Etam mangalamuttamam.- Khp-3-Mangala sutta 139 Mahavastu.III.423 140 SN.i.161.Akkosaka sutta
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Narada Thera (1998) says, “mettā embraces all beings, karuṇā embraces sufferers, muditā embraces the prosperous and Upekkhā embraces the good and the bad, the loved and the unloved, the pleasant and the unpleasant.”141
In day to day life, we come across contrasting situations like rise and fall, success and failure, loss and gain, honor and blame. We feel how our heart responds to all this with happiness and sorrow, delight and despair, disappointment and satisfaction, hope and fear respectively. These emotions carry us up and fling us down. To deal with such situations we need to have equanimity and presence of mind. The Mind requires deliberate training, discipline and effort, again and again. It will possess this power of resistance and self-renewal only if it is rooted in insight, in wisdom.
To develop equanimity, one has to give up all possessive thoughts of ‘mine’. One has to start with small things, from which it is easy to detach oneself and gradually work up to possessions and aims towards which one's whole heart clings. One also has to give up the all egoistic thoughts of self, beginning with a small section of one's personality, with qualities of minor importance, with small weaknesses one clearly sees, and gradually works up to those emotions and aversions which one regards as the center of one's being. Thus it is necessary to practice detachment for developing equanimity.
The stance of equanimity in us is proportionate to the degree we forsake thoughts of mine or self. For how can anything we realize to be foreign and void of a self, cause us agitation due to lust, hatred or grief? Thus the teaching of no-self will be our guide on the path to deliverance, to perfect equanimity.
Equanimity is the crown and culmination of the other three sublime states. But this should not be understood to mean that equanimity is the negation of love, compassion and sympathetic joy, or that it leaves them behind as inferior. Far from that, equanimity includes and pervades them fully, just as they fully pervade perfect equanimity.
Equanimity is generally and wrongly understood as indifference particularly when we meet it, out to people who are ignorant and disturb the society. Here, the practitioner seems indifferent and makes efforts for removal of the foolishness. Equanimity is
141 The Buddha and his teaching by Narada Thera-pg.511-www.buddha.net
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towards all the beings of the universe accepted as one and similar. The practitioner takes all beings, as equal in nature and spirit and does not develop any sense of discrimination.
Equanimity has to be developed only after attaining the third jhāna and on the basis of first three states i.e. mettā , karuṇā and muditā. In doing so, we begin by thinking of the disadvantage or danger of the first three Brahmavihāras and practice Equanimity towards a neutral person, dear person, boon companion and an enemy. When we are able to have the same attitude towards ourself and the rest, we attain to the fourth jhāna associated with equanimity and concentration.
Upekkhā is one of the positive virtues that is cultivated in order to prevent oneself from over-excitement in success and failure. Purity of mind comes through equanimity of thought, upekkhāsati-pari-suddhi, which comes of disinterestedness.142 ‘For the mindfulness in this jhāna is quite purified and its purification is effected by equanimity, not by anything else.’143
Acharya Buddhagosa says, “Specific neutrality (tatra-majjhattatá—lit. “neutrality in regard thereto”) is neutrality (majjhattatá) in regard to those states [of consciousness and consciousness-concomitants arisen in association with it]. It has the characteristic of conveying consciousness and consciousness-concomitants evenly. Its function is to prevent deficiency and excess, or its function is to inhibit partiality. It is manifested as neutrality. It should be regarded as like a conductor (driver) who looks with equanimity on thoroughbreds progressing evenly.”144
“Tatramajjhattatā- tatra means there i.e. with respect to object and majjhattā means middleness that is equipoise. Impartial view of object is its chief characteristic. It is compared to a charioteer who views equally a pair of well-trained horses. Tatramajjhattatā and Upekkhā (equanimity) are sometimes used as synymous terms. It is this Tatramajjhattatā that is regarded as Upekkhā of the four illimitables. Hence Upekkhā does not occur amongst the illimitables. It is this Tatramajjhattatā that is raised to the dignity of a bojjhaṅga, one of the seven factors of enlightenment. Tatramajjhattatā has also to be distinguished from hedonic Upekkhā or indifference. At times both these mental states simultaneously arise in the same consciousness i.e in
142 D.i.38;251; Vism.165. 143 Vism.136 144 PP.474
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all Upekkhā sahagata kusala citta. This Tatramajjhattatā is regarded both as an intellectual and ethical Upekkhā.”145 When we have no lobho, dosa, etc. and we are even-minded, impartial towards all beings, there is Tatramajjhattatā or in other words there in the middleness.
14.4.4. Persons towards whom Upekkhā is not to be developed:
Dearly loved, un-beloved or neutral persons should not be taken up first in radiating Upekkhā.
14.4.5 Person towards whom Upekkhā is to be developed:
The development of Upekkhā should start with a neutral person for there is neither love nor hate and from here proceed to the other types of persons viz. dear person, boon companion (intimate friend) and hostile person (enemy). Finally, it is to be radiated towards oneself. One should cultivate that sign, develop and repeatedly practise it. For one who has already obtained triple jhāna in mettā , karuṇā and muditā, while developing upekkhābhāvanā, the fourth jhāna is achieved towards all above persons. While radiating this towards an enemy anger may arise in him; it must be subdued in the manner prescribed in Loving-kindness (mettā ). Only after suppressing the anger, one should be able to contemplate with a feeling of equanimity holding the mind equally balanced. The fourth jhāna arises only in one in whom, the third jhāna has arisen on the basis of Loving-kindness, etc. because the object is similar.
The eleven benefits as described in mettā is same for karuṇā, muditā and Upekkhā also.
14.4.6 Characteristics of Upekkhā:
Upekkhā has the four characteristic. They are:146
i. Promoting the aspect of neutrality towards beings.
ii. Seeing the equality in beings. iii. Quieting of resentment and approval, and
145 MoA.131-132 146 PP.312;PoP.366
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iv. Seeing the ownership of deeds (kamma) of beings are the property of kamma.
The perfection of Upekkhā lies in the suppressing of hatred and of sycophancy; its failure is the production of a profane and unintelligent indifference.
14.4.7 Enemies of Upekkhā:
There are two enemies of Upekkhā (near and far). The near enemy of Upekkhā is ignorant indifference (aññāṇ’Upekkhā) and the far enemy is greed and resentment (rāga,paṭigha) because they are dissimilar in nature. When we want a particular thing in a particular way, it is attachment and when we are indifferent we are detached from the way things are. It is the quality of lack of concern that pretends not to care.
In Salayatanavibhanga sutta147 mentions Gehasita Upekkhā and Nekkhammassita Upekkhā.
1) Gehasita Upekkhā: Geha means house of senses arises from six sense doors called unwholesome Upekkhā and is ignorant and confused persons who feel joy at the sight of a pleasant object, sorrow at the sight of an unpleasant object. But also have indifferent feeling that is neither good nor bad at the sight of a person or an object that we see every day. For example, our feeling is neither pleasant nor unpleasant when we see a tree or a rock. This state of consciousness is to be found among common people (Puthujjana) who lack of mindfulness, remain unaware of Anicca, Dukkha and Anatta. In other words, the common people (Puthujjana) do not outgrow the phenomenal or the sensual world and remains blind to its real nature of impermanence and so forth.
2) Nekkhammassita-Upekkhā :In contrast to unwholesome Upekkhā, it is termed renunciation oriented Upekkhā . It is also of six kinds depending on the six senses. Being mindful of the passing away of all sense-objects, the meditator realizes that every phenomenon is subject to impermanence, suffering and dissolution. In the meditation practice, one who is mindful has developed concentration, and realizes that everything arises is only to pass away instantly. This insight into the realty of the universe leads to equanimity (Upekkhā), which helps him to outgrow the sensual world and free himself from attachments. In short, Gehassita is to be avoided and connecting with Nekkhammassita is to be observed.
147 MN.iii.219
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Buddha says in Mahārāhulavāda sutta when you are developing the meditation of equanimity, anger (paṭigha) will be abandoned.148
As the Buddha said, ‘According to the seed that’s sown, so is the fruit reaped therefrom; the doer of good reaps good; the doer of evil reaps evil.’ Hence, one should take an indifferent attitude with equanimity which means may all beings be having their individual kamma, either good or bad, depending upon their own actions done in the past as well as present which cause to bring happiness (sukha) or misery (dukkha), as the case may be and these actions bear fruits as resultant effects, which they have inherited according to the law of kamma.
14.4.8 The Method of Developing 132 Kinds of Upekkhā:149
The manner of developing upekkhābhavanā as given below, is the same as of Muditā bhāvanā as mentioned earlier. Upekkhā in the Generalised way (Anodisha Upekkhā) is cultivated in 5 ways; in the Specified Radiation (Odhisa Upekkhā) in 7 ways; and through Directional Radiation (disapharana Upekkhā) in 10 ways. The only difference is in the aspiration, which here is, “All beings have deeds kamma as their own property.”
The 5 Generalised Ways when added to the 7 Specialized ways becomes 12 ways. These 12 ways each applied to the 10 regions amounts totally to 120 Ways. When we add to these 120 ways, the 12 kinds of odhisa-anodhisa, it will come to a total of 132 kinds of Upekkhā. That is why all kinds of developing of Upekkhā are total 132 aspirations (12+120 = 132).150
14.4.9 Ten Kinds of Upekkhā:
There are ten kinds of Upekkhā as listed below: i) Chalaṅgupekkhā – Six factored Equanimity - an unbiased response, free of attachment and aversion towards pleasant/unpleasant sense objects, experienced through six sense organs.
148 MN.i.424- MahaRahulovada sutta 149 GoB.vol.i.341 150 Please Refer Annexure-IV for details.
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ii) Brahmavihārupekkhā – Equanimity as divine abiding. It is socially directed meditative state of mind, which is equally radiated towards all beings, extending love to all with no likes and no dislikes. It is the mode of neutrality towards beings. iii) Bojjhaṅgupekkhā – Equanimity as an enlightenment factor, the balanced frame of mind developed in practicing the path to liberation. It is the mode of neutrality in conscient states. iv) Vīriyupekkhā – Equanimity of Energy. It is the name for the equanimity otherwise known as neither over-strenuous nor over-lax energy described thus: ‘from time to time he brings to mind the sign ‘of equanimity’. v) Saṅkhārupekkhā- Equanimity about formations. It is an equanimity with regard to all kinds of wisdom necessary for the attainment of the paths. Or, it signifies the wisdom which looks with detached indifference upon the phenomenon, that comes within its view, free from clinging. vi) Vedanupekkhā- It is the feeling of equanimity. It is equanimity with regard to feelings, which are neither pleasant nor painful (adukhhamasukhā vedanā), which are distinctly felt on the body. It is a hedonic kind of upekkhā consisting in neutral feeling, i.e., feeling which is neither painful nor pleasant(adukkhamasukha). It belongs to the aggregate of feelings (vedanakkhandha). vii) Vippassanupekkhā– Equanimity about Insight. It is the state of equanimity of mind towards what has been seen with insight knowledge. viii) Tatramajjhattupekkhā– It is a combination of two words ‘tatra’ means there ‘majjhattata’ means impartiality, balance of mind. It is even-minded equanimity. It is the quality of mind that is balanced in the middle. It is this tatramajjhattupekkhā which may eventually be raised to the dignity of a factor of enlightenment.
Acharya Buddhagosa says, the object which is experienced is viewed with impartiality and neutrality, just as a charioteer treats with impartiality his well-
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trained horses. This is how he looks on at the mind with equanimity on an occasion when it should be looked on at with equanimity.151
ix) Jhānuppekkhā– Equanimity of Jhāna. Equanimity with regard to the impermanency of objects. Equanimity producing impartiality towards even the highest bliss described thus: he dwells in equanimity. This state is attained at the third jhāna where the initial application of mind, vittaka, and vikāra end.
x) Parisuddhiupekkhā–Equanimity of Purification. Equanimity of the fourth jhāna purified of all obstructions with regard to everything that takes one to emancipation.
As the same person may be a prince, young man, the first-born, a general, and a king, so all the Upekkhā may be possessed at the same time; they have different characteristics, but all partake of one nature. There may be the first Upekkhā without the second, but the second is never possessed without the first.
One of the characteristics of Upekkhā is the viewing things with equanimity. The attitude of Upekkhā keeps a balanced state of mind in happiness (sukha) and suffering (dukkha).
14.4.10 UPEKKHĀ AS PARAMITA:
Upekkhāpārami - Perfection of Equanimity. If one does the task, with composure, unperturbed or unmoved by praise or threats but keeping his mind steadfastly on the work in hand, it is the fulfilling of the perfection of equanimity (Upekkhā pāramī). It is believed that the Noble beings (Bodhisattas), in daily life, perform these [Dāna, generosity, Sīla: virtue, morality, proper conduct Nekkhamma: renunciation, Paññā: transcendental wisdom, insight, Vīriya: energy, diligence, vigour, effort, Khanti: patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance, Sacca: truthfulness, honesty, Adhiṭṭhāna: determination, resolution, Mettā : loving-kindness and Upekkhā: equanimity, serenity] of task for the welfare of the world. Those great men bent on renunciation, detached from all the planes of being, plow their course for the good of the world, striving to fulfill the pāramīs.
151 PP-129
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Equanimity has the characteristic of promoting the aspect of neutrality; its function is to see things impartially; its manifestation is the subsiding of attraction and repulsion: its proximate cause is reflection upon the fact that all beings inherit the results of their own kamma. One can contemplate, ‘May I be humble, calm, quiet, unruffled and serene (Upekkhā parami)’.
In the absence of equanimity, on the face of negative situations, the mind gets disturbed and then no good deeds like dāna (generosity) can take place which are the requisites of Buddhahood. Only because of equanimity, beings can posses truthfulness and one can easily concentrate on patience (khanti), forbearance, etc.
“By remaining indifferent to the vicissitudes of life, one’s resolution to fulfill the paramis becomes firm and unshakeable.”152
Buddha taught Equanimity immediately after Loving-kindness due to the two following reasons: i) Buddha wishes to teach the wonderful attribute (of a Bodhisatta) that he can remain equanimous even towards those who show him good will. ii) Also, one who develops Loving-kindness without equanimity is liable to be deceived by craving or greed that wears the mask of Loving-kindness.153
Equanimity is a balanced state of mind both in pleasure and pain. It is a state of unbiased impartiality. Imperturbable balance is the serene, equi-poised, and placid manifestation of equanimity and is linked to awakening. Equanimity just looks on in calm, whenever new captivating phenomena arise and cease. This stable, yet plastic patience purifies all the other advantageous mental states. There are upekkhāupaparami and upekkhāparamatthaparami also which is not taken into consideration.
14.4.11 Upekkhā is one of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Bojjhaṅgas):
The term bojjhaṅga is composed of bodhi+aṅga. Bodhi denotes enlightenment; to be exact, insightful, concerned with the realization of the four Noble Truths. Aṅgas means factor or limb. Bodhi+ aṅga (bojjhaṅga), therefore, means the factor of
152 GoB.Vol.I.part.2.pg.50 153GoB.Vol.I.part.2.pg.11
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enlightenment, or the factor for insight, wisdom. There are seven such aṅgas (Pāli : satta bojjhaṅgā or satta sambojjhaṅgā; Skt.: sapta bodhyanga) as follows:154
(i) Mindfulness (sati);
(ii) Investigation into the law of truth (Dhammavicaya);
(iii) Energy (Viriya);
(iv) Rapture (Pīti);
(v) Tranquility (Passaddhi);
(vi) Concentration (Samādhi);
(vii) Equanimity(Upekkhā).155
Buddha says “bojjhaṅgās contribute to enlightenment, monk, that is why they are so called.”156
Thus, Upekkhā is one of the seven factors of enlightenment. It takes one towards enlightenment and it is characteristic of one who is enlightened. Buddha says, “monks mindfulness of breathing when developed and practised for a longer period, perfects the four foundations of mindfulness. The four foundations of mindfulness when developed and much practised, perfect the seven enlightenment factors, and the seven enlightenment factors when developed and much practised lead to clear vision and liberation”157. Equanimity is the seventh constituent of enlightenment. It also means one and the same attitude of mind, towards all thoughts. Equanimity is the result of a calm, concentrative mind.
The seven factors of enlightenment can be developed and perfected through the practice of four foundations of mindfulness (kāyānupassanā; vedanānupassanā; cittānupassanā; and dhammānupassanā) and through the development of seven factors of enlightenment, enlightenment is attained.
154 SN.v.112 155D.iii.251;282;Vbh.277 156Bodhāya saṃvaṭṭanīti kho bhikkhu tasmā bojjhaṅgā ti vuccanti.-SN.v.72 157Anapanasati bhikkhave bhavita bahulikata cattaro satipatthane paripurenti Cattaro satipatthana bhavita bahulikata satta bojjhange paripurenti.Satta bojjhanga bhavita bahulikata vijja vimuttim paripurenti.-Anapanasati Sutta, MN.118; SN.v.328
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Non-wavering in the midst of experience, is an attitude of an Arahat, the enlightened one. The subject recommended in samatha meditation, for its effectiveness in clearing the mind of wandering thoughts, is mindfulness on breathing, which can therefore be suggested as the subject most suitable for beginners as well as experienced, seeking a direct approach to deep concentration i.e. Samādhi. The Buddha himself used to practise meditation on breathing for His attainment. It is the best type of tranquility meditation to practise and subdue the restless mind. Having eradicated the five hindrances and the latent defilements (anusaya klesas), one can gain jhāna and develop higher knowledge called abhiñña.
A meditator who has attained and mastered the fourth jhāna is sometimes shown to attain certain kinds of supernormal knowledge. These modes of higher knowledge are presented in different sets of varying number, in the texts. Some suttas mention three-fold knowledge called (tevijja)158 some suttas mention five kinds of direct knowledge (pañcabiññā)159. Some other suttas extend upto six (chalangabhiññā).160 Two more Abhiññās are there which are not named by Buddha. The Eighth Abhiññā are important as far as Brahma World is concerned. The abhiññās are :
i) The knowledge of the modes of supernormal power (iddhividhañāṇa),
ii) The divine ear element (dibbasotadhātuñāṇa),
iii) The knowledge of others’ minds (cetopariyayañāṇa),
iv) The knowledge of recollecting previous lives (pubbenivāsanussatiñāṇa),
v) The divine Eye (dibbacakkhu)-the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings (catupapātñāṇa),
vi) The knowledge of the destruction of the cankers (āsavakkhayañāṇa),
vii) Touching and stroking the sun and moon with one’s hand,161
viii) The last of the powers is exercising bodily mastery as far as Brahma world.162
158 AN.i.163-65 159 SN.ii.216 160 DN.iii.281 161 Ime pi candima- suriya evam mahiddhike evam mahanubhave panina parimasati parimajjhati- DN.i.78-samannaphala sutta ;DN.i.213-kevaddha sutta; PoS -127 162 Yava Brahma-loka pi kayena va samvatteti- DN.i.78-samannaphala sutta;DN.i.213-kevaddha sutta;PoS. 127
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In this case, the first five are called mundane modes of direct knowledge(lokiya abhiññā) and the sixth one is supramundane direct knowledge (lokuttara abhiññā). Also some suttas present a set of eight modes of higher knowledge, with no special names including above six.163 The abhiññās, do not come easily, they require a prior firm resolution and determinate effort on the part of the meditator. Buddha says, when the meditator’s mind is concentrated and purified “he directs, he inclines his mind to the kinds of supernormal powers.”164
Having attained the basic jhāna, the meditator who wants to go to the Brahma-world can resolve upon it as near and it becomes as he wishes. He can make the near become distant, the many become few, and the few become many. He can see the Brahma’s form with his divine sight, hear the Brahma’s voice with his divine ear, and know the Brahma’s mind with his power of thought reading. He can travel to the Brahma world with a visible or invisible body and perform many feats of psychic power in the presence of Brahma.165
Acharya Buddhagosa in Visuddhimagga says, “there is yet another aspect of equanimity, which is six-fold equanimity, and is actually the equanimity which has reached completion at the attainment of arahatship. Herein, six-factored equanimity is a name for the equanimity, in one, whose cankers are destroyed. It is the mode of non-abandonment of the natural state of purity, when desirable or undesirable objects of the six kinds come into focus in the six doors.”166 Angutaraya Nikāya says,"bhikkhu whose cankers are destroyed is neither glad nor sad on seeing a visible object with the eye: he dwells in equanimity, mindful and fully aware." 167
The meditator develops the equanimity enlightenment factor, depending on the relinquishment. There are two types of relinquishment “relinquishment as giving up” and “relinquishment as entering into” (i) it is the giving up of all defilements and (ii)also the inclination to or entering into Nibbāna.168 When right understanding sees the unsatisfactoriness of all conditioned realities, which arise and then fall away, there will be indifference towards them.
163 DN.i.76-77 164 Iddhividhaya cittam abhiniharati abhininnameti-DN.i.77-78; PoS.124 165 PoS.127; Vism..331-332; Pts.387-388 166 PP-152 167 AN.iii.279;PP.152 168 PP-284, 671; AN.iii.279
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Buddha says, “Equanimity as a factor for Awakening rightly taught by me, when developed and pursued, leads to direct knowledge, to self-Awakening, to Unbinding. Also, the seven factors for Awakening rightly taught by me that when developed and pursued lead to direct knowledge, to self-Awakening, to Unbinding."169
Brahmavihāra is practised by non-buddhists also. Buddha explains that all who succeed in cultivating (bhāvanā) the Brahmavihāra, irrespective of their sectarian faithfulness, qualify for rebirth as spontaneously born ones (opapātika)170 in one of the heavens.171
Summary
This chapter has dealt in detail with the four Brahmavihāras: mettā , karuṇā, muditā and Upekkhā. It has elaborated upon the etymological meaning of the terms representing these Brahmavihāras. It has explained the general meaning of the terms. It has explained how it should be practised; in what order should these bhāvanā of Brahmavihāras be radiated (to what type of people and in what order). It has explained associated concepts as regards these four Brahmavihāras and Buddha-s own sayings pertaining to these four Brahmavihāras as found in various texts.
There are two types of meditation as explained in this chapter- Samatha meditation (tranquility meditation) and Vipassanā meditation (insight meditation). Out of the various subjects (40 in number) fit for Samatha meditation, Brahmavihāras comprise of one of the four subjects of meditation. Adopting the attitude as entailed in Brahmavihāras, leads to a conflict-free and tranquil state of mind, which can then move towards Insight Meditation. The Brahmavihāras are not only thus useful as tools of meditation, their adoption in day to day life brings about a harmonious personal and social life. Given below is a simple table showing two critical aspects of Brahmavihāras: their meanings and their enemies or pitfalls. The psychologist par- excellence that Buddha was, he envisaged experientially the obstacles that will come on the path of a practitioner of the Brahmavihāras. These obstacles will prevent one from following the Brahmavihāras and also will not fetch the necessary results. The
169 SN.v.79 Gilana sutta 170 Opapatika is the one who is reborn without nativity (parents), it applies to devas. Spontaneous rebirth. 171 AN.ii.128-30; SN.v.115-21
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enemies or pitfalls are more of the nature of attitude and mental effects rather than physical. The bhāvanā of Brahmavihāras have to be practised in their purity. Brahma Vihāra Meaning Enemies Mettā Loving-kindness Near enemy: Greed / Lust Far enemy: Ill-will / hatred Karuṇā Compassion Near enemy: Grief Far enemy: Cruelty Muditā Sympathetic Joy Near enemy: Joy / merriment Far enemy: aversion / jealousy Upekkhā Equanimity Near enemy: ignorant indifference Far enemy: greed and resentment
The Buddha’s social philosophy is relevant even today. The inter-relationship of man and society is accepted in Buddhism. The five precepts (pañca sīla) and four sublime abodes i.e. Brahmavihāras are the social ethics in Buddhist philosophy. Brahamavihāras (mettā , karuṇā, muditā and upekkhā) or sublime abodes form the most important teaching in Buddhism for the worldlings. These are the mental attitudes to be developed in relation to self and others in society. These are meaningful only in the context of society as a whole. These four Brahmavihāras are the guiding principle of individual evolution and social harmony.
Brahmavihāras act as a soothing balm to those still within the cycle of birth and death. Besides this, they help to overcome anger and stress and emphasize on the importance of patience. They help to build up the required concentration base for the development of insight, because with mettā , our mind concentrates rapidly. A healthy relationship with every living being is so very important for a happy family, society and the world. Mettā bhāvanā is something that should be practised to some degree, by everyone. Without it not only one tends to fail in social and personal relationships, but is also at a great disadvantage when involved in spiritual practice. Mettā bhāvanā is more inclusive because it is practised towards all beings whereas karuṇā, muditā and upekkhā are only towards the happy/ prosperous, the suffering and opposites of success-failure, good-bad, etc. respectively.
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In the Buddhist system, the Brahmavihāra together with higher meditation tends to Nibbāna (Nirvāna) as the ultimate goal; but if they are not developed to the height of perfection, then the immediate result is at least the attainment of the Brahma world(loka). But Buddha says even the Brahma loka is impermanent and not lasting (Brahmaloka pi annico)172. A man should raise his mind above the Brahmaloka; he should fix it on cessation of āsavas (influx, defilement, taints, canker or intoxification).
The most primordial of these fundamental defilements are called the āsavas, inadequately translated as taints. They are fully eradicated only with the attainment of arahantship, and thus the fruit of arahantship is described as the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom achieved with the destruction of the taints.
Samatha concentration plays a great role to make the mind calm and tranquil so as to enable one to practise vipassanā so that one destroys all his āsava-s ultimately and becomes free from the cycle of birth and death. There are four types of āsava,173 the influx (i) The defilement of sense-desire (kāmasava), (ii) The defilement of becoming (bhāvāsava), (iii) The defilement of wrong views (diṭṭthiāsava), (iv) The defilement of Ignorance (avijjāsava). “Buddha says that beings having seen through paññā their āsava-s are totally destroyed which is to say that they are arahants.”174
S.Radhakrishnan (1950) says, “Not only by disciplined conduct and vows, not only by much learning, nor moreover by the attainment of meditative calm nor by sleeping solitary, do I reach the happiness of release which no worldling can attain. O mendicant, do not be confident (rest not content) so long as, you have not reached the extinction of impurities.”175
After attainment of the fourth jhāna a meditator attains one of the power of bodily mastery as far as Brahma world is concerned. He can see the brahma world with his divine eye, hear Brahma voice with divine ear, he can travel to the brahma world with the visible or invisible body etc.
In Buddhist philosophy, to be morally good means to be balanced, rational, moral, emotional, enlightened, thoughtful and compassionate. This is the reason the Buddha
172 SN.v.410 173AN.iii.410-Nibeddhika sutta;BoA.484 174 MN.i.477-478-kitagirisuttam. 175Dhp.271-272.pgs. 143-144
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during his whole monastic life has stressed, on the observance of Kusala dhammas with the essence of mettā , karunā, muditā and Upekkhā. These four sublime ways of life along with the moral teaching in the form of Pañcasīla are the real backbone of Buddhist ethics.
The cultivation of Loving-kindness, ‘mettā bhāvanā, is a popular form of meditation in the Theravada Buddhist tradition. The three divine abidings of Loving-kindness (mettā ), compassion (karuṇā) and altruistic joy (muditā) will lead to the stages of three lower jhānas when those who have through the contemplation of any of these three, already attained the stage of third jhāna will also attain the fourth jhāna by carrying out the contemplation of the fourth divine abiding of Equanimity (Upekkhā). Those who have through the contemplation of the ten devices attained the stage of four material absorptions (rūpajhāna), will attain the respective stages of four immaterial absorptions (arūpajhānas) by carrying out in serial order the contemplation of four immaterial subjects.
“It is not really necessary to develop Loving-kindness to the absorption level, but it can be useful for the meditator to be familiar with the absorption factors, as some of them will arise during vipassanā meditation as well. And being familiar with the concentration effects, the pure vipassanā meditator is less likely to get attached to them when they arise.”176
Thus, is the critical significance of Brahmavihāras in Buddhism.
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176 The vipassana retreat by Ven. Punnavaro-pg 57
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