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Uvic Thesis Template Granaries and the Grain Supply of Roman Frontier Forts: Case Studies in Local Grain Production from Hauarra (Jordan), Vindolanda (Britain), and Vindonissa (Switzerland) by Kelsey Marie Koon B.A., Queen’s University, 2010 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Greek and Roman Studies Kelsey Marie Koon, University of Victoria 2012 All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee Granaries and the Grain Supply of Roman Frontier Forts: Case Studies in Local Grain Production from Hauarra (Jordan), Vindolanda (Britain), and Vindonissa (Switzerland) by Kelsey Marie Koon B.A., Queen’s University, 2010 Supervisory Committee Dr. John P. Oleson (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Supervisor Dr. J. Geoffrey Kron (Department of Greek and Roman Studies) Departmental Member iii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. John P. Oleson, Department of Greek and Roman Studies Supervisor Dr. J. Geoffrey Kron, Department of Greek and Roman Studies Departmental Member This thesis addresses the question of whether Roman military garrisons on the frontiers of the Empire could sustain their annual supplies of grain from the local countryside; and if they could, to what extent. The paper examines first the general diet of a Roman soldier and the administrative and logistical system by which the military was supplied with its required foodstuffs. Three case studies of specific forts: Hauarra in present-day Jordan, Vindolanda in present-day Britain, and Vindonissa in present-day Switzerland, based on the surviving granary structures of the forts and on the theoretical grain yields of the area, show that it was possible for these forts to supply themselves with their annual requirements of grain from the local area, without recourse to costly importation. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. vi Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: The Military Diet ........................................................................................ 10 Men ............................................................................................................................... 10 Animals ......................................................................................................................... 16 Water ............................................................................................................................. 21 Chapter Two: The Military Grain Supply ......................................................................... 25 Production: Growth, Yield, and Harvest ....................................................................... 25 Provisioning: Officials and Infrastructure .................................................................... 34 Distribution: Transport and Storage.............................................................................. 50 Allocation: A Soldier’s Rations .................................................................................... 59 Chapter Three: The Fort at Hauarra (Humayma) ............................................................. 66 Granary Structure .......................................................................................................... 67 Local Grain Production ................................................................................................. 74 External Sources of Food .............................................................................................. 85 Chapter Four: The Fort at Vindolanda (Chesterholm) ...................................................... 90 Granary Structure .......................................................................................................... 93 Local Grain Production ................................................................................................. 97 External Sources of Grain ........................................................................................... 106 Chapter Five: The Fort at Vindonissa (Windisch) .......................................................... 111 Granary Structure ........................................................................................................ 112 Local Grain Production ............................................................................................... 118 External Sources of Food ............................................................................................ 125 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 129 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 135 Appendix A: Total Annual Requirements of Grain for Hauarra, Vindolanda, and Vindonissa....................................................................................................................... 144 Appendix B: Transportation Costs to Hauarra, Vindolanda, and Vindonissa ................ 147 Appendix C: Total Arable Land Requirements for Hauarra, Vindolanda, and Vindonissa ......................................................................................................................................... 148 v List of Tables Table 1: Monthly Grain Rations According to Polybius .................................................. 34 Table 2: Monthly Grain Rations in Kilograms ................................................................. 35 Table 3: Total Number of Auxiliary Units ....................................................................... 38 Table 4: Total Numbers of Cavalry Horses ...................................................................... 39 Table 5: Total Numbers of Military Mules ....................................................................... 41 Table 6: Annual Requirements of Grain for Hauarra (Metric Tons) .............................. 144 Table 7: Annual Grain Requirements for Vindolanda (Metric Tons)............................. 145 Table 8: Annual Requirements of Grain for Vindonissa (Metric Tons) ......................... 146 Table 9: Summary of Minimum and Maximum Transportation Costs........................... 147 vi Acknowledgments I would like to gratefully acknowledge my supervisor, Dr. John Oleson, for his guidance and advice in the preparation of this thesis. His academic expertise, patience, and assistance have been invaluable. I would also like to thank Dr. Geoffrey Kron for his contributions, and my external examiner, Dr. Marcus Milwright. I am grateful to the staff of the McPherson Library for providing the research materials upon which I relied for the preparation of this thesis, and for their efforts in locating the ones which were not immediately on hand. I also wish to thank Sonja Bermingham for all her help with administrative matters during the course of my degree. I would also like to acknowledge the support of my fellow graduate students both past and present, whose friendship and camaraderie have consistently brightened my days in the graduate student office. I am also grateful for the inspirational example of Mr. Chester Tylinski of Northside College Preparatory High School in Chicago, for his passionate commitment to teaching and for the engaging and supportive learning community he crafted for his students; both of which have motivated me to pursue my own career in academics. Most importantly, I am indebted to my parents, Rob and Jean Marie Koon, without whose love, commitment, teaching, and encouragement this thesis would not exist. Thank you everyone, very much. Introduction Sicut fieri per omnes limites salubri prospectione praecipimus, species annonarias a vicinioribus limiti provincialibus ordinabis ad castra conferri. “Just as we, with beneficial foresight, have commanded to be done over all the frontiers, you shall arrange that the goods of the food supply be brought to the camps by the local people who are nearest to the border.” Cod. The. 7.4.15 The above edict, issued by the emperors Valentinian and Valens c. 369 A.D., is probably the most unambiguous reference to the Roman government supplying the army’s food from sources as close to the soldiers themselves as possible. The question of whether the Roman military garrisons of the frontiers could have relied upon local supplies of food, and if so, in what proportions, is a complicated one, made more so by the scarcity of direct evidence one way or the other. Studies of the imperial economy, such as those undertaken by Garnsey or Rickman,1 tend to concentrate on supplying civilians in the central Empire, or the city of Rome itself, rather than the peripheral areas where the majority of the
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