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Chapter 1 What Is a Computer CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER 1.1 Introduction It seems nowadays everyone has a computer or two and if not they are looking to buy one. The reasons people buy computers have become about as varied as the number of people buying them. We know computers can do a multitude of tasks, some to entertain, some more productive and some simply to pass the time. But just what is a computer? 1.2 What is a computer? A computer is an electronic machine that takes in data and instructions (input), works with the data (processing) and puts out information (output). This definition is further explained as follows: Computers are made of hardware: · input devices such as the keyboard and mouse · the central processing unit (CPU) and memory · storage devices such as hard drives · output devices such as printers and monitors And software (the instructions that tell the computer what to do): · system software · Programs (application software). A computer is a general-purpose machine that processes data according to a set of instructions that are stored internally either temporarily or permanently. The computer and all equipment attached to it are the hardware. The instructions that tell it what to do are the software. A set of instructions that perform a particular task is called a program or software program. 1.3 Generations of Computers The computer has experienced five generations, with the fifth generation still very much in development. · First Generation · Second Generation · Third Generation · Fourth Generation · Fifth Generation 1.3.1 First Generation This generation of computers was developed at the University of Manchester, England. It was described as a vacuum tube-based electronic computer. The Univac 1 in 1951 was one of the earliest versions. 2 CHAPTER 1 'Machine language' or 'machine code' was the first generation of computer languages. The first machine code involved inputting a sequence of binary numbers directly into the program memory through simple toggle switches. The vacuum tube equivalent of a transistor This method of 0 and 1 programming was very laborious. With the introduction of keyboards, individual letters could represent single instructions. Although this saved time the code was not easy to understand and so other methods of programming were needed. New 'higher level' programming languages have developed. 1.3.2 Second Generation The second generation of computers used solid state components to replace vacuum tubes. The reduction of cost and size was made possible by the development of transistors. They originated in the late 1950s. Assembly Language formed the second generation of computer languages. Assembly makes use of a list of simple operations that a computer can perform. These operations are contained within the Instruction Set. The basic Instruction Set includes several types of instructions written using short words called 'Mnemonics' which are recognizable abbreviated versions of English words. A solid state transistor 1.3.3 Third Generation In this generation, integrated circuits replaced several individually wired transistors. This development provided computers that were smaller and more reliable. These originated in the early 1960s. The languages that proceeded this generation were referred to as 'low-level' languages. Third generation languages were the first ones to be referred to as 'high-level' languages. The benefits of this generation of languages are: 1. It became less time consuming to produce code and, as a result, less costly to produce programs. 2. Programmers did not have to familiarize them selves with the internal architecture of the computer, making programming available to a wider range of individuals. Programming Languages classified in this generation were... · FORTRAN · C · BASIC · COBOL 1.3.4 Fourth Generation This generation of computers is founded on microprocessors. Fourth generation computers have been made readily available to us because of the development of the microchip. Large-scale integration technology allowed thousands of transistors to be constructed on one small slice of silicon material. This technology originated in the mid 1970s. The majority of computers you will come into contact with today are of this generation. A modern microchip WHAT IS A COMPUTER 3 The increasing use of computers in business led to the need for the development of new programming methods that could quickly satisfy the needs of users. General areas that had to be addressed included: · the need to speed up the software development process · the need for user friendly programming languages enabling less technical people to become involved in the programming process 1.3.5 Fifth Generation This generation of computers represents a unification of four separate areas of research: · knowledge-based expert systems · very high-level programming languages · decentralized computing · Very Large-Scale Integration technology (VLSI). Computers of this generation make use of parallel processing and they are capable of performing multiple, simultaneous instructions using more than one micro processing chip. Fifth generation languages are normally associated with the field of artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence, built up through logic programming, models a real world environment or situation. Artificial intelligence aims to support flexible and informed patterns of behavior within a computer The main contenders within the fifth generation language category are: · Prolog 2 · Expert Systems · Knowledge Based Systems 1.4 Range of Computers There are several ranges of computers in use today: 1. embedded system computers 2. microcomputers 3. minicomputers 4. mainframe computers 5. supercomputers 1.4.1 Embedded Systems RANGE: Embedded systems contain microprocessors pre- programmed to perform a dedicated task required by the device they control. APPLICATION: Examples are dedicated word-processing machines, chips in washing machines, laser printers and hand held calculators. PRICE: Prices depend on the application washing machine uses pre-programmed microchips 4 CHAPTER 1 1.4.2 Microcomputers RANGE: Microcomputers use single chip processors and are known as PCs (personal computers). APPLICATION: The rapid increase in the speed and memory of the PC has extended its use from single applications to multi- tasking applications. The general trend has been to have several PCs linked together in a network in order to share peripherals such as printers. This practice is reducing the popularity of mini- computers and mainframes. PRICE: between $700 - $2000 A personal computer 1.4.3 Minicomputers RANGE: These perform multi-tasking and allow many terminals to be connected to their services. APPLICATION: The ability to connect minicomputers to each other and mainframes has popularized them among larger businesses. This use is being challenged by the developments in the microcomputer range and the practice of sharing resources of microcomputers under a network. Minicomputers are still recognized as being able to process large amounts of data. PRICE: between $15,000 - $150,000 A VAX minicomputer 1.4.4 Mainframe Computers RANGE: Mainframe computers are large general purpose computers. APPLICATION: Mainframe computers generally require special attention and are kept in a controlled atmosphere. They are multi-tasking and generally used in areas where large databases are maintained e.g. government departments and the airline industry. PRICE: $ millions A ViON mainframe computer manufactured by Hitachi* 1.4.5 Supercomputers RANGE: Supercomputers operate very fast and have multiple processors. There are very few of these machines in existence due to their cost. APPLICATION: This type of computer has been developed for scientific applications usually involving complex arithmetic and mathematical operations. One such use is in weather forecasting. PRICE: $ millions A CRAY T90 Series supercomputer* 1.5 Basic Computer System A digital computer is not actually a single machine, in the sense that most people think of computers. Instead it is a system composed of five distinct elements: (1) a central processing unit (2) input devices (3) memory storage devices (4) output devices (5) A communications network, called a "bus," that links all the elements of the system and connects the system to the external world. WHAT IS A COMPUTER 5 1.5.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical calculations and that time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Miniaturization and integration techniques made possible the development of a CPU chip called a microprocessor, which incorporates additional circuitry and memory. The result is smaller computers and reduced support circuitry. Microprocessors are used in most of today's personal computers. Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections: (1) an arithmetic/logic unit (2) registers; (3) a control section (4) an internal bus. Units of a processor chip (CPU) The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical operations and comparisons of data. Registers The CPU also contains a small high speed memory which is used to store temporary results and control information. This memory consists of a number of registers, each performing a specific function. · Accumulators - serve the purpose of holding data used in calculations. · Address Registers - are used for storing the memory location of data or instructions
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