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Principles of Solar Cells, Leds, and Diodes : the Role of the PN Junction / Adrian Kitai

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Principles of Solar Cells, Leds, and Diodes : the Role of the PN Junction / Adrian Kitai RED BOX RULES ARE FOR PROOF STAGE ONLY. DELETE BEFORE FINAL PRINTING. Principles KITAI Principles of Solar Cells, Solar Diodes and LEDs of Principles of Solar Cells, junction the PN of e role LEDs and Diodes e role of the PN junction ADRIAN KITAI, Departments of Engineering Physics and Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada A textbook introducing the physical concepts required for a comprehensive understanding of p-n junction devices, light emitting diodes and solar cells. Semiconductor devices have made a major impact on the way we work and live. Today semiconductor p-n junction diode devices are experiencing substantial growth: solar cells are used on an unprecedented scale in the renewable energy industry; and light emitting diodes (LEDs) are revolutionizing energy e cient lighting. ese two emerging industries based on p-n junctions make a signi cant contribution to the reduction in fossil fuel consumption. Principles of Solar Cells, LEDs and Diodes covers the two most important applications of semiconductor diodes - solar cells and LEDs - together with quantitative coverage of the physics of the p-n junction. e reader will gain a thorough understanding of p-n junctions as the text begins with semiconductor and junction device fundamentals and extends to the practical implementation of semiconductors in both Principles photovoltaic and LED devices. e treatment of a range of important semiconductor materials and device structures is also presented in a readable manner. Topics are divided into the following six chapters; of Solar Cells, • Semiconductor Physics • Th e PN Junction Diode • Photon Emission and Absorption • Th e Solar Cell LEDs and Diodes • Light Emitting Diodes • Organic Semiconductors, OLEDs and Solar Cells Containing student problems at the end of each chapter and worked example problems throughout, this e role of the PN junction textbook is intended for senior level undergraduate students doing courses in electrical engineering, physics and materials science. Researchers working on solar cells and LED devices, and those in the electronics industry would also bene t from the background information the book provides. ADRIAN KITAI P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come Principles of Solar Cells, LEDs and Diodes i P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come ii P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come Principles of Solar Cells, LEDs and Diodes The role of the PN junction ADRIAN KITAI Departments of Engineering Physics and Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication iii P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come This edition first published 2011 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kitai, Adrian, 1957– Principles of solar cells, LEDs, and diodes : the role of the PN junction / Adrian Kitai. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4443-1834-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-4443-1833-3 (paper) 1. Diodes, Semiconductor. 2. Light emitting diodes. 3. Semiconductors–Junctions. 4. Solar cells. I. Title. TK7871.86.K48 2011 621.38152–dc22 2011010956 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. HB ISBN: 9781444318340 PB ISBN: 9781444318333 ePDF ISBN: 9781119974550 oBook ISBN: 9781119974543 ePub ISBN: 9781119975236 eMobi ISBN: 9781119975243 Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India. Printed in Malaysia by Vivar Malaysia iv P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come Dedicated to my wife Tomoko v P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come vi P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come Contents Introduction xi Acknowledgements xv 1 Semiconductor Physics 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 The Band Theory of Solids 2 1.3 The Kronig–Penney Model 3 1.4 The Bragg Model 8 1.5 Effective Mass 8 1.6 Number of States in a Band 10 1.7 Band Filling 12 1.8 Fermi Energy and Holes 14 1.9 Carrier Concentration 15 1.10 Semiconductor Materials 25 1.11 Semiconductor Band Diagrams 26 1.12 Direct Gap and Indirect Gap Semiconductors 29 1.13 Extrinsic Semiconductors 35 1.14 Carrier Transport in Semiconductors 40 1.15 Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Dynamics 43 1.16 Carrier Diffusion and the Einstein Relation 45 1.17 Quasi-Fermi Energies 48 1.18 The Diffusion Equation 50 1.19 Traps and Carrier Lifetimes 53 1.20 Alloy Semiconductors 56 1.21 Summary 59 Suggestions for Further Reading 61 Problems 63 2 The PN Junction Diode 69 2.1 Introduction 70 2.2 Diode Current 72 2.3 Contact Potential 75 2.4 The Depletion Approximation 78 2.5 The Diode Equation 85 2.6 Reverse Breakdown and the Zener Diode 97 vii P1: TIX/XYZ P2: ABC JWST074-FM JWST074-Kitai July 7, 2011 13:50 Printer: Yet to come viii Contents 2.7 Tunnel Diodes 100 2.8 Generation/Recombination Currents 101 2.9 Ohmic Contacts, Schottky Barriers and Schottky Diodes 104 2.10 Heterojunctions 113 2.11 Alternating Current (AC) and Transient Behaviour 115 2.12 Summary 117 Suggestions for Further Reading 118 Problems 119 3 Photon Emission and Absorption 123 3.1 Introduction to Luminescence and Absorption 124 3.2 Physics of Light Emission 125 3.3 Simple Harmonic Radiator 128 3.4 Quantum Description 129 3.5 The Exciton 132 3.6 Two-Electron Atoms 135 3.7 Molecular Excitons 141 3.8 Band-to-Band Transitions 144 3.9 Photometric Units 148 3.10 Summary 152 Suggestions for Further Reading 153 Problems 155 4 The Solar Cell 159 4.1 Introduction 160 4.2 Light Absorption 162 4.3 Solar Radiation 164 4.4 Solar Cell Design and Analysis 164 4.5 Thin Solar Cells 172 4.6 Solar Cell Generation as a Function of Depth 176 4.7 Solar Cell Efficiency 179 4.8 Silicon Solar Cell Technology: Wafer Preparation 184 4.9 Silicon Solar Cell Technology: Solar Cell Finishing 187 4.10 Silicon Solar Cell Technology: Advanced Production Methods 191 4.11 Thin Film Solar Cells: Amorphous Silicon 192 4.12 Telluride/Selenide/Sulphide Thin-Film Solar Cells 199 4.13 High-Efficiency Multijunction Solar Cells 200 4.14 Concentrating Solar Systems 203 4.15 Summary 204 Suggestions for Further Reading 205 Problems 207 5 Light Emitting Diodes 215 5.1
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