DOCSLIB.ORG

A Review on Energy and Renewable Energy Policies in Iran

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

sustainability Review A Review on Energy and Renewable Energy Policies in Iran Saeed Solaymani Department of Economics, Faculty of Administration and Economics, Arak University, Arak 38156879, Iran; [email protected] or [email protected]; Tel.: +98-8632621000 Abstract: Iran, endowed with abundant renewable and non-renewable energy resources, particularly non-renewable resources, faces challenges such as air pollution, climate change and energy security. As a leading exporter and consumer of fossil fuels, it is also attempting to use renewable energy as part of its energy mix toward energy security and sustainability. Due to its favorable geographic char- acteristics, Iran has diverse and accessible renewable sources, which provide appropriate substitutes to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Therefore, this study aims to examine trends in energy demand, policies and development of renewable energies and the causal relationship between renewable and non-renewable energies and economic growth using two methodologies. This study first reviews the current state of energy and energy policies and then employs Granger causality analysis to test the relationships between the variables considered. Results showed that renewable energy technologies currently do not have a significant and adequate role in the energy supply of Iran. To encourage the use of renewable energy, especially in electricity production, fuel diversification policies and development program goals were introduced in the late 2000s and early 2010s. Diversifying energy resources is a key pillar of Iran’s new plan. In addition to solar and hydropower, biomass from the municipal waste from large cities and other agricultural products, including fruits, can be used to generate energy and renewable sources. While present policies indicate the incorporation of sustainable energy sources, further efforts are needed to offset the use of fossil fuels. Moreover, the Citation: Solaymani, S. A Review on study predicts that with the production capacity of agricultural products in 2018, approximately Energy and Renewable Energy 4.8 billion liters of bioethanol can be obtained from crop residues and about 526 thousand tons of Policies in Iran. Sustainability 2021, 13, biodiesel from oilseeds annually. Granger’s causality analysis also shows that there is a unidirectional 7328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ causal relationship between economic growth to renewable and non-renewable energy use. Labor su13137328 force and gross fixed capital formation cause renewable energy consumption, and nonrenewable energy consumption causes renewable energy consumption. Academic Editors: E. Richard Zada and Andrea Gatto Keywords: energy demand; renewable energy; biomass; energy policies Received: 18 May 2021 Accepted: 24 June 2021 Published: 30 June 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The close and high relationship between production growth and energy consumption with regard to jurisdictional claims in growth in the economy refers to the dependence of the economy on energy [1]. Thus, the published maps and institutional affil- economy is not only sensitive to energy supply and price shocks, but any initiative to iations. conserve energy can have an impact on the performance of the economy. Iran was recognized as a country with significant oil reservoirs in the world when it discovered the first oil well in the Middle East in 1908 at Masjid Solaiman. With the subsequent exploration and extraction of oil reserves, the Iranian economy, like the world economy, has increasingly become dependent on crude oil consumption and export revenue Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. for industrial growth. However, the dependency on oil has declined with time in Iran This article is an open access article as well as other countries due to the use of other energy sources, such as natural gas distributed under the terms and and renewable energies. For example, the share of oil consumption in total final energy conditions of the Creative Commons demand has declined significantly from 91% in 1980 to 43% in 2018 (Figure1). This led Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to increased use of natural gas in the country, from 7% in 1980 to 56% in 2018. While oil creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ consumption has declined and been substituted by natural gas, the share of oil in total 4.0/). consumption is still high and the use of renewable energy resources is low due to low Sustainability 2021, 13, 7328. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137328 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 Sustainability 2021, 13, 7328 2 of 23 consumption is still high and the use of renewable energy resources is low due to low production. The The share share of of renewable renewable energy energy consumption consumption in total in total final final energy energy demand demand de- clineddeclined from from 1.5% 1.5% in 1980 in 1980 to 0.58% to 0.58% in 2018 in 2018 (Figure (Figure 1). 1This). This shows shows that that the thecountry country hashas not paidnot paid more more attention attention to the to the generation generation of ofrenewable renewable energy energy sources sources through through investment investment andand providing providing some stimulations for private in investors.vestors. One reason is the abundance of oil andand gas gas resources and their low prices compared to their international prices. However, However, thethe country country needs needs to to achieve achieve the the diversity diversity of of energy energy resources resources and and energy energy security, security, which areare essential steps toward sustainable economiceconomic growth and socialsocial development.development. While IranIran is is endowed endowed with with abundant abundant natural natural resource resources,s, it faces insecurity about the challenges ofof reducing energy resources, protecting th thee environment and sustainable development. development. ConsideringConsidering the diversity ofof climatesclimates inin different different regions regions and and the the cultivation cultivation of of a varietya variety of ofcrops crops and and food food products, products, the the country country has has a substantial a substantial potential potential for diversificationfor diversification of the of energy mix, particularly the renewable energy base. In addition to the forests of the north the energy mix, particularly the renewable energy base. In addition to the forests of the and west of the country, which represent about 7% of the country’s area, Iran also has many north and west of the country, which represent about 7% of the country’s area, Iran also other products and agricultural wastes that can use to produce biofuel. Within the existing has many other products and agricultural wastes that can use to produce biofuel. Within framework of government organizations and institutions, which supervises planting, the existing framework of government organizations and institutions, which supervises farming, harvesting and, in some cases, distribution and research and development, efforts planting, farming, harvesting and, in some cases, distribution and research and develop- to strengthen cooperation and coordination among them will facilitate the transmission ment, efforts to strengthen cooperation and coordination among them will facilitate the and implementation of sustainable development plans. transmission and implementation of sustainable development plans. 100 90 80 70 Percentage (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 oil Natural gas Coal Renewable energies Figure 1. The share of consumption of the various energy sources in total final energy demand in Iran. Source: [2]. Figure 1. The share of consumption of the various energy sources in total final energy demand in Iran. Source: [2]. ToTo predict the energy mix, which includes al alll kinds kinds of of fossil fossil fuel fuel resources resources and and avail- avail- ableable renewable renewable options, options, it itis isnecessary necessary to totake take into into account account current current and and future future energy energy de- manddemand and and key key figures figures relating relating to current to current ener energygy resources. resources. This This study study aims aims to review to review the statusthe status and current and current trends trends in potential in potential resources resources and to and investigate to investigate main policies main policies in Iran to in suggestIran to suggestsome solutions some solutions to help the to helpgovernment the government to achieve to its achieve sustainable its sustainable energy security energy goals.security These goals. suggestions These suggestions can simplify can the simplify application the application of sustainable of sustainable inventions, inventions, and for- mallyand formally examines examines how biomass how biomasscan contribute can contribute to the structure to the of structure the energy of the mix energy in Iran. mix in Iran.The contribution of this study is that it investigates all kinds of energy sources in Iran whichThe compare contribution to other of studies this study that is focus that iton investigates renewable energy all kinds sources of energy or specific sources energy. in Iran Alongwhich comparewith reviewing to other current studies trends that focus and onpolic renewableies, it estimates energy sourcesthe
Recommended publications
  • Energy Subsidy Reform in Mena Oil Exporters

    Energy Subsidy Reform in Mena Oil Exporters

    OIL PRICES, POLITICAL INSTABILITY, AND ENERGY SUBSIDY REFORM IN MENA OIL EXPORTERS Jim Krane, Ph.D. Wallace S. Wilson Fellow for Energy Studies Francisco J. Monaldi, Ph.D. Fellow in Latin American Energy Policy May 2017 © 2017 by the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy of Rice University This material may be quoted or reproduced without prior permission, provided appropriate credit is given to the authors and the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy. Wherever feasible, papers are reviewed by outside experts before they are released. However, the research and views expressed in this paper are those of the individual researchers and do not necessarily represent the views of the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy. Jim Krane, Ph.D. Francisco J. Monaldi, Ph.D. “Oil Prices, Political Instability, and Energy Subsidy Reform in MENA Oil Exporters” Energy Subsidy Reform in MENA Oil Exporters Abstract Since the nationalization of petroleum sectors in the 1970s, low, state-subsidized prices of energy products and services have been a policy fixture of Middle Eastern oil producers. Starting in late 2014, however, many oil-producing governments began to reduce subsidies. Prices of fuels and services have risen in the six Gulf monarchies, as well as in Iran, Algeria, and Egypt. These subsidy reforms followed successful test cases in Iran in 2010 and Dubai in 2011, when price increases were accepted by the public with minimal backlash. Such reforms are understood to be politically illegitimate in autocratic settings where in-kind energy is supplied to citizens in lieu of public support for the government.
  • Phase-Out 2020: Monitoring Europe's Fossil Fuel Subsidies

    Phase-Out 2020: Monitoring Europe's Fossil Fuel Subsidies

    Brief Czech Republic France Germany Greece Hungary Phase-out 2020: monitoring Italy Netherlands Poland Europe’s fossil fuel subsidies Spain Sweden Leah Worrall and Matthias Runkel United Kingdom September 2017 European Union Italy Key Leading on phasing out fossil fuel subsidies: findings • Italy is demonstrating commitment to report on its fossil fuel subsidies, as part of the EU agreements. Following the approval of a Green Economy package by Parliament, the Italian Ministry of Environment released a summary of subsidies with harmful and beneficial impacts on the environment. This includes Italy’s tax expenditures and budgetary support for fossil fuels, but does not include support provided through public finance or state-owned enterprises . • Domestic oil and gas production are in decline, which may account for low domestic support for fossil fuel production infrastructure in Italy through its development bank Cassa Depositi e Prestiti (CDP). • Remaining national subsidies to coal mining and coal-fired power are comparatively low in Italy, indicating the possibility for a complete phase-out of support for these subsidies by 2018, in line with its EU-level commitment to phase out hard-coal mining by 2018. Lagging on phasing out fossil fuel subsidies: • The Fiscal Reform Delegation Law introduced in 2014 required the removal of environmentally harmful subsidies, but it has never been implemented. All sectors reviewed in this analysis still receive fossil-fuel subsidies (see Table 1). • The transport sector receives the most support through government spending. This includes a reduced excise tax rate for diesel compared with petrol fuel, at an annual average cost of €5 billion.
  • Phase-Out 2020: Monitoring Europe's Fossil Fuel Subsidies

    Phase-Out 2020: Monitoring Europe's Fossil Fuel Subsidies

    Phase-out 2020 Monitoring Europe’s fossil fuel subsidies Ipek Gençsü, Maeve McLynn, Matthias Runkel, Markus Trilling, Laurie van der Burg, Leah Worrall, Shelagh Whitley, and Florian Zerzawy September 2017 Report partners ODI is the UK’s leading independent think tank on international development and humanitarian issues. Climate Action Network (CAN) Europe is Europe’s largest coalition working on climate and energy issues. Readers are encouraged to reproduce material for their own publications, as long as they are not being sold commercially. As copyright holders, ODI and Overseas Development Institute CAN Europe request due acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. For 203 Blackfriars Road CAN Europe online use, we ask readers to link to the original resource on the ODI website. London SE1 8NJ Rue d’Edimbourg 26 The views presented in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not Tel +44 (0)20 7922 0300 1050 Brussels, Belgium necessarily represent the views of ODI or our partners. Fax +44 (0)20 7922 0399 Tel: +32 (0) 28944670 www.odi.org www.caneurope.org © Overseas Development Institute and CAN Europe 2017. This work is licensed [email protected] [email protected] under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial Licence (CC BY-NC 4.0). Cover photo: Oil refinery in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany – Ralf Vetterle (CC0 creative commons license). 2 Report Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for support and advice on the report from: Dave Jones of Sandbag UK, Colin Roche of Friends of the Earth Europe, Andrew Scott and Sejal Patel of the Overseas Development Institute, Helena Wright of E3G, and Andrew Murphy of Transport & Environment, and Alex Doukas of Oil Change International.
  • "Subsidies and Costs of EU Energy", Ecofys, 2014

    "Subsidies and Costs of EU Energy", Ecofys, 2014

    Subsidies and costs of EU energy Final report Subsidies and costs of EU energy Final report By: Sacha Alberici, Sil Boeve, Pieter van Breevoort, Yvonne Deng, Sonja Förster, Ann Gardiner, Valentijn van Gastel, Katharina Grave, Heleen Groenenberg, David de Jager, Erik Klaassen, Willemijn Pouwels, Matthew Smith, Erika de Visser, Thomas Winkel, Karlien Wouters Date: 11 November 2014 Project number: DESNL14583 Reviewer: Prof. Dr. Kornelis Blok This study was ordered and paid for by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy. All copyright is vested in the European Commission. The information and views set out in this study are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the Commission. The Commission does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this study. Neither the Commission nor any person acting on the Commission’s behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein. © Ecofys 2014 by order of: European Commission A cooperation of: This project was carried out and authored by Ecofys. KPMG, the Centre for Social and Economic Research (CASE) and CE Delft provided data collection support with regard to public interventions in 28 Member States. KPMG collected data for twenty Member States and CASE and CE Delft collected data for the remaining eight. We wish to thank CE Delft and CASE also for helpful discussions during the development of the methodology. Summary Introduction The way energy markets function and the effect of government interventions in the European Union has been the subject of much debate in recent years.
  • Energy in WTO Law and Policy

    Energy in WTO Law and Policy

    Energy in WTO law and policy THOMAS COTTIER, GARBA MALUMFASHI, SOFYA MATTEOTTI-BERKUTOVA, OLGA NARTOVA, ∗ JOËLLE DE SÉPIBUS AND SADEQ Z.BIGDELI KEY MESSAGES • The regulation of energy in international law is highly fragmented and largely incoherent. We submit that pertinent issues should be addressed by a future Framework Agreement on Energy within WTO law. • Successful regulation of energy requires a coherent combination of rules both on goods and services. Energy services require new classifications suitable to deal coherently with energy as an integrated sector. • Rules on subsidies relating to energy call for new approaches within the Framework Agreement on Energy. A distinction should be made between renewable and non- renewable energy. Moreover, disciplines need to be developed in the context of emission trading. • The Framework Agreement should address the problem of restricting energy production and export restrictions. • Disciplines on government procurement are able to take into account policies on green procurement, but a number of changes to the GPA Agreement will be required to make green procurement more effective and attractive. • In view of the close interactions between the energy sector and climate change, formulating effective rules to address energy under the WTO system will catalyse coherence and complementarity between the climate and trade regimes A. Introduction 60 years ago, when the rules of the GATT were negotiated, world energy demand was a fraction of what it is today and so were energy prices.1 While energy has always been a crucial factor in geopolitics, at that time liberalising trade in energy was not a political priority. The industry was largely dominated by state run monopolies and thus governed by strict territorial allocation.
  • Phasing out Energy Subsidies to Improve Energy Mix: a Dead End

    Phasing out Energy Subsidies to Improve Energy Mix: a Dead End

    energies Article Phasing out Energy Subsidies to Improve Energy Mix: A Dead End Djoni Hartono 1,* , Ahmad Komarulzaman 2, Tony Irawan 3 and Anda Nugroho 4 1 Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia 2 Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 40132, Indonesia; [email protected] 3 Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia; [email protected] 4 Fiscal Policy Agency, Ministry of Finance, Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta 10710, Indonesia; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +62-21-727-2425 or +62-21-727-2646 Received: 3 March 2020; Accepted: 30 April 2020; Published: 5 May 2020 Abstract: A major energy transformation is required to prolong the rise in global temperature below 2 ◦C. The Indonesian government (GoI) has set a strategy to gradually remove fuel subsidies to meet its 2050 ambitious energy targets. Using a recursive dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model, the present study aimed to determine whether or not the current energy subsidy reforms would meet the targets of both energy mix and energy intensity. It also incorporated the environmental aspect while developing a source of a detailed database in the energy sector. The energy subsidy reform policy (followed by an increase in infrastructure and renewable energy investments) could be the most appropriate alternative policy if the government aims to reduce energy intensity and emission, as well as improve energy diversification without pronounced reductions in the sectorial and overall economy.
  • Subsidies, Externalities and Climate Change

    Subsidies, Externalities and Climate Change

    SUBSIDIES, EXTERNALITIES, AND CLIMATE CHANGE: WHETHER ELIMINATING ENERGY TAX SUBSIDIES AND TAXING CARBON IS ENOUGH BY HANNAH BENTLEY The author wishes to thank the following individuals and institutions for their invaluable assistance on this paper and the hard work on the issues it raises: Tax LLM Director Jennifer Kowal, Professor Theodore Seto, Professor Katherine Pratt, Professor Katherine Trisolini, Tax LLM Graduate Joel Wilde, Professor Ed Robbins, Loyola Law School Los Angeles; John Stephens, Director, Graduate Tax Program, Professor Richard Pomp, Assistant Dean Michelle Kirkland, Office of Academic Services, Professor Katrina Wyman, NYU Law School; Kelsang Tangpa and the students at the Mahamudra Kadampa Buddhist Center (Hermosa Beach, California); Geshe Norbu Chophol, Kensur Rinpoche Lobsang Jamyang, and the students at the Geden Shoeling Tibetan Manjushri Center (Westminster, California); Anna Rondon; Levon Bennally; and the Environmental Defense Fund 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION – WOULD ELIMINATING ENERGY TAX SUBSIDIES AND TAXING CARBON BE A GOOD IDEA?...............................................................4 II. TAX SUBSIDIES, OTHER SUBSIDIES, AND EXTERNALITIES – EFFICIENCY THEORY AND APPLICATION IN THREE CASES………………………………8 A. THE EFFICIENT MARKETPLACE PREMISE AND THE THEORY OF THE SECOND BEST…………………………………………………………….8 B. TAX SUBSIDIES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO DIRECT EXPENDITURES AND EXTERNALITIES…………………………………………………………10 C. SUBSIDIES AND EXTERNALITIES IN THREE SECTORS: OIL AND GAS, NUCLEAR, AND SOLAR………………………………………………….12 D. ENERGY SUBSIDIES AND EXTERNALITIES – THREE CASES…………….13 1. OIL AND GAS…………………………………………………..13 a. TAX SUBSIDIES…………………………………………..14 b. OTHER SUBSIDIES……………………………………….18 c. EXTERNALITIES…………………………………………19 2. NUCLEAR ENERGY…………………………………………….22 a. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………..22 b. SUBSIDIES AND EXTERNALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH STEPS IN THE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE………………………….23 1. URANIUM MINING AND ENRICHMENT………………23 2.
  • Geopolitics of the Iranian Nuclear Energy Program

    Geopolitics of the Iranian Nuclear Energy Program

    Geopolitics of the Iranian Nuclear Energy Program But Oil and Gas Still Matter CENTER FOR STRATEGIC & CSIS INTERNATIONAL STUDIES A Report of the CSIS Energy and National Security Program 1800 K Street, NW | Washington, DC 20006 author Tel: (202) 887-0200 | Fax: (202) 775-3199 Robert E. Ebel E-mail: [email protected] | Web: www.csis.org March 2010 ISBN 978-0-89206-600-1 CENTER FOR STRATEGIC & Ë|xHSKITCy066001zv*:+:!:+:! CSIS INTERNATIONAL STUDIES Geopolitics of the Iranian Nuclear Energy Program But Oil and Gas Still Matter A Report of the CSIS Energy and National Security Program author Robert E. Ebel March 2010 About CSIS In an era of ever-changing global opportunities and challenges, the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) provides strategic insights and practical policy solutions to decision- makers. CSIS conducts research and analysis and develops policy initiatives that look into the future and anticipate change. Founded by David M. Abshire and Admiral Arleigh Burke at the height of the Cold War, CSIS was dedicated to the simple but urgent goal of finding ways for America to survive as a nation and prosper as a people. Since 1962, CSIS has grown to become one of the world’s preeminent public policy institutions. Today, CSIS is a bipartisan, nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. More than 220 full-time staff and a large network of affiliated scholars focus their expertise on defense and security; on the world’s regions and the unique challenges inherent to them; and on the issues that know no boundary in an increasingly connected world.
  • Wind and Solar Energy Developments in Iran

    Wind and Solar Energy Developments in Iran

    WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS IN IRAN H. Kazemi Karegara,b, A.Zahedia,V. Ohisa, G. taleghanib and M. Khalajib aDepartment of Electrical & Computer Systems Engineering, PO Box 35, Monash University, Victoria 3800 bCentre of Renewable Energy Research and Application, North Amir Abad, Tehran/Iran Abstract This paper presents the potential for wind and solar energy in Iran and shows how much electric energy is now produced by renewable power plants compared to steam and gas. The importance of renewable energy effects on Iran’s environment and economy is also discussed and the issue of the contribution of renewable energy for producing electricity in the future will be shown. Also this paper highlights the ability of Iran to manufacture the components of the wind turbine and solar system locally, and its effect on the price of wind turbine and solar energy. Key Words: Renewable Energy, Wind Turbine, Solar Energy 1. INTRODUCTION 2. RENEWABLE ENERGY MOTIVATION IN IRAN Iran is known as the second largest oil production member in Organization of Petrol Export Country (OPEC) with The necessity of renewable energy in Iran can be categorized production near 3.5 million barrel oil per day and accounts in two main issues: a) Environmental pollution and b) More for roughly 5% of global oil outputs. Also, Iran contains an oil and gas export. estimated 812 Trillion Cubic Feet (TFC) in proven natural gas reserves, surpassed only by Russia in the world [1]. As mentioned before, the most important environmental problem that Iran faces is air pollution. Since 1980, carbon Electric power generation installed in Iran is about 32.5 Giga emission in Iran has increased 240% from 33.1 million Watts (GW) with more than 87% being from thermal natural metric tons to 79.4 million metric tons in 1998 [3] and is still gas fired power plant.
  • Effective Factors on the Area Collaboration in Public- Private Partnerships of Infrastructure in Middle East with Emphasis on Iran

    Effective Factors on the Area Collaboration in Public- Private Partnerships of Infrastructure in Middle East with Emphasis on Iran

    International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences January 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1 ISSN: 2222-6990 Effective Factors on the Area Collaboration in Public- Private Partnerships of Infrastructure in Middle East with Emphasis on Iran Maysam Musai Full Professor, University of Tehran E-mail: [email protected] Mahdi Rezai Member of Institute for Trade Studies and Research Mohsen Mehrara Associate Professor, University of Tehran Abstract Infrastructures are necessary for economical growth of countries and the slow economic growth of these countries is because of their poor infrastructure. It usually needs huge capital, advanced technology and knowledge of management which developing countries with low income can’t afford them; so they need cooperation of foreign countries. In this paper, we try to find a solution for that and find how the existing collaborations and partnerships of other countries are on basis of infrastructure in Iran and what are the improving and strengthening of this cooperation? We use the analytical and qualified description statics of other countries experiences in field of direct investment (FDI) in infrastructures. The results show that Iran has an average position in attraction of foreign investment in comparison of other countries in Middle East; it means Iran is more successful of some countries and is less successful of another countries. We conclude that liberalization, privatization and the restructuring of infrastructure sectors are considered as the majority solutions for promotion of Iranian contribution in FDI attraction for infrastructures. Keywords: Iran, Public and private partnerships, Foreign Direct Investment, Middle East countries. 462 www.hrmars.com/journals International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences January 2013, Vol.
  • Women's Empowerment in Iran: a Review Based on the Related Legislations

    Women's Empowerment in Iran: a Review Based on the Related Legislations

    Global Journal of Health Science; Vol. 6, No. 4; 2014 ISSN 1916-9736 E-ISSN 1916-9744 Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education Women's Empowerment in Iran: A Review Based on the Related Legislations Roksana Janghorban1, Ali Taghipour2, Robab Latifnejad Roudsari3 & Mahmoud Abbasi4 1 Student Research Committee, Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 2 Health Sciences Research Center, Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Health, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 3 Evidence-Based Care Research Centre, Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 4 Medical Ethics and Law Research Center, Shahid Behshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Correspondence: Robab Latifnejad Roudsari, Associate Professor in Reproductive Health, Evidence-Based Care Research Centre, Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Ebne-Sina Street, Mashhad, Iran. Tel: 98-511-859-8016. Fax: 98-511-859-8016. E-mail: [email protected] Received: January 13, 2014 Accepted: February 17, 2014 Online Published: April 20, 2014 doi:10.5539/gjhs.v6n4p226 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v6n4p226 Abstract Women's empowerment can be defined as a change in the circumstances of a woman's life, which enables her to raise her capacity to manage more enriched and rewarding life. Improvement in women's empowerment is a salient issue to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. National laws are influential factors in promoting women's empowerment. Lack of awareness of legal and constitutional provisions and failure to recognize it, is a factor that hinders the process of empowerment.
  • The International Politics of Authoritarian Internet Control in Iran

    The International Politics of Authoritarian Internet Control in Iran

    International Journal of Communication 12(2018), 3856–3876 1932–8036/20180005 Transforming Threats to Power: The International Politics of Authoritarian Internet Control in Iran MARCUS MICHAELSEN1 University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Authoritarian Internet control is generally explained by domestic power preservation: to curtail dissent within their borders, authoritarian regimes censor, monitor, and shape online communications. Yet this focus neglects important external factors. As a global communication technology, the Internet carries strategic and normative interests of competing international actors. This article investigates the influence of international politics on practices of Internet surveillance and censorship. Using the case of Iran, I analyze how opposition to the West, and particularly to the United States, led the Iranian state to perceive the Internet as a strategic battleground for regime stability. I argue that external threats in the form of democracy promotion, cyberattacks, and sanctions have created conditions enabling the Iranian state to advance and justify capabilities for censorship and surveillance. They have also pushed the regime to build a “national Internet” that is more resistant to outside influence and open to state control. Authoritarian practices are thus produced in international struggles over the use, content, and infrastructure of digital technologies. Keywords: information and communication technologies, censorship, surveillance, authoritarianism, international relations, Iran The fundamental aim of authoritarian rulers is to maintain and expand political power. In the field of Internet politics, authoritarian power holders have pursued this aim by establishing sophisticated systems of Internet control to curb alternative information and dissent perceived as challenge to their rule. They have also come to benefit from digital communication technologies for information manipulation, monitoring, and surveillance.