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READING MIDRASH AS GRAPHIC ARTISTIC ACTIVITY:

THE COMPlLATIONS OF MIDRASH RABBA H AS POSSIBLE INFLUENCES ON EARLY JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN ART

Elana Dascal Department of Jewish Studies McGill University, Montreal November 1997 A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1+1 ,,nad, du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue WeUington Ottawa ON KiA ON4 O&awaON KIA ON4 Canada Canada

The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une Licence non exclusive licence ailowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or seîi reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.

The author retauis ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation, (c) Copyright - Elana Dascal. 1997 ABSTRACT

Midrash is a genre of rabbinic Bible exegesis, composed by various authors and cornpiled in anthologies during the first seven centuries of the Common Era. This thesis explores the reading of Midrash and its possible influence on early artistic activity. Examples of early Jewish and Christian biblical representations that display some degree of midrashic impact, are presented in order to establish the existence of a relationship beween Midrash and art Finally. by a systematic reading of the corpus of midrashic literature found in Midrash Rabbah. Midrashim that suggest graphic representation, but which have not yet to been found among early an formç, are categorized and analyzed.

Le Midrash est un genre d1ex6g8se biblique qui &ait compose par divers auteurs, et qui était compile dans des anthologies pendant les sept premiers sibcles de l'Époque Commune. Cette thèse explore l'étude du Midrash et son infleunce sur l'activité artistique déjà au premier siecle. Pour qu'on puisse 6tablir 116xistence d'un rapport entre le Midrash et l'art, on presente plusiers exemples des Bibles illustrées. des juives et des Chrétiens, qui exhibent un certain degré de l'impact du Midrash. Finalement, par une revue systdmatique de la littératur& du Midrash dans le texte Midrash Rabbah, on arrange en catégories et on analyse ces paragraphes du Midrash qui sugg6rent une représentation graphique. mais qu'on n'en a pas encore trouve dans l'art. TABLE OF CONTENTS

-- Preface...... ~II

Chapter One - Introduction...... 1

Character of Rabbinic Midrash Midrash as Exegetical Activity Midrash as Theological Activity Midrash as Literary Activity Midrash as Artistic Activity

Chapter Two - Midrashand Art...... , ...... 17

Part One: Jewish Art--...... -17

Dura Europos Synagogue...... -18

Moses and the Miraculous Well The Crossing of the Sea Moses' lnfancy The Sacrifice of Isaac Elijah and the Prophets of Ba'al Mordecai and Esther Abraham with Grey Hair Conciusions about Dura

Part Two: Early Christian Art...... -28

Joseph and Potiphar Joseph's Departure Joseph in Prison

B. Via LatinaCatacom b...... -30

Jacob's Dream Moses' lnfancy Zimri and Cozbi lmpaled on Pinchasr Lanœ Why Midrash Rabbah

A. Objects B. Animals C. People.

Category Two: Extra Elernents...... -42

A. People, Animals and Objects B. New Scenes

Category Four: God Dimension...... 49

Category Five: Esther...... -51

Chapter Four - Condusions...... -...... - ...... -55 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 wish to acknowledge Professor B. Barry Levy whose help and support has guided me through most of my university years. Without him I would never have taken on this project, nor ever considerd completing a masters in Parshanut- To my friends and colleagues who always have an ear to spare: Bena and Debbie, thank you for always being there to answer my questions whether I was around the corner or cities away, not to mention always making sure I had a much to sleep on; Amanda and Naomi, thank you for understanding and sticking by me even when you never knew whether I was coming or going. A special word of appreciation to my grandparents who I cm always trust will be proud of me. To my sister, Rena, who kept me on my toes and pushed me to finish even if she did have ulterior motkes. Finally, to rny parents, for without whom I could not have started or finished. Knowing they did not always understand what I was doing or why made their support even more valuable. I would never have reached this point without them and Ït is to them that I dedicate this paper. PREFACE

Midrash is a genre of rabbinic literature that was composed by various authors and compiled in anthologies during the first seven centuries of the Common Era (and later). It has been widely documented that Midrash has influenced and ptayed an active role in both early Jewish and Christian art. mepurpose of this paper is to focus on the use of Midrash as graphic interpretation, parallel to that produced by artists who portrayed Biblical scenes as visual images. Much has been written about the influence of early Jewish pictorial sources on early Christian Bible interpretation, but these Jewish pictorial sources, of which so little is actually known, were influenced by the tradition of Midrashim and perhaps aven the existence of illustrated midrashic texts. Many writers have pointed to the ethical, educational, inspirational. legal, exegetical and other dimensions of Midrash. I wish to demonstrate that one under- discussed but important purpose of midrashic literature was to provide Jews with a written text which would evoke mental images backed with textual support. Midrash was the process that the rabbis of the first centuries of the Common €fa used to interpret the Bible. In chapter one, I define Midrash and its origins. As Midrash is multi-faceted and difficutt to define, its many purposes whether they be exegetical, theological . f iterary or artistic have been presented and discussed. In chapter two, I present images, both Christian and Jewish, that have already been discovered by scholars as having some degree of midrashic impact. Though this impact spans al1 of midrashic and targumic literature. the focus here has been restricted to the corpus of rnidrashic literature known as Midrash Rabbah. ln the study of the history of art, one generally begins with an image and then investigates the artists' sources and influences in an attempt to understand their intentions. In the case of Bible representations one would first determine what biblical account was being represented. Once it has been determined how closely the artist followed the Bible text any additional elements. such as people. animals and objects. that appear in the image but can not be supported by text would become apparent. Wherever an image deviates from text. questions need to be raised as to why they appear and where they originate. In chapter three I compile a list of Midrashim which seem to lend themselves to graphic representation but have yet to be found in early artistic representations (similar to those found in chapter two). This has been accomplished by a systematic reading of the corpus of midrashic literature found in Midrash Rabbah and studying their potential relevance to artistic representation. Midrash Rabbah was chosen as my sample of literature because it is not a unitary text. but is instead a collection of Midrashim from different places and different time periods. Though the existence of the midrashic genre has been documented from before 70 C.E., written midrashic anthologies did not exist until after this date. with midrashic collections continuing to be produced up until the late medieval period (around the sixteenth century). With these factors in mind, 1 present a selection of the best examples of Midrashim that are highly graphic and therefore should be understood as closely related to or one with visual Bible exegesis.

viii Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

Jewish monotheistic concepts during the Second Temple era were markedly abstract in nature, a trend that increased as the channels closed between man and the world above. When prophecy ceased and the poetic voice of God's messengers was no longer heard, the Jew, impelled both by his own mentality and by the influence of his environment. began to rely increasingly on his intellect.'

During the Biblical period. three channels were available for communication between God and man: prophecy, dreams and the priesthood. Yet, by the first centuries of the Common Era, the rabbis had ceased to accredit any of these three methods as legitimate. God no longer communicated to man through dreams, prophecy ceased to exist, and as a result of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 C.E., the priesthood could no longer perform its duties and therefore was no longer required Direct communication was no longer an option. and alternative approaches to receiving divine direction needed to be found. The only vehicle of communication remaining to the Jewish people was the Torah, believed to have ken given on Mount Sinaie2lnstead of speaking to God through these three channels. the rabbis of the beginning of the Common Era began speaking to the text or attempting to make the text speak to them. A concept that developed was that of a dual Torah, the written Bible text and the oral component, that was thought to have been given at the

' H. H. Ben-Sasson, ed. A History of the Jewish People (Cambrkîge: Harvard University Press, 1976) 282. The word Torah has many connotations: the five books of Moses; the entire written Bible. meaning the Pentateuch. the Prophets and the Writîngs; and the concept of dual Torahs. Jewish tradition explains that when God gave the written Torah on Mount Sinai He alsa gave the Israelite people an oral Torah- Therefore the word Torah may also refer to this dual system. The Judaism of the dual Torah maintains t hat at Sinai. God revealed the Torah.. .to Moses for formulation and transmission in two media, writing and memory. The written Torah corresponds to the Hebrew Bible. The Oral Torah was handed down from prophets to sages until it reached the authorities named in the MiMnah," Jacob Neusner, Whatis Midrash?(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987)108. For the purpose of this paper, Torah will refer only to the Pentateuch and any other designation will be labeled either oral or written Torah. 1 same time, by God to Moses on Mount Sinai? The written Torah became the channei of communication from God, and the rabbis actively involved themselves with this text and the reading of it. The result was the phenornenon of Midrash.' "Midrash represents distance from God, a clinging to the words of the past at a time when the living present word is not forthcoming any longer."= The word Midrash derives from the root d-r-sh, which in the Bible means 'to search,' 'to seek,' or 'to investigate." The noun Midrash occurs only Nice in the in the Septwgint, the word is translated as 'book' or 'writing' and, therefore. it seems probable that in its noun form it was meant as an account or examination of the events of the times. The word darosh can also be found in the literature of the Dead Sea sect. The Manual of Discipline States. '...and in the wilderness clear ye the way ... make plain in the desert a highway for our God, that being the Midrash of the Torah (which) he comrnanded through Moses, to do in accordance with al1 that is

'On the other hand. 'Orthodoxy teaches that the entire Torah was given on Sinai. This is presented as part of the rationde offered for an observant Jewish life, is reflected in the popular preaching done in conjunction with the passages in the Torah that describes the events on Sinai... This position does reflect a popular rabbinic notion, but a key Taimudic passage (BT Gittin 60A) suggests mat the Torah was given either piece by piece, presumaMy throughout the forty years of wandering in the desert, or 'seafed' at once ...Notwithstanding the status of the Torah's many laws and the rabbinic 'oral law' - traditionally taken to have been given to Moses on Sinai - rabbinic Judaism acknowledged the legitimacy of the notion that the full text of the Torah itself was not completely Sinaitic." B. Bany Levy, "On the Pefiphery: North Amencan Orthodox Judaism and Conternporary Biblicai Scholarship," in David Sperling. ed. Students of the Covenant-A History of Jewish Biblkai Scholarshjp in North America (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992) 168. 'For the purpose of this paper. 1 will be dealing exclusively with Midrash as found in the compilations of Midrash Rabbah, though most generaily chart this materiaLas it applies to the midrashic corpus at large. Midrash Rabbah is a collection of Midrashim on the Pentateuch and on the five scrolls; Esther, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs. These Midrashim have been collected and published in Hebrew and have also been transiated and published in English editions. However, much has been written about the existence of Midrash already in the Bible. For example, in the books of Chronicles where some passages seem to be Midrashic gloses to other Biblical books. Refer to 1. Epstein. 'Forward," in Midrash Rabbah - Genesis, H- Freedman, trans. (London: Soncino Press, 1939); Encyclopedia Judaica; SN. 'Midrash ;" H. L Strack and G. Stem berger, Introduction to the Talmud and Marash (Minneapolis: Fortresç Press, 1992); James Kugel, Early BiWical Interpretation (Philadelphia: Westminister Press, 1986). 'David Haiivini, Midrash. Mishnah and Gemara - The Jewish Prediection for Justifid Law (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, l986)16. Haiivini aiso attributes the canonization of the Bible as a factor which led to the end of direct communication between man and God, thereby ako leading to the establishment of Midrash. dLeviticus 10:16; Deuteronomy l3:l5; lsaiah 55:6. 'II Chronicles 1322 and 24:27. 2 revealed in every ers."' in this staternent. both meanings of Midrash are implied; Midrash as a way of consulting God and Midrash as a way to analyze a fact or a biblical word. "Because Midrash-documents form components of the oral part of the Torah, it is by reference to the unfolding of the canon of the Oral Torah that we establish the context in which these writings are to be described, analyzed and interpreted? The existence of Midrash is already seen within the Bible. for example. in the book of Chronicles, where certain passages seem to be midrashic glosses to other Biblical bo~ks.~Another example, is the Passover Haggadah, which is thought by soma scholars to be the oldest Midrash (compiled at the earliest date. the second century C.E.). To the moâern mind, Midrash evokes many meanings and understandings and subsequently this has led to difficulties in adequately defining the word. As James Kugel expressed in his article. 'Two Introductions to Midrash," "There are many recent works that seek to define Midrash... since these studies have already not defined

Midrash in ample detail, there is Iittle purpose in our not defining it again here."" In the end, however, a review of the literature shows that, scholars generally attribute three possible meanings to Midrash and how it should be understood. For the most part. Midrash can be classified as the approach or method used to interpret a text; the individual writings written by the rabbis to fulfill the study of Torah; and finally.

BEncyclopediaJudaica , av. 'Midrash.' 'Jacob Neusner, Midrash as Literature - The Prïmacyof Documentary Discourse. (New York: University Press of Arnerica, 1987) 6. 'The book of Chronicles has been understood as a kind of Midrash on the books of Samuel and Kings; cf. Strack and Stemberger, 257. This is not. however, agreed upon by al1 scholars. Haiivini writes. "Chronicles,for instance, should not be viewed as Midrash on Kings, as many scholars daim, even in those sections where Chronicles reacts to, elabrates on, or harmonues the contradictions in Kings. For a passage to qualify as Midrash, the formula 'as it was written' should be employed ...Midrash, like comrnentary, ought ta refer to exact chapter and verse. Influence should not be enough... direct quotation is necessary. Indeed, for those exegeticai instances without direct quotation, a more suitable term should be devised." Haiivini, Midrash. Miinah and Gemwa, 17. "James Kugel. 'Two Introductions to Midrash." Prooftexts 3 (1983) 144. 3 collections of such ideas. Jacob Neusner writes, When people refer to 'the Midrash' they generally refer to a collection of interpretations of a scriptural passage ...Midrash also stands for a compilation of such interpretations... And finally, Midrash may speak of the particular approach to interpretation, or exegesis taken by Jewish sagesD

In a similar vein, James Kugel explains, The word has been used to designate both the activity of interpretation and the fruits of that activity, and in Hebrew writings was used extensively for the collective body of all such interpretations as well as in the name of certain collections of Midrashic material (Midrash Rabbah etc.) At bottom Midrash is not a genre of interpretation but an interpretive stance. a way of reading the sacrecl text."

Regardless of its original meaning or understanding, Midrash has becorne an important aspect of Judaism. It has been and continues to be a way for man to combine communication with God and to analyze the Hebrew Bible. Midrash arises out of lsrael's consciousness of an inalienable solidarity with its Bible; Midrash therefore is always also realization. and must discover ever afresh the present signlicance of the text or of biblical history. The present relevance of Midrashic exegesis is indeed not always obvious. but even where prima facie it serves only pious curiosity, the ultimate concern is always to let the Bible be the intetlectual and religious milieu in which the Jew livesY

This chapter will discuss the character of rabbinic Midrash and how Midrash impacted on the Jews living in the period of its formation. Midrash is not a separate entity. but is understood at the time of its initiation into Jewish life and by tradition until today to be a component of what has previously been described as oral Torah. Therefore, in understanding Midrash, it rnust be kept in mind that, "Because Midrash- documents forrn components of the oral part of the Torah, it is by reference to the unfolding of the canon of the Oral Torah that we establish the context in which these ''Jacob Neusner, The Midrash - An Introductkn (Northvale: Jason Aronson INC., 1990) ix- ''James Kugel, "Two Introductions to Midrash." Proonexts 3 (1983) 144. This definition is given by Kugel, even though he discusçes his inability to define Midrash in ample detail. 14Strackand Stemberger, 259- 4 writings are to be described, analyzed and inter~reted."~

Character of Rabbinic Midrash Above. Midrash was defined by three meanings or catchwords in order to clarify its purpose : Midrash-compilation, Midrash-exegesis, and Midrash-process. Though these definitions may be helpful to the reader who is familiar with midrashic literature or biblical exegesis in general. they do not explain the nature of Midrash, its character or its purpose. The general opinion is that two assumptions were considered by the rabbis while engaging in the actMty of Midrash. First. it was believed. not by ali. but by the majority of rabbis. that the Torah was divine, given by God to Moses at Mount Sinai? Secondly, the majority believed that Mis divine Torah was not given in human language. This meant that though humans could understand and attempt to interpret this text, they could never attempt to understand the author's fuli intention. nor did they believe that their understanding of the text could correspond fufly to the author's understanding or intention. Therefore, to the rabbis of the formative age of Judaism. approximately the first seven centuries of the Common EraIR every way of reading the Torah text was legitimate and everything was in it. As the Mishnah teaches in Avot 5: 22. "Turn it and Turn it. for everything is in itWmThis saying has most commonly been understood to suggest that there is an infinite number of interpretations to the Bible. Other manuscript versions of this standard comment suggest even further that not only

''Jacob Neusner, Mjdrasti as Literature - The mmacy of Documentary Discours?, 6. 'This is the popular opinion that holds tnie for the most part in the modern period. However, the rabbis held different opinions,and it should be noted that though it is out of the smpe of this paper to deal with this issue, it is not a clear cut argument, See for example. 'Kuntres Seder Ketivat Hatorah." in the appendix of Menachem Kasher, Torah Shelemah, 19 (New York: American Biblical Encyclopedia Society, 1960)328-379. 'This paper deals specifically Wh the Midrash-compilations which Neusner writes, '... reached dosure and conclusion in the formative age of Judaism, that is, the first seven centuries of the Cornmon Era, the time in which the Mishnah (c.200). Talmud of the Land of lsrael (c.400) and the Talmud of Babylonia (c.600) were written." Neusner. The Midrash - An Introductbn, ix 'BA~ot522. 5 is al1 of the Torah in us but all of what we are cm also be found within the text-" In its broadest sense. Midrash appears to be the first form of Bible interpretation that existed. and most Jewish sages from the early years of the Common Era and until the present day knew of and drew heavily on this literature. Post Taimudic writers either favored or disfavored Midrash as an exegetical method in varying degrees? Nevertheles, in either case, both approaches to Midrash (positive and negative) left interpreters with the need to present it as an issue to be contended with? Ibn EzraP. for example, daims to be a Bible interpreter who looks for the 'true.' 'simple.' or 'literal' rneaning of the Torah. He argues that Midrash should not be considered as a valid form of exegesis, nor should it be taken seriously. Yet, in his Torah commentary. he labels Midrash as the fourth method of Bible interpretation that existed in this tirne, showing the importance it has attained by this point in the history of Jewish Bible

'w...there are more than 70 possible ways to understand many sentences... when the rabbis said there were 70, they did not mean Iiterally 70, only that the number of interpretations was large. On the other hand, some texts suggest an almost infinite number of possible interpretations. One such statement is found in Pirkei Avot 5:22. and may suggest the concept that anything can be found in the Bible text, even multiple infinite meanings for certain words, sentences or events. The standard text states, "Turn it and turn it for everything is in it." However. this statement has its own interesting variants that elaborate on this concept and what the rabbis were attempting to explain about the Bible and the midrashic enterprise. Interesting variants found in çorne manuscripts make the point even sharper. *The standard text near the end of the fifth chapter of Avot suggeçts that everything can be found in the Torah. Other versions of this statement found in rnanuscripts, early printings, or citations... suggest that both al1 of the Torah and ail of the reader - Le., his or her questions. needs. situations. etc - can be found in the Torah. The Kaufrnann manuscript of the Mishnah. the most respected copy available. contains a different, corrected text. This version suggests that ail the Torah is in us and ail of what we are is in it This wording çounds post-modern in that it links closely the interaction between the reader and the tex'- The readers must place the Torah in themselves and thernselves in the Torah to find the value, the uuth, and the pleasure of Torah study that the Mishnah seems to be recommending." B. Barry Levy, A New Hjgh School Cumculum for Teaching Jewish Bible lntetpretation, Unit #2 - Real and Apparent Arnbiguitres (Montreal:i 996) 118. -0ther medieval Jewish interpreters who have littie use for Midrash in their commentanes often feel the need to discuss Midrash and justify their exclusion of midrastiic Iiteraturefrom their expositions of the Bible. Often, this necessitates defining Midrash as something other than exegesis." Sean Aster, Between Exegesis and Nanative: The Use of Mi'in Genesr's Rabbah (Unpublished Masters Thesis, McGill University, 1996) 1, For examples of such interpreters as well as a history of Midrash see, 'Introduction." 1-14. ''The question of the difference in approaches between peshat and derash still exist today. for example, see David Halivini. Pesbat and Derash - Plain and Applied Meaning in Rabbinic Midrash f Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991 ). "Ibn ~zra'introduction to his Torah Commentary,' TuratHamm 1 (JerusaJern: Mosad HaRav Kook, 1986). 6 intefpretation. By including Midrash as one of the methods of Bible interpretation of his time period, he conveyed the idea that Midrash was prevalent enough that it could not be merely ignored. Today. the term Midrash is also used for modern interpretations of the Bible text that are approached in a creative or story like-way? Rabbinic Midrash, it must be remembered. is not simply a creative enterprise. Each Midrash has its own purpose. Scholars have grouped different compilations of Midrashim into different types. for exam pie, exegetical, homiletical, and narrative." Still, Midrash can be seen in broader and less restricting terms as; exegetical, philosophical, theological, or as a literary genre. Therefore, the question arises as to what is the nature of Midrash. Midrash appears to be not one but a combination of al1 of these genres of writings and more. Midrash was seen as an 'activity' both while being compiled and written down. and certainly in the stages before, when it originated and was orally transmitted. Today, as Midrash is seen as a creative enterprise or 'activity, ' so too it seems it was viewed as a creative process in its beginning stages. First and foremost, it must be understood that the majotity believed Midrash- exegesis and Midrash-process to be a religious activity, a way to understand a divine text. Through Midrash, the rabbis were attempting to achieve a closeness to this text and in extension to its divine author? Though one of its main goals was religious activity, in this capacity it wuld not stand alone, for to its initiators, the rabbis or sages

23Exarnplesof the modern adaptation of Midrash are for examp1e;Midrash' as Dance, see JoAnne Tucker and Susan Freeman. Torah in Motron - Creating Dance Midrash (Denver: A.RE Publishing, 199û); or feminist 'Midrashirn*. see for exarnple. Judith Piaskow. -The Coming of Lilith," in Rosernary Ruether,ed., Religion and Sexism: Images of Women in me Jewïsh and ChriSrian Traditrons (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974) 3414-343; Noma Joseph, '7he Feminist Challenge to Judaism," in Jay Morny and €va K. Neumaier-Dargyay, 4s..Gender. Genre and Reiigbn (Waterloo: Wilfried Laurier University Press, 1995) "Barry Holtz, ed. ûack to the Sources - Reading the Classic Jewish texts (New York: Summit Baaks, 1984) 188. 'The need of the rabbis to achieve a closenes to the Bible text and its divine author is important in Our understanding of Midrash. This shows the motivations of the rabbis and their belief that what they were doing was writing down a tradition that was equaily sacred and important as was the Bible text itself. 7 of this period, we must attribute the assumption that it was also a creative activity. an intellectual activity. a philosophically activity, a pedagogical activity and so forth. Today. modern scholars and writers choose which activity or activities they believe Midrash is and use it for their own purposes. For example. Burton Visotzky explains this idea in relation to the new interest in Midrash that has arisen from literary theorists and critics. Visotzky writes, Midrashic method has captured the fancy of literary critics, parücularly the post modernists... Searching through the rubble of the past for a usable history to buttress their reading strategies, they have happily settled on Midrash as a suitable ancestor?

Midrashic activity was based first and foremost on the Bible, with the intention of providing a more complete vision of Judaism and its Bible. At the time of the second Temple. Midrash was the method the rabbis used to explain the Bible, to provide an image to both the learned and the common Jew. To the Jews of the land of lsrael and the Diaspora it becarna central in understanding the Bible and has fulfilied this goal until the present day.

Midrash As Exegetical Activity ln its most general form and purpose. Midrash is exegesis, or a process of interpreting the Bible. This method of exegesis from the medieval period until today was favored by some. for example. Raship and looked down upon by others, for example, Ibn Ezra. In the medieval period, there was much debate about the midrashic method of interpretation. as opposed to other methods of interpretation. "Rashi assigned to Midrash an important role in exegesis; by highlighting Midrashim

ZBBurto n Visotzk y, Reading the Book - Making the Bible a Timeiess Text (New York: Schockeri Books, 1991)viii. This book is geared to a popular rather than a scholarly audience. and therefore shows the variety of purposes Midrash holds today and a popular as well as a religious or çcholariy interest- because of the nature of this book there are no footnotes, sources or bibliography included. "Rabbenu Shlomo Yitzchaki, known by his acronyrn Rashi, was the author of both Bible and Talmud commentaries He lived in 1 Ith antury France. 8 which are connected to the Biblical text's flow of meaning. he portrayed Midrash as a largely exegetical enterprise."' Neusner explains Midrash as exegesis in the sense that it reads the Bible in terms of other things that are not necessarily what the author intended but relate to the new interpreters' intentions. For example, the commonly used example of the Song of Songs which would seem to be a story of the love between man and woman but has almost from the onset of biblical interpretation been seen as the love between God and lsrael and later by Christian exegetes as the love between God and the church. This is allegorical, meaning simply, reading one thing in light of some other. The basic principle here is that things are never what they seem to be. Israel's reality is not wnveyed either by the simple sense of scripture or by the obvious realities or the perceived world. A deeper meaning in scripture preserves the more profound meaning of the everyday world of lsrael even now. This is characteristic of the rabbinic exegetes."

The overriding activity of Midrash is to interpret the text. Of the Midrashim to be dealf with in this paper, Strack and Stemberger in, lntroduction to the Talmud and Midrash, classify Genesis Rabbah and Lamentations Rabbah as exegetical Midrashirn, while Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Exodus and Numbers are classified as homiletical Midrashim and the five megillot (scrolls) stand somewhat on their own. undefined. Strack and Stemberger further classify Midrashim as being Haiachic (legal) versus Haggadic (narrative) and Exegetical (interpretation of text) versus Homiletic (sermon). These categories are not precise, and many if not al1 Midrashim, contain Iittle bits of al1 these elements, though one can identify the dominant interest of each Midrash and so classify it. Exegetical Midrash expounds the biblical text verse by verse and often word by word. while the homiletic Midrash is a devotional

28Aster,3- 2eNeusner.Whatis Midrash?, 8. Neusner's statement is not one hundred percent true as rabbinic Midrash can also be Iiterai. Porton explainecl that Midrash was always rooted in text and therefore though there might be multiple meanings, it is possible to have a Iiteral meaning. This can aîso be seen in Halivni's definition of Midrash. Gary Porton. 'Defining Midrash.' 10; Halivini, Midrash, Mishnahend Gmara- 9 cornmentary on individual verses or a main theme? Regardlesç of the method of style, the first underlying purpose behind Midrash was exegesis, the attempt to find the meaning of the text and to bfing it out in the open. Two twentieth century works which highlight the exegeticai activity of Midrash are the Torah Temimah of Rabbi Barukh Epstein and the Torah Shelemah of Rabbi Menachern Kasher. 60th works are commentaries on the Pentateuch which select Midrashirn that have some exegetical activity and they both attempt to comment on the basis of these exegetical Midrashim." This method of seeing Midrash as exegesis is opposed to the narrative approach of reading Midrash which will be explored later in this chapter.

Midrash As fheoiogical Activitf "...for rabbinic Midrash the religious interest of treatment and exposition of Scripture is signifi~ant."~Theoiogy plays a limited role in Judaism; God is, and therefore, cannot be placed into a system. As Stephen Kepnes writes in his article, "A Narrative Jewish Theology," Judaism has no great systematic theologies because theology is not a central concern of Judaism. Instead, what dominates Judaism is Halachah, the way in which legally a Jew must run every aspect of hisher life? Kepnes gives two reasons why ha believes that Jewish theology falls under the category of aggadah? First, aggadah allows for the concept of a 'hidden God.' God is

'OStrack and Stem berger, Introduction to the Talmud and Marash. 261. "Aster, 4. Theology tends to evoke many connotations, and is often a word not associated with Judaism. This tem is not rneant ta refer, irnply or invoke the Christian study of theology. In this case, I refer to theology as the, '...belief in the existence of God. especially a God supematurally revealed to man and ~~çtaiflinga personal relation to his creatures." The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1990) S.V. nTheism." 3track and Stem berger, 259. ''Sephen Kepnes, Judaism 37 (1988) 21 1. lSKepnesuses the word 'aggadah' instead of Midrash to refer to an even broder base of literature. Aggadah. like Midrash. is a word which is diffïult to define. Avigdor Shinan wrïtes that scholars in this field, 'All speak of the aggadah or read the aggadic literaîure. even though the precise rneaning of the word itself is not perfectly clear to us." Avigdor Shinan. The World of Aggadah (Tel Aviv: MOD Books. 1990)13. However, generaîly the word aggadah reters to the works of the sages in the first seven centuries of the Common Era and includes Midrash. translations. piyyutirn, mystical, historicai and polemical works 1O ever present in human biblical events and Midrash shows how this is possible. Secondly, the Midrash allows for the connection between past and present. "Jewish theology is aggadic because aggadah allows for the expression of a hidden God. a God hidden in human events and in the narratives that relate and interpret these events? For example, in Midrash Rabbah on Genesis 224, the verse says. "And saw the place afar off..." The rabbis add the Godly dimension, "What did he see? He saw a cloud enveloping the mountain and said: It appears that that is the plaœ where the Holy One, blessed be He, told me to sacrifice my son."= Neusner also recognized Midrash as theologically important because of this second reason, that Midrash allows a connection with past to present. Midrash is what holds together the written Torah and the oral Torah and strengthens the continuity of the Jewish people until the present day. Seen theologically, therefore, Midrash thus hoMs together two competing truths, first the authority of scripture. and second that equally ineluctable freedorn of interpretation implicit in the conviction t hat Scripture speaks now, not only then. Joining the two, each in balance and proper proportion. Midrash as the process of mediation between the word of God in scripture and the world in which we live and serve realizes the continuity. in the here and now, of the original revealed Torah."

For example, Midrash Rabbah - Genesis to Genesis 22: 13, R. Abbba b. R. Pappo and R. Joshua of Siknin in R. Levi's name said: Because the Patriarch Abraham saw the ram extricate himself from one thicket and go and becorne entangled in another, the Holy One, blessed be He, said to him: 'So will thy children be entangled in countries, changing from Babylon to Media, from Media to Greece and from Greece to Edom; yet they will eventually be redeemed by the ram's horn2

Along the same lines. Midrash can be seen as a polemical activity. Shinan, writes, "...aggadic literature was conceived and created prirnarily as the result of the spiritual MKepnes, 21 3. ''Midrash Rabbah- Genesis 56:l (Freedrnan 1:491; Mirkin 2:267). Weusner, Whatis Midrash?, 103. 3sMidrashRabbah - Genesis 56:s (Freedman 1 :499; Mirkin 2~275)). 11 struggie of the creators of the aggadah among themselves or between them and foreign beliefs and views and other culture^."^ Shinan cites the same Midrash about the Akedah as an example, but he further explains it as a polemic against Christians. That this Midrash was written at a time when there was a dispute as to whether or not non-Jews could receive divine revelations and the possibility of prophecy after the destruction of the Second Temple.*

Mldrash As Literary Activlty Midrash has undergone a revolution as a result of the devebpment of modern iiterary criticism. In the 19th and 20th centuries. several scholars produced works that understood Midrash as narrative rather than exegesis. Hayyirn Nahrnan Bialik and Yehoshua Hana Rawnitzky produced a popular book entitled Sefer Ha-Aggadah (now in English translation), which organized narrative Midrashim according to topic rather than Biblical verses. According to Porton's definition. this would detract from the purpose of Midrash. Porton described Midrash as that which is reliant on the text and it relationship being its relevance to the text? Also interesting is Louis Ginzberg's, Legends of the Jews , which was produced in a seven volume collection by the Jewish Publication Society between 1909-1938. These volumes are also an amalgamation of ail the Midrashim from various sources into one narrative without the mention of actual Biblical verses?

"Shinan, 17, "Shinan, 19. This source has been lost to the author. "Hayyim Nahrnan Bialik and Yehoshua Hana Rawnilky, Sefer Ha - Aggaûah (Odessa, 1908-11) and Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, 7 volumes (Philadelphia. Jewish Publication Society, 7 909-1 938) For a reviaw of this literature see Aster. 3-4. 12 a These two works rnarked the start of a modern literary approach to Midrash. Kepnes explained Midrash as, "A way of finding in an existing narrative the potential for more narrati~e."~These types of literary projects take Midrash one step further and find the potential for more narrative. As will be shown below, this might be applied to other creative endeavors. where one builds on past creativity to move forward and create new narratives.

Midrash As Artistic Activity The question that still cornes to mind and which has yet to be answered about Midrash is "why was such an activity thought to be necessary?" What is wrong with the Biblical text by itself? Regardless of the above mentioned activities, what is the problern Midrash attempts to solve? Heineman in his book Darkhei Ha-Aggada discusses two midrashic methods called 'creative historiography' and 'creative philology.' "Creative historiography fills out biblical narratives by supplying details, identifying perçons, drawing an anachronistic picture of the living conditions of biblical characters, attributing to the latter a knowledge of the entire Bible and of the future, resolving contradictions, linking the details of narratives by analogy, etc. .."* 'Creative philology uses as an argument from silence to interpret not only repetitions of words and sentences, expressions which are unnecessary for the meaning of a sentence but also the absence of expected de ta il^..."^ These definitions are important in ouf understanding of why Midrash is important to an artistic enterprise. Artistic material obviously was not the primary concern of the rabbis in their use 44Alsointeresthg to look at are earlier attempts at this narrative approach for example. the works of the sixteenth century Tse'ena u Re'ena which was originaily written in Yiddish and has been transiated into English, and which uses midrashic iiterature extensively ; and the commentary entitled, Me'am Loez, a Torah commentary, written in Ladino by Rabbi Yaakov Culi (1689-1 732)which exists in both Engtsh and Hebrew translations and the Tse'ena u Re'ena for an eariy atternpt at this narrative approach. The use of Midrash as a fom of narrative was also seen in the twentieth century. 'SKepnes, 21 3. "Strack and Stern berger, 260. "Strack and Stemberger. 26û. d the 'midrashic activity' but for many reasons Midrash lends itseif peffectly to its use. Therefore, like literary critics today study Midrash for their own purpose, artists living at the period of the development of Midrash. could have used Midrash for their own purpose. This would have led to the development of art based not only on the Bible text but also on the common day understanding of the textm A similar process exists today with many other artistic activities including art. dance and theatre. Norman Cohen explains the impact Midrash can have on the arts. By opening ourselves to the sacred storieç of ouf tradition in which the characters are multi-dimensional and appear in Me situations very much akin to our own. we will be touched and transformed... Furthermore, the recreation of biblical scenes and characters by the sensitive respondent can take many different artistic forms: writing, music, drama, visual art and dance.'

The Bible is loath to tell us-the motivations.feelings or thoughts of characters. Rarely giving us descriptive details either of people or places. it is composed in a stark uncomprising style... The human mind desires answers, motivations, .explanations. Where the Bible is mysterious and silent. Midrash cornes to unravel the mystery."

The rabbis, verbally and later in written form, unraveled these mysteries. Artists. both Jewish and Christian. unraveled these mysteries by visual representations.' Images, based on common day understandings and knowledge, shed light on the biblical text and today, these images can be used to shed light on our understanding of Midrash. Why is the influence of Midrash on art an important area to study? It has been widely documented that Midrash has influenced and played an active role in both early Jewish and Christian art and this influence cm still be seen throughout the is possible that Jews of this penod, especiafly those living in the Diaspora or unable to read the original Hebrew texts. would not have differentiated carefully between the written and oral Torah. "Norman Cohen 'f reface." in JoAnne Tucker and Susan Freeman, ed., Torah ri, Motion - Creating Dance Midrash (Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, Inc.. 1990) k. %HoItz, 180. Early Christian and Jewish art means the art of the pend between the third and sixth centuries of the Cornmon ~ra. 14 history of art in the works of the Renaissance, the Baroque and even the modern period. The history of art is the history of the spirit as it reveals itseif in fons ... and wncerns itself with collating and interpreting monuments as if they were texts, since, in themselves, they have the same value as written texts, and sometimes even a greater valueP

Major discoveries, have shown the great value of art and archeology. These include, in 1921, the discovery of the badly damaged Na'aran Synagogue; in 1930, of the remarkable Beit Alpha Synagogue, which dates to the sixth century; and in 1932, the discovery and excavations of the Dura Europos synagogue. This thesis will attempt to show that, just as Midrash has become an important mode1 for literary theorists, among others, so should it become important when studying both the history of art and the history of Midrash (as well as other Bible interpretation). The following chapter will deal with what Shinan has called 'non- verbai evidence for aggadic traditions,' and Namenyi, 'texts in the form of rnonurnent~.~~Midrash lends itself to art of the Bible, and Midrash itself has been preserved in art, archeology and inscriptions. The main daim should be that. "No study of Jewish civilization can any longer afford to neglect an interpretation of the 'texts in the form of monuments' that Jewish art has bequeathed to us."' Chapter two will discuss examples of Midrash's impact on art already discovered by scholars. The examples chosen date from between the third and sixth centuries. Also, examples have been restricted to those which can be found in the compilations of Midrash Rabbah and to my knowledge do not exist among the patristic writers. Chapter three will present examples of Midrashirn which might have been 'texts in the form of monuments,' but to date and to the &est of my knowledge. have not

"Ernest Namenyi. The Essence of ~ewishAft (New York: Thomas Yoseîoff, 1960) ix- 53Shinan.81 - -Namenyi, xi. SsNarnenyi.xi. been discovered. These examples have been found by systernatically reading the volumes of Midrash Rabbah in search of suitable Midrashim. These examples have been categorized according to my own system and method in hopes of providing a list of potential art influences. Throughout this paper, the Midrashim have been footnoted with their chapter and number. allowing one to find these Midrashim, one Hebrew edition and one Engl is h edition of Midrash Rabbah. Alongside corresponding page nurnbers have been given. For the Midrashirn of Genesis to Deuteronomy, the Hebrew page nurnber corresponds to the edition of Moshe Aryeh Mirkin, which was published in Tel Aviv. as an eleven volume set. For the Midrashim of the five scrofls; Ruth, Esther, Lamentations. Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes, the page numbers correspond to the four volume set edited by S. Dunsky and pubiished by Northern Printing and Lithographie Company? In some cases, these versions may not be the most accurate that exist, but they have been used in order to provide a sense of continuity and because editions are relativefy accessible. Alongside these Hebrew versions, I have used the English translation ten volume publication, published by the Soncino Press-

Thebest edition of Genesis is that of J. TheUdor and Ch. Albeck, Jenisalem, 1965 which is based on the ms British Museum. Add 27169. The oldest extant ms is ms. Vat Ebr. 60 of the Vatican. Mirkin's edition is bas& on the Theodor/Albeck ediüon and the Romm, Wilna, 1887 For more information on other rnanuscripts, published sets and translations for dl books that exist within Midrash Rabbah se,Strack and Stemberger. 254-383; see also Aster. 'fntroduction.' 16 Chapter Two MIDRASH AND ART

Midrash has been one of the sensuous forms into which the divine revelation has been poured. Visual art is another.'

Part A: Jewish Art

Scholars of the twentieth century can not in good conscious, research Judaica without also studying Jewish archeology. architecture, and art. In the past. this area has often been ignored because of the contradictions it brulgs to mind. The term 'art.' pictorial or visual, when applied to Judaism, tends to evoke an array of negations." However, the existence of Jewish art has in the twentieth century benrecognized and investigated. The study of Jewish art forms can impact on our understanding, not only of Jewish Bible Interpretation, but also of Jewish history, civilization, communities, religious Iife and more. Civilization is not measured solely or even predominately by the history of art but art does provide objects, shapes, indications of how a culture defines beauty. ..Art helps to emboây. to objectify an ideal... whether of reason, of justice, of baiance or of human spirit- It attempts to express an ideal."

The source of this controversy lies in the book of Exodus. The second commandment States, "You shall not make for yourself a sculptured image, or any likeness of what is in the heavens above, or on the earth below, or in the waters under the earth."' Much research has been done in trying to correlate this commandment 'Milgrom, 185-6. 'Joseph Gutmann, 'The Second Commandment and the image in Judaism." Hebrew Unan Coiiege Annuai 32 (1961) 161. Many important and interesting essays can be found in two other books by Gutmann ; No Graven Images-Studies in Art and the Hebrew Bible (New York: Ktav PUblishing House. 197 1) 3-1 9; Sacred Images: Studies in Jewish Art from Antiquify to the Middle Ages (Northharn pton : Variorum Reprints, 1989) 11,161-174. Thisquote was found in a book about the history of civilizatim and whose source has now been lost t0 me. 'Exodus 20: 4. 17 with the known existence of Jewish pictofial images. Twentieth century discoveries of ancient catacombs, synagogues and manuscripts al1 seem to indicate that this commandment was not adhered to in its strictest serise. Instead, it is possible that the rabbis felt this prohibition applied only to the reproduction of images of God. not other images, "God, though, conceived of and comprehended in human terms. remained invisible within the cloud, and thus could not be depicted visually in physical terrn~."~ The law as understood was meant to protect against the creation of idols by the Içraelites as they traveled in the desert and came into contact with other cultures. The verse in Exodus that follows, 'You shail not bow down to them or serve them," seems to agree with this understanding.

Dura Europos Synagogue One such major discovery that proved the existence of Jewish art was the discovery of a synagogue at Dura Europos, located in modern day Syria. a frontier town in the third century, occupied by Romans who were stationed to protect against a Sassanian attack. In 256 C.E., the Sasanians did in fact put the city under siege, but before this, the Romans had covered the buildings close to the city wall with an earth embankment. Luckiiy, the synagogue was one of the buildings located against this city wall and was therefore preser~ed.~Discovered in 1932, the synagogue was excavated by an expedition of Yale University and the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. The discovery of a synagogue at Dura Europos was so unprecedented and 'Gutmann, "Second Commandment,' 163. BExodus205 'The literature pertaining to Dura is extensive and therefore cannot be compietely covered here, however for more information one muld conçult the following works; Cari Kraeling, The Synagogue - The Excavations at Dura-Europos - Fria/ Report V!II. PaR 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1979 ); Gutm ann, The Dura Europos Synagogue - A Reevaluation (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992) ;Ann Perkins, The Art of Dura Europos (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973); Michael Rostovtzeff, Dura EUropos and its AR (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1938); Clark Hopkins, The Discovety of Dura Europos(New Haven: Yale University Press. 1979). 18 surprising that it put to question the entire issue of visual representations within Judaism. Scholars could no longer portray Judaism as having a negative view towards imagery and instead were forced to reevaluate the situation at hand. However. what is more important to this paper. is not the issue of the second comrnandment and Judaism or the conceived historical attitudes of Jews towards art from the Biblical period to the present. A second issue arose from Vie discovery of the Dura synagogue that pertains to the study of what is Midrash and why it is or was a suitable narrative genre to which artistic representations could relate. The existence of Dura shows that there might have been a lost Jewish art which acted as the antecedent for Christian art and which was based not only on the biblical text but also on the rabbinic interpretations of that text. "It would appear that there is a considerable number of instances in which Targurn and Midrash have influenced the pictures of Dura."* Carl Kraeling's comprehensive work on the Dura-Europos Synagogue, attempts to show that the Dura paintings must be interpreted with reference to rabbinic Merature. Much debate has been given to the influences of this artistic narrative cycle. Of particular of interest is Erwin Goodenough's, 13 volumes, Jewish Symbois in the Greco-Roman W~rid.~Goodenough, though very important in the study of art and Judaism, seems to focus heavily on the impact of the Greco-Roman world on art rather than the role of the Midrash or cther rabbinic writings on art, but much has also been revealed about other outside influences on the same works of art to be discussed here. This should be kept in mind, because this paper will deal only with the role of Jewish writings on art and not outside influences. it is important to consider Dura's synagogue paintings. Frescoes were found in

"Carl Kraeling. The Synagogue - The Eiccavations at Dura Europos - Fnai Report VI//. Part One (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979) 352. 'Erwin Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Wodd, 12 volumes (New York: Pantheon Books, lnc., 1965). 19 five horizontal bands of decoration running around al1 four walls of the building. These paintings are the earliest known significant continuous cycle of Biblical images and provide exampies of combined scenes which point tu the existence of models with more detaïleci narrative cycles, possibly illustrated rnanu~cripts.~There appears to be numerous scenes in the Dura synagogue paintings that are not directly related to the Bible text, varying slightly from the actual text, giving an extra element or elements. The source of these elements is very important to the understanding of the Judaism of Dura but also to our understanding of biblical interpretation of this period, ûs well as the influence these variations have had on both later Jewish and Christian art- For the most part, scholars believe that a knowledge of Jewish exegesis and literature is essential to study the art of Dura- The non biblical illustrations in the Dura synagogue can only be interpreted with the knowledge of specific Jewish exegesis, perhaps taken from an illustrated Midrash, a Targum paraphrase or a consecutive picture cycle with additional captions quoted from the Targum.''

Midrash, had and still has. many purposes other than merely an understanding of the Bible text, as has been shown in chapter one. It would also seem that the art of Dura had many purposes. Many scholars have taken different approaches to the art of Dura and described its work as having different purposes. For example, instead of a visual image that follows the literal text of the Bible, there is an attempt to show that Dura's frescoes have a messianic message, an allegorical message or a polemical message. Rachel Wischnitzer draws on Midrash to prove her belief that the unifying theme of the synagogue is messienic expedation.' In like fashion. lsaiah Sonne uses the Midrashim to demonstrate the theme of the three crowns of Torah, is the governing

1°Biblical decoration similar in complexity and extent is not found in Christian art until the fifth century. The inscription on the Dura synagogue dates to 200 years eariier. 24415 C.E. "Bezalel Narkiss, 'Jewish Realm,"in Kurt Weitzmann, ed. Age of Sprntualiity(New York: The Museum, 1979) 368. '%ache1 Wischnitzer, The Messianri= Theme in the Wntings of the Dura Synagogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Prase. 1948). 20 concept behind the Dura panels.* As Midrash seems to have sirnila?goals, it would seem logically that artists would have borrowed from midrashic wfitings The following will list some examples of frescoes in the Dura synagogue that have exhibited the impact of Midrashim. An attempt has been made to only use examples where the Midrashirn can be found in the compilations of Midrash Rabbah, as opposed to al1 or more than one type of midrashic or targumic material." This is to help strengthen the selection of examples Mat will be given in chapter the, where a systematic reading of Midrash Rabbah has led to a selection of Midrashim that have yet to be found in existence in artistic representation but suggest aftistic activity.

Moses and the Miraculous Well Though scholars are not in full agreement, this panel, has most often been titled 'The Water Miracles in the Wilderness' or the 'Wilderness Encampment and the Miraculous Well of Be'er.' In this panel, Moses is shown with a rod, standing next to a well from which twelve streams of water seem to gush forth from twelve tents. In front of each tent stands a figure, commonly known in early classical art as the orant or praying figure. These tents al1 appear to be in front of a structure thought to be either the Tabernacle or the Tent of Meeting. Midrash Rabbah - Numbers explains that the well was like a rock that traveled with the israelites. This well was calfed 'Miriam's Weli.' Created for Miriam's sake, it was said that it ceased to exist after her death- After it set itself up in front of the Tabernacle, the Israelites would sing to the well and streams of water would come forth, divided into twelve sections, giving each tribe its own water ~upply.~"And the well was due to the merit of Miriam. For what does

l3I. Sonne, "The Paintings of the Dura Synagogue." Hebrew Union College Annuai 20 (1947) 255-362 "Ail the scholarly work cited in this paper, among other works, have also shown impact on art of other rnidrashic and aggadic works. These include the targums of Onkelos and Jonathan. as well as, the Yalqutirn, Midrash Hagadol, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer, midrashic passages in the Talmud and more- ''JO Milgrom, 'Moses Sweetens the Bitter Waters of the Portable Well: An lnterpretation of a Panel at the Dura Europos Synagogue,Journal of Jewish Ar?5(19?8)454?; Kraeling, 11 8-1 25 ;Carl Otto Nordstrom, 'Water Miracles of Moses in Jewish Legend and Byzantine Art" in Gutmann, GramImages, 297f. 21 Scripture say? 'And Miriarn died there and was buried there? And what is written after that? 'And there was no water for the congregation.'""

The Crossing of the Sea Another example of a water miracle is that of the Exodus panel. Here is a continuous narrative of three scenes showing the Exodus from Egypt, the splitting of the sea. and the crossing of the sea. The inscription on the sœne mentions both the Exodus and the cleaving of the sea. In the scene of the crossing are two elements not explicitly in the Bible text. The Israelites are shown crossing the sea in tweive paths and they are also represented as being armed. The twelve paths is in accordance with the Midrash in Midrash Rabbah - Exodus 24:1, which explains that the Israelites did cross in twelve paths."* And Moses led lsrael onward... Do you thus requite the Lord after al1 the miracles He hath performed for you, dividing the sea for you into twelve portions and drowning the Egyptians in the ses? The twelve paths are also seen in Christian illustrations, as well as, Christian writings and therefore this is not concrete evidence that early Christian art could have been based on the Dura model. However, it is evident that these Christian writers and artists were basing their work on early Jewish models of interpretation. Therefore, though Dura's art may not be the source, the Midrashim of the rabbis most likely were. The detail of the men being armed is also a surprising addition to the text. The source of this seems to come from Exodus 13:18 and the word hamushim often

"Num bers 20:1. "Num bers 20:2;Midmsh Ra- - Numbers 1:2 (Freedman 5:4; Mirkin, 93 1). 'This Midrash can also be found in MKlrash Rabbah - Genesis 848 (Freedman 2775; Mirkin 3:149). 'Why was it that they hated hirn? because He divided the sea before them, -m indicating pasyam (the sea in strips" The hatred of Joseph's brother because of the coat given to hirn by Jacob eventually led to the people being in Egypt and ultimately the parting of the sea. lgMidrashRabbah - modus 2411 (Freedman 3294; Mirkin 5:270-271)- O 22 translated as "and the children of lsrael went up armed out of the land of Egypt."' Midrash Rabbah - Exodus writes, "And the children of lsrael went up armed - They went up armed against all attacks." The Soncino translation footnotes saying, "This adds nothing but merely translates an unusual word. The Jerusalem Talmud explains that they were armed with five different weapons, hence, hamushim from hamesh, five.""

Moses' lnfancy In the scene of Moses' infancy and rescue, a naked woman appears in the river taking him from the ark. It has been said that this woman is Pharaoh's daughter, herself, who is seen in the water rescuing Moses rather than her maidservants. The Midrash writes that the Egyptians were plagued with sores on their flesh and that Pharaoh's daughter went down to the river where she saw an ark and extended her arm to grab it. With this action, she was immediately healed from the burning sensation. In the third century, the vocalization of the Bible text was not yet fixed. In Midrash Rabbah - Exodus, R- Yehuda and R. Nehemya (two scholars from the second half of the second century) disagreed about the word amah in Exodus 25. They questioned whether the text meant to say that Pharaohs daughter sent her handmaid (amah) to fetch the child or whether it was actually she who stretched forth her arm and took the baby? In this case, the exegesis of the rabbis seems to follow the approach Heineman titled "creative philology." Midrash Rabbah - Exodus explains that Pharaoh's daughter was leprous and went to bathe (this explains why she is naked); when she touched Moses' basket she was cured instantly?

20Kraeling,8 1. This stems from the word hamushim is Exodus l3:l8 being trandated as armed- The Jewish Publication Society's translation translated this word as arrned but notes that, " the meaning of the Hebrew hamushjm is uncertain." Tanakh (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Saciety)lOS. "Midrash Rabbah - Exadus 20:19 (Freedman 3:257; Mirkin S:243-244). =Exodus 2:s. 'She spied the bask& among the reeds and sent her slave girl to fetch it-' Tanakh 2:s. 23Schreckenbergand Schubert, 178. 23 Another element is the two midwives who appear in the panel and resemMe Moses' mother, Yocheved. and sister. Miriam. These two figures can be distinguished from other representations of them at Dura. This detail may possibly be related to Midrash Rabbah - Exodus, which says, "And the maiden went. Why does the verse Say 'amah' . R. Samuel said because she conœaled her identity."'

The Sacrifice of lsaac The scene of the sacrifice of Isaac was found in the synagogues at both Dura and Beit Alpha. In Dura, this scene is shown with some departures from the bibfical text: the angel of God is replaced by a hand coming out of the clouds. and the ram is not "caught in the thicket by his hornstnabut is standing next to the tree. According to rabbinic sources, the sacrifice of Isaac, is explained as a syrnbol of God's mercy towards lsrael and seen as a vehicle toward the atonement of sins. This act is for future generations to recall Abraham and take the credit for it. as if they themselves had been bound. " The hand shows that ultimately it was God that intervened and not a divine messenger."

Elijah and the Prophets of Ba'al

Let two young buils be given to us. Let them choose one but cut it up and lay it on the wood and will rot apply fire; I will prepare the other bull and lay it on the wood and will not apply fire. You will invoke

god by name, and 1 will invoke the Lord by name, and let us agree:- the god who responds with fire, that one is ~od? 24MjdfashRabbah -Exodus 125 (Freedman 3:32;Mirkin. 5:39-40). 2%enesis 22: 13, Tanakh, 32. 2eGutmann,'SacrÎfïce of Isaac: Variations on a Theme in Eariy Jewiçh and Christian Art,' in Gutmann. Sacred Images XIII, 117. Take now thy son, etc. Yet heaven forbid! I did not do this, but suppresses my feelings of compassion in order to do Thy wiN. Even so it may be Thy will, O Lord our God, that when Isaac's children are in trouble, Thou wik remember that binding in their favor and be filled with compassion for them." Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 5630 (Freedman 1 :500;Mirkin 2:276). "At &if Alpha the ram is not caught in the thicket but tied to a tree. EL Sukenik, The Synqugue of &th Alpha (New York: Georg Olrns Veriag, 1975). ''1 Kings 18:23-24. Tanakh. 554. 24 This is a scene from I Kings 18: 17-40, where the prophets of Ba'al are unsuccessful at bringing down fire from heaven for their sacrifices. but Elijah is successful. Almost al1 the elements of the Dura painting are in line with the biblical narrative. However, two details are unexplainable from the biblical text. The representation includes a small figure in the altar and a huge serpent The serpent çeems to be ready to strike the man in the altar in the kg. Most scholars believe that these elements represent midrashic additions to the story as found in Midrash Rabbah? The Midrash telis that the prophets of Ba'al set up a scheme in order to win the contest. They got Hiel. a biblical character (1 Kings l6:34), to hide in the altar and to ignite it when he was to hear the prophets cal1 out in prayer. However. in order to help Elijah. God sent a serpent to bite Hiel, killing him and thus leading to the prophets' failure and Elijah's victory.= This example truly brings to light the impact midrashic materials could and did have on artistic representation. a The materials which the artists reproduced in pictorial forrn were clearly not part of a dead alien tradition ... but rather a part of a living popular heritage of which the written word was the essential care. but which could and did undergo the elaboration of al1 folk narrative... Here we find its cfearest and most vivid manifestati~n.~

The depiction of the sacrifice of the priests of Ba'al cm only be understood through reference to rabbinic interpretati~n.~

Mordecai and Esther (The Story of Purim) ln this painting. what is shown is when the King orders Haman to dress Mordecai in royal garb, put him on a royal horse and escort him through town, declaring that this is what happens to a man who wishes to honor the King. In the 29Alsofound in Yaiqut Shirnoni. 3aMiârashRabbah - Exodus 15: 1 5 (Freedman 3: 150; Mirkin 5:1 77- 180). 3'Kraeling, 141. '*Hiel, who hid himseif for the sake of Ba'd on Mount Carmel in order to set fire to the wood did I not srnite fresco, Mordecai is seen been led on the horse, his attendant is wearing a confusing costume. From the biblical text we know that this attendant was Haman himseif and not one of the King's servants. " So Haman took the garb and the horse and arrayed Mordecai and paraded him through the city square; and he proclaimed before him: This is what is done for the man whom the king desires to honorYP First. Haman is drawn barefooted and his legs are atmost completely uncovered. These would seem to be details of a stable boy's attire. In contrast to this stable boy attire, his hair is in the style of a member of the royal court or priesthood? According to the text of Esther, we know that this man is not meant to be a stable boy, but is intended to be Haman. The biblical text does not suggest that Haman has lost his royal status at this point in the events. when he is tofd by the King to lead Mordecai through town on his horse. The Midrash, adds that Mordecai places demands on Haman. Mordecai insists that Haman provide him with the services of a stable boy, bath attendant. masseur, groom and herald. "But Haman hastened to his house, mourning and having his head covered; ...and with his head covered because of what had befallen him, he having perforrned four offices - of a bath-attendant, a barber, an orderly and a herald."= This expiains the contradiction in the representation of Haman, shown dressed as a stable boy but with the haircut of a member of the royal court.

Abraham with Grey Hair ln one of the wing panels of the synagogue, there is an image of a figure thought to be Abraham, represented as having white or grey hair. According to Midrash Rabbah - Genesis, Abraham is said to be the first person to became old and to have grey hair. '=Esther 6:11. Theway in which it is determined that his attire and hair are evidence of rank is out of the çcope of this paper. However. it should be noted that these conclusions are arrÏved at by art histofians who compare al1 the figures at Dura amongst each other and in corn parison to other art of the sarne time period. 36Kraeling,156. 26 Said R. Aha: Are not old age and hoary hairs identical? But the meaning is: If Thou has granted me old age, grant me hoary hairs. From whom do we learn this? From Abraham. Because it is written of hirn..he attained old age."

The concept seems to be that even in this early period. the rabbis talked about grey haïr as being the marker of old age. The Soncino translation also remarks that the statement, "And Abraham was old" (Genesis 243) is referring not to his age but to his general appearance. This is also found in the Vienna Genesis, where Abraham receives the covenant, he is portrayed as a white-haired man. looking up to star- studded heaven.

Conclusions about Dura The paintings of Dura provide an important glimpse into the community that existed in Dura aï this time. This evidence shows that this community. "understood its Bible. not as an artificially restricted body of material, but as the basic elemant of a living native tradition, the vehicle for comrnunicati~n."~It is unclear what type of Jewish community lived in Dura at this time and who was responsible for or influenced the pictorial cycle. It is also out of the scope of this paper to deal with the issue of Judaism at Dura. However. regardless of whether there is a unifying program or not at Dura, there is much one can learn from these works about Jewish art, Jewish Bible lnterpretation and the influence of Midrash on Judaism at this tirne. The examples cited are not the only examples. nor is Midrash Rabbah the only source that can be used. The intention here was to provide a taste of how the Midrashim, that today are found in the collections of Midrash Rabbah had to some degree an impact on the community of Dura and its artistic activity. These paintings were not found in a private

36MidrashRabbah -Genesis 59:3 (Freedman 2517; Mirkin 21295)This Midrash is alço found in Pirkei de Rabbi Uiezer Lll. 'From the day when the heavens and the earth were created there never was a man upon whom grey hairs were sprinkled until Abraham.' Kraeling, 238. 37Kraeling.352. 27 house but in the synagogue, the one public place of Jewish assembly at that time. In the synagogue, the congregation would have constantfy been in view of these panels and probably would have seen these paintings as the biblical story, even with these extra midrashic elements.

Part B: Early Christian Art "Though the two art forms (Christian and Jewish) change drastically in opposite direction, early Christian art is highly dependent on Jewish art."" The discoveries mentioned above, led scholars to investigate early and medieval Christian art for Jewish elements and influences. This was an important angle because early Christian art represented scenes mainly from the Hebrew Bible, not the New Testament. This led to questioning as to whether Christian artists depended on Jewish interpretation of the Bible and the oral transmission of that interpretation, or whether early Christian artists depended on a pictorial exemplar. Both case scenarios have been assumed and discussed above. It seemed logical that Christian painting cycles couid have been borrowed from Jewish cycles, which scholars now know existed in the third century. Research conducted after World War II, has shown that these Christian cycles do in fact contain Jewish midrashic traditions. Experts in rabbinic literature supported these findings and, for the most part, schdars view this information as relevant.' Christians readily took and adopted syrnbols and motifs of Judaism into their images and this would have included the borrowing of Midrash, whether through oral transmission or pictorial examples. There seerns to be no reason why Christians would not have borrowed Jewish Bible illustrations, especiaily and most likely because it preceded their own. Professor C.E. Morey of Princeton, was a pioneer in ''Namenyi, 14. '*There is a countercurrent that fundamentaily denies the rdevance of Jewish picbrïal examples for early Christian art, On the other hand, the rnajonty of art histoflans and archeologists familiar with Rabbinic literature continue to hypotheçize the existence of Jewish pictoriai exemplars - properiy ço!" Schreckenberg and Schubert, 145. 28 this area of research. He was the first person to propose the thesis that, "...behind the Old Testament iconography of certain illustrated parts of the Bible from the Christian Middle Ages, lay a MXiconography which was probably preChristian in orïgin, that is Jewish? Such influences can be seen in the Via Latina Catacombs, in the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore and in one of the earliest illustratecl bibles, the Vienna Genesis.

A. Vienna Genesis The Vienna Genesis is a Syrian manuscript dated to the 6th century and which is one of the most important manuscripts to survive from the early Christian period. Like the Dura frescoes, the Vienna Genesis composition is a continuous narrative, and its place of origin is within close proximity to Dura. The top half of each page has an abbreviated Septuagint text, while the bottom half has illustrations. This manuscript is important because many of the illustrations are not based on the Bible itself but on popular elaborations of the Genesis text."

Joseph and Potiphar The episode with Joseph and Potiphar's wife includes a curious woman. dressed in blue, examining a string. She has been identified as an astrologer who, according to Jewish commentaries. foretold that Joseph would father the descendants of Potiphar's wife. The woman bending over the cradle is said to be Potiphar's wife, holding a rattle over the baby. This is based on Jewish sources and is thought to be Asenath. the daughter Joseph is later to marry. In later representations of Jacob's blessing of Ephraim and Manasseh, an extra woman figure is also included. This has also been thought to be Asenath, the woman the Midrash says that Joseph married.

'OErwin Goodenough, 'Early Christian and Jewish Art.' in Gutmann, No Graven Images, 186. "The Vienna Genesis is somewhat of a problem bêcause it deals with only Genesis, as oppoçed ?O Dura which deals with many other biblicai books. However, its Genesis examples are important on their own and in relation to Dura and its Genesis representations. 29 Joseph's Departure In this representation. Joseph is saying his farewell before he is sent to Shechem. As he departs. he is let off by an angel. Though not mentioned in the Bible, the Midrash identifies this angel as Gabriel. who helps Joseph depart. In the continuation of the same story (it is depicted in four scenes). a dog is seen in front of Joseph. The Midrash explains that Joseph's brothers said. "Let us kill him by inciting dogs against him."

Joseph in Prison In Genesis 40. Joseph is in prison where he interprets the drearns of the baker and the butler. In this scene in the Vienna Genesis, a woman is shown outside the prison talking to a guard. Scholars have thought that this is meant to be Potiphar's wife who. according to the Midrash, had persuaded her husband not to kill Joseph but to put him in prison because she wished to continue to pursue him.

B. Via Latina Catacomb The Via Latina catacombs were diswvered in 1955 and contain numerous pictures portraying Hebrew Bible scenes produced between the second and fourth centuries of the Common Era. Like Dura. what was amazing about this discovery was the enormous and unexpected number of paintings that decorated its walls. "Even to the caswl visitor to the catacomb. the dominant impression is that of walking through the rooms of a fourthcentury Christian picture galleiy."'

'*Antonio Femia, The Unkrwwn Catacvrnb - A Unque Dis~çoveryafE;Euly Christian Art (Scoîiand:Geddes and Grosset Ltd.. 1991) 59. 30 Jacob's DreamO In the biblical story, Jacob stops to rest, takes a Stone, and lies down. While asfeep, he has a dream in which he sees angels of God ascending and descending some object, a ladder or a stairway. In the catacomb freçco, Jacob is seen resting on three stones with his eyes open. probably meant by the artist to suggest that Jacob is awake. At his left is a ladder with two figures, the angels, who are said to ascend and descend? The Midrash suggests the reason for the three stones as well as for the two angels and is based on the plural form of the Hebrew verb. "And as for the three stones..as a cord cannot be woven of less than three strands (so there were not less than three patriarchs) ... Ascending cannot refer to less than two (angels) while and descending iikewise must refer to two."'

Moses' lnfancy a Like the representation at Dura, here too Pharaoh's daughter herself is seen in the water, with an outstretched hand while her maidservants look on.

Zimri and Cozbl lmpaled on Phinehas' Lance The story of Phinehas and Zimri is found in Numbers 255-8, ...one of the Israelites came and brought a Midianite woman over to his companions, in the sight of Moses and the whoie lsraelite community... When Phinehas, the priest saw this. he left the assembly and taking a spear in his hand he followed the lsraelite into the chamber and stabbed both of them, the lsraelite and the woman through the belly.

in the catacomb depiction, Phinehas is shown holding up his spear above his

9chreckenbet-g and Schubert, 201. "This image also existed in similar fom at Dura, however, because it could not be fufly restored and the details, for exarnple. whether Jacob's eyes are open or close can not be decided with full confidence. I have not included it as an example. "Midrash Rabbah-Genesis 68:1 2 (Freedman 2:626; Miricin 3:85-86). 31 head diagonally and the two victims seem stuck in spaœ, stable-' This appears to be based on a widespread legend about Phinehas's spear. The legend as related in Midrash Rabbah - Numbers 2025 tells about the twelve miracles related to the spear.

He followed the lsraelite into the brothel. He drove his spear through both of them, one on top of the other ...Because he was zealous for the name of the Holy One, blessed be He, He worked twelve miracles for him: 1. Ordinarily they separate (in such a situation). but the angel held them together...l he lengthened the spear shaft that both migM be impaied together, 5. He strengthened his arm. Mat he might lift them both. 6. The spear shaft did not break. 7.They did not slide from the spaar. but heid fast in place.. .@

The above are just some of the many examples of recently discovered ancient art that demonstrate the influence of Midrash on early Jewish and Christian art. There are however many more examples which can be examined, including others from Dura, Via Latina and the Vienna Genesis. as well as other manuscripts, churches, synagogues and catacombs. The exarnples chosen are the beçt exarnples. which show their source from Midrash Rabbah and seem straightforward as to the impact they had on these art works. In conclusion, it is evident that both early Jewish and Christian art must be studied in light of Jewish Bible interpretation. in extension. this may shed light on the people that lived in the early years of Christianity and the formative years of rabbinic Judaism.

'BSchreckenberg and Schubert, 207. "Midrash Rabbab - Num bers 20:25 (Freedman 6:824-826; Mirkin 1O:2?4). 32 Chapter Three

.. .paintings and sculptures, inscriptions and mosaics enrich our knowledge of the aggadic worM of our sageslare evidence of the widespread knowledge of the aggadic tradition in the cultural world of the time, or aid us in ascertaining the date it was created. Thes are thus, direct, not mediated aids in having a live contact with times past.'

The previous chapter has shown that the Dura paintings, the Via Latina Catacombs, and the Vienna Genesis, and many other examples of early Jewish and Christian art should be read in light of biblical readings and their midrashic interpretations from the Talmudic period. In this chapter 1 would like to suggest a reverse process. The Midrashim found in Midrash Rabbah had, at the very least, a minimal influence on early Jewish and Christian art. Scholars of the twentieth century recognize that early Jewish and Christian art was influenced, at least to some degree, a by rabbinic interpretation of the Bible. Specifically, examples have been used in chapter two where sources of the art can be found in the material compiled in Midrash Rabbah. At the çame time, an attempt has been made to use examples whose source stems from Jewish Bible interpretation, rather than from the patristic writers.' Though. the amount of influence varies according to different scholars. the fact of its existence is not debatable.. As the exarnples prove, and scholars continue to write, extra-

'Shinan, 91. 'Kraeling. 351-2. This has been done to the best of this author's knowtedge and is based on the rnethod of Schreckenberg and Schubert, who attempt to list examples that could only be explained by rabbinic interpretation. This is opposed to artistic representations that can be explained by using the Bible text itself andior the patristic writers. Keep in mind, however, that early Christian writers would also have been influenced by early Jewish Bible lnterpretation and would have used these interpretations as a source of their writings. (This paper is even more limited then Schreckenberg and Schubert's appmach, as not every type of rabbinic interpretation has been dealt with, but only those that could be found in Midrash Rabbah.) '"No Jewish illustrateci manuscript has SUM-ved from ancient times, yet. it has ben suggested that Jewish figura1 art, and certainly Jewish oral tradition. had considefable thematic influence on Christian art." Helen Gardner. Art Through the Ages, Ninth Edition (Fortworth; HW College Publisher. 1991)265. 33 canonical Jewish elements appearing in later Christian and Jewish art and legends in the Dura Synagogue that reappear in medieval Christian and Jewish art have often been cited to support the theory that a now lost ancient Jewish manuscript served as a model for the Dura artists and for later Jewish and Christian art.' It is believed that the possible guide for the Dura artists would have been illustrated Jewish manuscripts lost to us today. Such manuscripts would ~ISOhave been a guide for Christian churches and manuscript illustrations. However, many believe that these guides would not be actual Jewish illustrated Bibles but other texts based on the Bibie! "The Bible in its Hebrew form, even in the LXX translation, was too sacred to be illustrated figuratively. However, the biblical stories could be transformed into epic poems, tragedies and other forrns of literary expression.. ."Widrashim were the product of the rabbis, or as explained in chapter one. an 'activity' of the rabbis. After years of oral transmission, they were collected and publishad as one unit in the compilations known as Midrash Rabbah These compilations (the actuai compiling and publishing of the Midrashim that have becorne known as Midrash Rabbah), date approximately between the third and eleventh centuries and are now in a more or les fixed state. Some scholars have suggested that this lost Jewish manuscript or manuscripts would have been similar to the compilations of Midrash Rabbah.' This chapter will proceed under the assumption that illustrated manuscripts might have existed and were similar in some respects to interpretations now found in Midrash Rabbah, but instead of just text they were combined with images. An attempt will be made to provide a list of Midrashim which might have served as graphic illustrations. either to early Jewish or Christian artists, attempting to represent biblical scenes. Therefore, to

Gutmann, 'The lllustrated Midrash"in Gutmann. Sacred Images. VIII-1C2- 'Michael Avi-Yonah, "Goodenough's Evaiuation of Dura," in Gutmann. A Reevaluation: The Dura Europos Synagogue (Atlanta: Scholars Press. 1992 ) 128; Also Gutrnann, The lllustrated Midrash," in Gutmann, Sacred Images VI I 1.1 01 . See for example. Gutmann. The lllustrated Midrash.' 34 my knowledge. the following examples have not yet been found in either early Jewish or Christian art. If such a lost Jewish manuscript, as has been suggested. should be found. or new synagogue and/or catacornb art unravelled. these examples might be among these images.

Why Midrash Rabbah? The purpose of this list is also to show why Midrash Rabbah is a suitable narrative genre from which artistic representation could emerge. Gary Porton in his article, "Defining Midrash" provides a list of important Iiterary features that distinguish rabbinic Midrash. "Rabbinic texts are collections of independent units. The sequential arrangement is the work of the editor(s). It is doubtful that the individual pericopae or statements were originally parts of a consecutive commentary to the Bible? This is one reason why Midrash Rabbah has been chosen as the sample collection versus other midrashic or aggadic collections. Being assembled by an editor, its Midrashim are broad and non-confineci. They come from different people and different places (it is believed that most of the Midrashirn originated in Palestine and were borrowed. for example, in the Babylonian Talmud). For this thesis the volumes of Midrash Rabbah have been read systematically. with the use of bath the English and Hebrew versions. to arrive at a selection of Midrashim that land themselves to graphic representation. The selection process chosen was by theme or category. for which corresponding Midrashim were chosen from each volume of Midrash Rabbah. consisting of the volumes on the Pentateuch and the Five ScroH~.~ Five categories. with two sub-categories. were chosen for the selection process. Gary Porton, 'Defining Midrash,' in Jacob Neusner. ed. The Study of Ancient Judaism - Mishnah. Midrash, Siddur (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1981) 79. As a whole the collection will be called Midrash Rabbah, but when refemng to a specifi book they will be referred to as Midrash Rabbah and followed by the name of the book For example, Mklf'astr Rabhah - Genesis and so forth. 35 The first category was that of physical descriptions. Instances where the rabbis gave descriptions either of characters. their ages, or physical attributes. which are not provided in the biblical text These elements bring clarity to what is already existing in the biblical text. This category has been divided into three sections, according to whether it is a description of an object, animal or person. The second category is extra graphic details that are not indicated in the text directly but help the reader to understand what is taking place. This is information that is in addition tu what we already know and does not necessarily elaborate on existing details. This category has been divided into two sub-categories, f irst, the elaboration of already existing detaiis by adding extra elements either people, animals or objects. The second sub category is more than the addition of extra people, objects or animals. but which in themselves becorne stories or events which are not found in the biblicai text. The third category is missing elements: cases where the rabbis had questions as to where certain characters were or what they were doing when certain events were occurring. The fourth category is the adding of the Godly dimension to areas of the text where God is not explicitly mentioned. This also includes the adding of rnessengers of God, for example. angels. The fifth category is a concentrated look at the Midrashim of the scroll of Esther. In sum, the categories fall under the headings; physical detai 1s. extra elements, missing details and the Godly dimension, and sligMly different. a look at the Midrashim on Esther. To some extent, the categories chosen are based on the examples that have already been found and were cited above. Therefore, in each category reference will be made back to similar examples as found in chapter two. Category One: Physical Details A. Objects A light shah thou make to the ark ...R. Abba b. Kahana said: It means a skylight; R. Levi said: a precious stone.. .And to a cubit shalt Mou finish it upward.. .R. Judah said it contained three hundred compartrnents.. . R. Neherniah said ... nine hundred cornpartments.. .With lower, second and third stories shalt thou make it: the bottom story for garbage. the second for himself and family and the clean animals and the third for the unclean ones Others reverse it: The bottom story for the unclean animals. the second for himself and his family and the clean animals and the top for the garbage. How then did he manage? He arranged a kind of trapdoor through which he shovelled it sidewaysm

ln this case, the Bible text has given some description about Noah's ark. Noah was commanded by God to make an ark with three stories, however, the purpose or function of these three stories is unknown to the reader- The Midrash quoted above fills in gaps about the uses of the three stories of the ark, as well as the appearance of a skylight and the number of compartments the ark contained. With the knowledge of this Midrash, an artist could, not only show the three stories, but fiIl in the animals. the people and objects in their proper places. This is a good example of the possibilities Midrash can have because it shows two conflicting views of the same visual image and would suggest the possibility of different artistic traditions (recensions) of the same scene. As seen in the above example, the rabbis dealt with the description of objects. They wanted to know what the ark looked like, perhaps in a sense they were in search of a verbal image. Similarly, they also wanted to know what other biblical objects looked Iike. The Tabernacle, Make after their pattern in blw, purple and scarlet; ... Just as the seraphim stand above, so do the acacia-boards stand below; just as there are stars above, so are there stars below.. .This teaches that the gold clasps in the Tabernacle looked like glittering stars in heaven." l0MidmshRabbah - Genesis 31 :t 1 (Freedman 1 :245; Mirkin 2: 21 -23). ' Midrash Rabbah - Exodus 35:6 (Freedman 3435;Mirkin SlO3). 37 O In Exodus 28117, the Bible describes the breastplate of Aaron, '...set in it mounted stones, in four rows..." The rabbis in turn questionad how they were set? "A row of cornelian,..,on the cornelian were written the names of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Reuben. On the topaz were written..." and the description of the breastplate continues. As the rabbis elaborated on Aaron's breastplate, on the Tabernacle and as would seem most likely they also elaborate on the other holy vessels. A cloth of blue was spread over al1 the vessels that stood in the Holy Sanctuary because the Shechinah dwells there, and it was a counterpart of the divine abode on high, which has the appearance of Mue. How did they proceed? They placed a cfoth of blue over the body of the table to form a partition between it and the vessels. After this they placed its vessels upon it; as it says and the pans, and the bowls and the jars wherewith to pour out ... How was the shewbread arranged? Six baves were placed in one pile and six loaves in the other pile... How were the bowls arranged?..?

A few final examples that fit into this category have to do with Aaron and the objects surrounding him. What object did Aaron use to destroy the Golden Calf, "R. Assi said: Scripture teaches by inference that Aaron twk a hammer and battered it (the Golden Calf) in their presen~e."~Aaron also had other objects associated with him ; namely the clouds of glory in the wilderness and his rod.

.. . lt was due to the merit of Aaron that I set clouds of glory about you. .. How many clouds of glory encircle Israel in the wilderness? R. Hoshaya and R. Josiah differed on this point. R. Josiah said, five, four towardç the four points of the compass, and one that went in front of them. R. Hoshaya said, seven; four towards the four points of the compass, one above them, one below them, and one that advanced ahead of them three days journey and struck down before them the snakes and the scorpions, the fieiy serpents and the rocks.'

One would imagine from this one scene of the lsraelites in the desert various

12MidrashRabbbah - Exodus 38:s (Freedman 3: 457; Mirkin 5: 121). T3MidrashRabbah - Numbers 434 (Freedman 1:112-115; Mirkin 9: 80-82) The Midrash continues with descriptions of every holy vessel; the pans,pots etc- 14MidmshRabbah - Leviticus 7:1 (Freedman 4:89-30; Mirkin 777-78)- 15MidrashRabbah - Numbers 1:2 (Freedman 53;Mirkin 9: 10-1 1). 38 types of cloud configurations. As for Aaron's rod, it miraculously never changed shape though it was said to have swallowed up all the other rods of the Egyptians. R. Jose b. Hanina said: A great miracle happened to that rod. for although it swallowed up al1 the rods that had been cast down, sufficient to make ten heaps, still the rod did not al1 became any thicker. and al1 who saw it recognized it as Aaron's rod. On this account, Aaron's rod became a good symbol for al1 the miracles and wonders which were to be performed for lsrael throughout the generations."

One of the best examples of animal descriptions is that of the description of the serpent by the rabbis, which exists in more than one Midrash. In this Midrash, one can picture the appearance of the serpent both before and after his transgressions. R. Samuel b. Nahman said: The serpent was asked: ' Why are you to be found amongst the fenœs?' He replied: Because I broke the fence of the world.' He was further asked. 'And why do you crawl about the ground with your tongue slivering on the ground?' He replied: 'The cause for this is my slandefing my Creator' ... The first serpent possessed the power of speech like human beings; when Adam and Eve would not eat of that forbidden tree he began to slander his Creator, and he said to them, 'From this tree the Creator ate and created His world, and He therefore forbade you to eat thereof lest you create another world.' And what did God do unto him? He severed his feet and cut off his tongue, so that he shouM no longer be able to speak."

C. People Along the same line, one always questions what biblical characters looked like. For example, who is the figure who wrestles with Jacob and how does he appear to Jacob? In Genesis 32, Jacob is on the move and he sends off his family and possessions to get them away from his brother Esau. In the Bible text, it is said that he is left alone and it is then that a man wrestles with him: "And there wrestled a man

''Midrash Rabbah - modus 9:7 (Freedman 3:125; Mirkin 5:12S)- "Midrash Rabbah - Deuteronomy 5:10 (Freedman 7:112; Mirkin 11 91-92}. 39 with him."" An unidentified man cornes to the scene and the question arose as to who was this man and how did he corne to Jacob. The goal of the Midrash is to reconcile the conflict. "R. Huna said: He appeared to him in the guise of a shepherd. Thus each had flocks and each had camels. Said he to him: 'Take yours across, and then I will take mine across-' So Jacob took his across- Then he went back to S8e if he had left anything behind when imrnediately, there wrestled a man with him."s The Midrash serves the purpose of blurring the division between the written text and the desire for the visuaf image. These questions were not only asked about characters that were unidentified but also those characters who are know in the Bible by either name, family or deed. As seen in chapter two, the Bible describes Abraham as being old, the Midrash elaborates and says this refers to his physical appearance and means that he has grey hair. In Dura, the artist transformed this into a visual image by showing a grey- haired Abraham. Likewise, the Midrash questions what many of the biblical characters looked like. For example, what did Dinah look like when she went out, an event that led to disaster and war. The Midrash concludes that when Dinah went out in Genesis 34 she must have ken dressed like a harlot? This would explain the chain of events in which she ends up defiled by Shechem. The Midrash describes Shechem as being a serpent. "She brought upon herseif the violation by Shechem, the son of Hamor. the Hivite, who is called a serpent and he bit her ..." Hivite is connected with the Aramaic word for serpent. In Iike fashion, why did Joseph's brothers not recognize him? "The rabbis said he had left them bearded, so he knew his brethren, but they had left hirn beardless, and they knew hirn not." This might remind us of the Dura panel of Mordecai, where Haman's physical description agrees with the Midrash, yet has no

'BGenesis 32125 "Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 57: 2 (Freedman 2: il 0; Mirkin 2:279-280). 'OMidrash Rabbah - Genesis 60:1 (Freedman 2: 736; Mirkin 2:302-203). "Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 71 :7 (Freedman 2:842; Mirkin 3:122-123). 40 connection to the Bible text. Another issue of concern to the rabbis was the ages of certain characters. This is also an important issue when discussing how an artist chose to represent an individual. For exarnple, unlike the birth process we know today, Adam and Eve were not created as babies according to the Midrash. but as grown adults. According to the Midrash. "Afar (of the dust) . R. Judah b. R. Simon said: ofer (a young man) he was created as a young man in his fuflness. R. Eleazar b, R. Sirneon said; Eve too was created fully developed. R. Johanan said: Adam and Eve were created as at the age of twentyna The range of ages for Esther also could affect her personal appearance in a visual representation. "And He brought up Hadassah Rab said: She was forty years old, Samuel said: She was eighty years old? Now what about Abraham's sons, Isaac and Ishmael? One would think that Ishmael was a child when he was sent away, and that Isaac as well was a child when he was taken to be sacrificed. Why? Because the text says, Hagar puts him (Ishmael) on her shoulders. "Abraham took some bread and a skin of water and gave it to Hagar. He placed them over her shoulder, together with the child."' However, the rabbis said that lshmael was twenty-seven years old? As for the boy Isaac, perhaps he was not actually a boy when he went to be sacrificed. "He bound Isaac: Can one bind a man thirty seven years old? (another version: twenty six years oI~)."~ One last interesting example is found in the Midrashim on Ruth. Who was Ruth and why was she of interest to Boaz? Though the Midrash does not specificaily give details about her physical appearance, it does explain that she was attractive and give her modest characteristics that an artist could convey in an image.

22 Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 14:7 (Freedrnan 1 :1 14; Mirkin 1 :t 05). 2JMidrashRabbah - Genesis 39:l3 (Freedrnan 1 :323-4;Mirkin 2:lOû-101). "Genesis 21 :14. 26Mjdmsf7Rabbah - Genesis 53: 13 (Freedman 1:472; Mirkin 2:246). 2%arahwas 90 at Isaac's birth and 127 at his death or Abraham spent 26 years in Hebron cainciding with Isaac's birth and ending with the attempted sacrifice. 41 Whose damsel is this? Did he then not recogniçe her? The meaning is that when he saw how attractive she was, and how modest her attitude, he began to inquire concerning her. All the other women bend down to gather the ears of corn, but she sits and gathers; al1 the other women hitch up their skirts, and she keeps hers down; al1 the other women jest with the reapers, while she is resenred; al1 the other women gather from between the sheaves, whib she gathers from that which is already abandoned."

Category Two: Extra Elements A. People, animals and objects The second category is more than just an eraboration of already given descriptions. The following cases are examples of Midrashim in which the rabbis added extra elements to the biblical stories. This could be divided into two sub- categories. One is when extra people, objects and animals were added to enrich the present story. The other is when extra elements add full stories to the Bible events. In the first case. an example already seen in art is the inclusion of an extra figure in the visual representations of Jacob blessing the sons' of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh. In the San Callisto Catacombs near Rome, and also in the Vienna Genesis, a women figure is included in this scene. Scholars have identified this figure as Asenath. According to midrashic material, Asenath was the daughter of Dinah, who married Joseph. The Targum of Onkelos explains, "They are rny sons which the word of the Lord gave me according to this writing. according to which I took Asenath. the daughter of Dinah, your daughter to be my wifeSna Because this scene on the San Callisto catacomb dates to the fourth œntury, we can confidently suggest that this was

Z7MidrashRabbah - Ruth 4:6 (Freexîman 8: 55; Dunsky,99). "J. W. Etherridge, ed. The Targums of Onkelos and &nathan ben Uniel on the Pentateuch (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1968) 328. 42 an early midrashic addition to the this scene? Another example of a Midrash containing an additional person is found in Exodus 18:7. The text reads, "...and Moses went out to meet his father-in-law." "The sages said: With Moses there also went out Aaron, Nadab, Abihu and seventy elders of Israel; some say that the ark also went out with them? Unquestionably, a visual scene foltowing the Midrash would consist of more than merely two characters, Moses and Jethro and tharefore, an image of this scene would be considerably altered, with different connotations. Those unfamiliar with the text itself would believe the visual representation was the fact, rather than rabbinic elaboration. There are many other examples of this type of addition. The rabbis add the animals of the Garden into the story of the eating of the fruit. The story tells that Eve ate from the fruit of the tree and in turn gave Adam also to eat from it. The text of Genesis 3:6 says, "And she gave also unto her husband." "'Alsot is an extension; she gave the cattle, beasts and birds to eat of it."" The rabbis explained that Eve gave to Adam the fruit and also the cattle, beasts and birds of the garden. The exegetical principle behind the Midrash was the word 'also' (gam) which wherever it appeared in the biblical text the rabbis believed it was meant as an extension- Therefore, the liberty of giving biblical stories extra elements was taken. In this case, that meant including the animals in the sin that led to the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the

TheMidrash also discusses another eiement of the story, which falls into the second part of this category. Rabbinic tradition says that Jacob had bis doubts about blessing the sons of Joseph and Asenath because he feared they had a illegitimate rnaniage. The text says, 'These are my sons whom God has given me by this' (Genesiç 48:9) The rabbis thought that what was meant 'by this' was the mam'age contract which Joseph showed Jacob, according to the Midrash, in order that Jacob would bless the boys- There are also other Midrashirn about Asenath, for example, it was said that she tended to Joseph as a nurse when he amved in Egypt and ai90 that stie was the one who toM Joseph to go to Jacob to have her sons blesseci. Therefore, though not actualiy in the text, in Midrash and in art, Asenath plays an important role. For more information on Asenath and the scene of the Biessing of Josephs' sons see Wolfgang Stechow, 'Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph," in Gutmann, nib Graven Images- 30MidrashRabbah - Exodus 27:2 (Freedrnan 3: 323: Mirkin 6:10-11). Midmsh Rabbah - Genesis 195 (Freedrnan 1 :lS:Mirkin 1 :137-138). 43 garden? The only animal said not to obey was a certain bird, translated possibly as a phoenix. 'The school of R. Janna maintained: It lives a thousand years, at the end of which a fire issues from its nest and burns it up, yet as much as an egg is left and it grows new limbs and lives? These elements though not in the text, elaborate on the biblical story, giving a more detailed account and providing a greater visual experience which would have or could have ptayed out nicely in an aftistic representation. Similar, to the extension of the animals, other Midrashim have added elements that are extensions of the biblical text. in the story of Joseph, we are told that Joseph was left in an empty pit Genesis 37: 24 tells us that Josephs' brotkrs, "Took hirn and cast hirn into the pit. The pit was empty, there was no water in it." The Midrash says that there was no water in the pit but it was not empty. lnstead they suggest there were two pits. based on the fact that the word pit is found twice in the verse. One pit was filled with pebbles, the other was full of snakes and s~orpions.~The addition of snakes and scorpions really picks up the horror of the story. Now, not only do we envision Joseph. alone in a pit with no water, we are now made to picture that he was trapped with snakes and scorpions. This is a perfect addition to a horror story and a delight for one who would have to convey the graveness of Joseph's situation in visual form. Another example is that of the addition of a lion to the story of Noah. The rabbis ask if Noah was requited when he was about to leave the ark. "R. Huna said in R. Eliezer's narne: When Noah was leaving the Ark, a lion set on him and mairneâ hirn so that he was not fit to sacrifice and his son Shem sacrifice in his stead? This is to show that even though Noah was righteous in his time, it was only relative to those around him and therefore, when it was over he too was punished by being maimed. ( a 321nthe same Midrash, the fruit that they eat is described as king grapes, other Midrashim describe the fruit as other types, ie. figs, wheat etc. This would fit into the first category. of description of objects- 'JMÎdfashRabbah - Genesis 19:s (Freedman 1 351; Mirkin 1 :l3?-138). "Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 84: 1 6 (Freedman 2782; Mirkin 423). ''Adidrash Rabbah - Genesis 30: 6 (Freedman 1235; Mirkin 2307-108). 44 mairned person can not offer a sacrifice). Though this is not explicit in the text. it seems that the rabbis felt that Noah shouid be punished. However, al1 Midrashim are not like the above, and al1 do not add danger to a story. Instead, often elements are added for the opposite effect. to show the good in the story. "And the lsraelites went to the sea."" The rabbis explained that first the Israelites stepped into the sea and only when the water reached their noses did the sea divide and becorne dry land. The text, however. does not explain what happened while they were crossing within the sea. "R. Nehorai said in a discourse: the daughter of lsrael passed through the sea holding their children with their hand; and when these cried, they would stretch out their hands and pluck an apple or a pomegranate from the sea and give it to them." The addition of extra gifts, presurnably by God, was a common addition in midrashic literature and increased the value of the miracles that occurred to the Israelites. e The Israelites, according to the rabbis, seemed to often receive extra gifts once in the dessert. When God cornes in Exodus 25 to Moses, He tells him that He wants the Tabernacle built. The rabbis present a dialogue between Moses and God. Moses asks if the lsraelites will be able to wnstruct such an object, with God's reply that everyone will be able to complete this task. The rest of the Exodus chapter describes the construction of the Tabernacle. The Midrash explains that. "...together with the manna. there descended for the Israelites precious Stones and pearls. which their princes gathered up and stored away.- This further explains how the lsraeiites would have completed the task of building the Tabernacle, and the miracle of having these additional materials, which do not exist in the Bible story.

3dExod~s1522. 37MidrashRabbah - Exodus 21 :10 (Freedrnan 3:272;Mirkin 5:254). Midrash Rabbah - Exodus 33:8 (Freedman 3:4234; Mirkin 6:95-96). 45 B. New Scenes The second sub-category of extra elements. is elements which are not only animals. people or objects added to a story but extra stories which emerge because of the inclusion of extra details. One is an example that was seen in chapter two about Elijah and the prophets of Ba'al. In this case. the Midrash adds the character of Hie1 and the story of the scheme planned by the prophets of Ba'al to win the bet they have made with Elijah. In Exodus we are told that Moses is tending to the flocks of Jethro. his father-in- law, when he is approached by God to become a leader on behalf of the kraelites. The rabbis questioned why Moses was picked at this time and when his was functioning in this profession. The rabbis chose a single animal of Moses' flock to introduce and added a whole story to explain how Moses moved from one position to the other. Our rabbis said that when Moses. our teacher, peace be upon him, was tending the flock of Jethro in the wildernesç, a little kid escaped from him. He ran after it until it reached a shady place. When it reached the shady place. there appeared to view a pool of water and the kid stopped to drink. When Moses approached it. he çaid ' I did not know that you ran away because of thirst; you must be weary.' Su he placed the kid on his shoulder and walked away. Thereupon God said: ' Because thou hast mercy in leading the flock of a mortal, thou wilt assuredly tend rny f lock Israel. Hence Now Moses was keeping the flocka

"Now this is how the lampstead was made ... According to the pattern that the Lord had shown Moses. so was the lampstead made? The rabbis understood from this verse from Numbers that. though not described. somehow God showed Moses how to make the lamp. Also, because the subject of the verse is unclear, perhaps Moses did not actually make the lamp himseif. .. . Moses experienced more difficulty in understanding the construction

3QMidrashRabbah - Exodus 2:2 (Freedman 3:49: Mirkin 5:55-57). of the candlesticlc than he did in that of al1 the other vessels of the Tabernacle, until the Holy One, Messed be He. showed it to hirn with his finger ...Seeing that he found it difficult the holy one, blessed be He, said to Moses: Take a talent of gold. cast 1 into the furnaœ and take it out again and the candlestick will assume shape of its own accord ; as it says, its cups, its knops and its flowers shall wme out of it-..Moses smote with a harnmer and the candlestick took shape of its own accord... "

One powerful image sees the Midrash elaborate on what an angry Judah would have looked like. When Joseph saw the signs by which he knew that Judah was angfy, he trembla and was tenified. ainiking to himseif, 'Woe is me! he may kill me.' What were these signs? The scholars of Beth Shiloh said: Blood flowed from his two eyes. Some Say that he wore five garments; he had hair on his chest which, when he was angry, pierced through al1 d thern. What did Joseph do in that hour? He kicked the stone column on which he was sitting and reduced it to a heap of fragments. At this Judah was astonished.. .Judah seized his sword to draw it from its sheath but it would not corne out?

lndeed the rabbis added information that added drama to the story, details about Judah and anger in generai. What they provided in this example was a scene worthy of representation. One Midrash should be mentioned here, which is connected to the burial of Moses but appears to have no actual textual basis. The rabbis questioned why God gave Moses' bufial so much attention. Because when God went down to Egypt and the time for redernption of lsrael had corne, al1 lsrael were occupied with gathering silver and gold, but Moses was going around the city and krthree days and three nights was labouring to find Joseph's coffïn, for the lsraelites could not leave Egypt without Joseph ...After Moses had tired himseif a certain Segulah met him and observing he was very wear y... she took him to the river... Whereupon immediately Joseph's coffin began to break through the waters and to rise from the depths like a stick. Moses took it and placed it upon his shoulder and carried it and al1 lsrael followed? "Midrasf, Rabbah - Nurn bers 1 5:4 (Freedman 6:644;Mirkin lO:l4O-l4l). '*MidrashRabbah - Genesis 93: 7 (Freedman 2: 863-4; Mirkin 4:137-140). '' Midrash Rabbah - Deuteronomy 1 1 :7 (Freedman 6:178-9; Mirkin 11 :1534). 47 This type of additional story may have in this time period been given a status on par with the actual existing biblical stories in the Torah. Therefore, it likely could have been visually portrayed in its own right.

Category Three: Misslng Details The third category is Mat of missing elements. Where is or was so and so when everything was going on? Where was Adam when the serpent was talking to Eve? Where was the bread that Abraham asked Sarah to make and never seerned to reach the table? Or where did Jacob go when he left his father's bedside, knowing that Esau was on his way in and he had just stolen his father's blessing. The ramis had the same questions, and they supplied answers. Where was Adam during the famous conversation between Eve and the serpent. "Abba Halfon b. Koriah said: He had engaged in his natural functions (intercourse) and then fallen asleep. The rabbis said: O He (God ) took him and led him ail around the world telling him: 'Here is a place fit for planting trees, here is a place fit for sowing? Likewise, we might ask where Jacob was after he stole the birthright; would ha not be curious to know what took place between his father and his brother Esau when the truth was uncovered? The Bible text says in Genesis 27:30 that, "No sooner had Jacob left the presence of his father Isaac.-.than his brother Esau corne back." So where was he? The rabbis explained, "Jacob stood behind the door until Esau came in and then he departed... He appeared to have gone out. yet had not actually done

SO."~Visually, this detail adds to the drama. A discussion between Jacob and Esau where the truth is uncovered. Esau is devastated while Jacob hiding behind the door looks on - perhaps in victory?

"Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 19:3 (Freedman 1:149; Mirkin 1:135). "Midrash Rabbah -Ganesk 66: 5 ( Freedman 2:W; Mirkin 3:59). 48 Category Four: God Dimension The fourth category is the Godly dimension. Often, in Midrash. the rabbis employed a Godly dimension to enhanœ the story. It was assumed that God was everywhere in the Bible. Therefore. even in incidents when He was not explicitly mentioned He was there. In many cases the rabbis added God or at a somewhat safer stance the angels of God. In çome cases. the angels already exist or merely are described. For example. the angels that ascend and descend the bdder while Jacob sleeps. How many angels are there and what are they doing? Asœnding cannot refer to less than two angels while and descending likewise must refer to two, and each angel is a third of the world in size ...the statement that they were ascending and descending on Jacob we must take to mean that some were exalting hirn and others degrading him, dancing, leaping and maligning him.. .they ascended on high and saw his teatures and they descended below and found him sleeping?

In Genesis 32, Jacob is confronted by God's angels on his journey. "...and @ angels of God enmuntered him. When he saw thern, Jacob said, 'This is Godls camp.' So he narned the place Mahaf~aim."~The rabbis explainad the reason that Jacob named the place two camps was. ".JOteach that four thousand ministering angels disguised themselves for Jacob's sake and they afl looked like King's troops; some were clad in armour. others were horsemen. others were chari~teers."~This is similar to the approach we saw above. where the rabbis described an angel of God as being disguised as a shepherd. In some cases. angels not in the Bible are added. In chapter two. this was seen in the Vienna Genesis in the scene of the departure of Joseph. where he was illustrated as being escorted by an angel. The purpose of this varies but somehow they are used to add support to the characters. Sometimes they are used to show the

'$MidrashRabbah - Genesis 68:12 (Freedman 2:625-6; Mirkin 3:85-87). "Genesis 32:2-3. aMidrash Rabbah - Genesis 75:10 (Freedman 2:695-6; Mirkin 31172). 49 inchsion of God. other tîmes they are rneant to show the morals or reasons for the actions of the characters. We are never given feelings of biblical characters, that however, does not suggest that they did not have feelings. For example. the rabbis realized that Jacob stealing Esau's blessing was no small. unimportant event. Jacob himself would probably have had rnixed feelings and would moçt definitely have been somewhat nervous to carry out this deception. In the Midrash, the rabbis elaborated on this scene. "When Isaac said to Jacob, Corne near, l pray thee, that I may feel thee, perspiration poured over his legs, and his heart rnelted like wax; whereupon the Holy One, blessed be He, provided hirn with two angels, one at his right and one at his left, and these supported him by the elbows. that he might not fall."g Morally, angels often came to show a biblical character what he must do or to give him permission to do something which appears morally wrong. In the case of the story of Judah and Tamar, we must question the character of Judah. Why would he have stopped to use the services of a Street harlot? The rabbis seem to have believed that Judah did not wish to stop. "When Judah saw her .A.Johanan said: He wished to go on, but the Holy One, blessed be He, made the angel who is in charge of desire appear before him, and he said to him: 'Whlher goest thou, Judah? Whence then are kings to arise; whence are redeemers to arise?"' Another moral issue arose when an explanation is required for why Moses murders the Egyptian. "The sages said: he çaw that there was no hope that righteous perçons would arise frorn him or hi$ offspring until the end of generations. When Moses saw this, he took counsel with the angels and said to them: 'This man deserves death' They agreed; hence it says, and when he saw that there was no man and he smote the Egyptian."s' The added aspect of the Godly dimension often adds fear to a particular 'gMidiashRabbah - Genesis 443 (Freedman 1 362; Mirkin 2339-140). "Midrash Rabbah - Genesis 858 (Freedman 2:795; Mirkin 4:40). 5'MidrashRabbah - Exodus 1 29 (Freedman 337). 50 situation. "For it said, the sea saw it and fled (Psalms 1 19:3) What did it see? R. Nehorai said: It saw the Tetragrammaton engraved upon (Moses) staff and it parted-..mg;! "...Gad does not exact punishment of any nation before he first exacts punishment of its guardian angel. How? Before God drowned Pharaoh and al1 the Egyptians in the sea he first drowned their gwrdian angel ...And when the Egyptians came out in pursuit of the Israelites the Israelites Iifted up their eyes and saw the guardian angel of the Egyptians hovering in the air."= Finally, the angeis are added to increase the vision of God and his power. In the story of the giving of the Torah, God is already present. yet the rabbis still add angels to the scene. ''On the day that the Lord came down on Mount Sinai to give the Torah to Israel, there came down with Him sixty myriads of ministering angels each one having in his hand a crown wherewith to crown each of I~rael-"~

Category Five: Esther One final area of description is the Midrashirn on Esther. I have chosen this as a final category because of the various examples that were found within this compilation that span the spectrurn of categories. As well, this is the biggest collection of Midrashim on one group of characters and stories which is perfectfy suited to graphic representation. Though Genesis, also had many examples, the location. characters and time period changed, making the unit big as a whole but not as consistent as that which was found in Esther. The Midrashim on Esther add many extra elements, dreams are a big part of the elaboration, as well as the addition of objects and character description. Though the story of Esther is in itself a somewhat detailed book in terms of description, certain ambiguities exist and many places lack details. Description of 52MidrashRabbah - Deuteronomy 3:8 (Freedman 7:76;Mirkin 11 :ôû-61). 53MidrashRabbah - Deuteronomy 122 (Freedman 724; Mirkin 1 1 :24). Midrash Rabbah - Song of Songs 4:4 (Freedman 9:28-29;Dunsky 57-59). 51 objects is therefore also prominent in the Midrashim on Esther. For one. what did the throne of the king look like? lndeed this is not a crucial detail, which wouM change the outcome of a story. However. it was apparently of interest to the rabbis and would corne in handy to an artist wishing to show the king on his throne. On the throne of his kingdom. ..A. Aha said: like an am chair with a footstool ...As he ascended the first step, a lion stretched out an arm to hm; at the second an eagle stretched out arm ... 8y the seat itself there was a golden sceptre behind, at the top of which was a dove with a golden crown in its mouth. so that the king should be seated on a throne with the golden crown just barely resting on his head?

One probiem that arises in the biblical story is th8 conflict between Haman and Mordecai, an important issue which has wnsequences for the rest of the story. The text says that Mordecai refused to bow down to Haman and the rabbis questioned why since there does not seem to be anything wrong with bowing down to a court official, according to Jewish law. "After these things did King Ahasherus promote Haman.. .and the king ordered al1 fo bow down and prostrate themîelveî before him. What did Haman do? He attached an embroidered image to hiç garment upon his breast and everyone who bowed down to Haman bowed down to the image."' The existence of such an object in an image of the story of Esther would seem appropriate and at the same time acceptable as not jeopardizing the book and its significance. Midrashim to Esther seem to have one element which lacks in the other volumes and that is the use of dreams. This was a technique of the rabbis used to get an idea across naturally in order to explain a problem in the text. Two examples of interest are Ahasherus' dream and the other is Mordecai's dream. The Bible says that Esther sends Hatach to talk to Mordecai, in order to find out what is going on. In turn, "...Mordecai told him all that happened to him? The text however leaves out one

55MidrashRabbah - Esther 132 (Freedman 9:28-29; Dunsky 57-59). ''Midrash Rabbah - Esther 7:5 (Freedman 9:82; Dunsky 153). "Esther 4:7. 52 important bit of information, what Mordecai actually says to Hatach. Here the Midrash fills this gaps, .. . namely in a dream. This teaches that he recalled to her a dream which he had.. .ln the second year of King Ahasherus he saw, and behold the was a great and mighty quaking and confusion upon the ea rth... And behold two dragons raised a cry against one another and prepared for battle ...Now the dragons fought with fierce anger and no one parted them. Then Mordecai saw, and behold a small stream of water passed between the two dragons and parted them .. .Then the stream grew and became in flood like the sea and it overflowed the earth. And he saw and behold the Sun rose over al1 the earth and there was light over the world."

Ahasherus is also shown as having dreams, 'AH night Ahashenis kept seeing Haman (in a dream) standing over him, with his sword in his hand, stripping him of his purple garment and removing his crown form his head and seeking to kill him."o 60th these dreams could easily have been produced visually and would complement other scenes actually in the text. It should be kept in mind that the panel of Esther played a prominent role in the Dura synagogue frescoes and therefore very possible would have existed in other decorations of the period. One final story, though not a dream is the efaboration of Esther's unannounced visit with the king. The reader is told that a queen is unable to present herself to the king without being called upon first. The grave danger of the situation is apparent as we realize that Esther is not going to follow court rules but instead is planning to present herself unannounced. In the end. the king accepts her appearance. and she is unharmed, a miracle of sorts. The rabbis felt this tension and they added the aid of God to explain how Esther remained throughout unharmed. 60th Esther and the king are given many physical details by the Midrash. Now it came to pass on the third day, that Esther put on her richest ornaments and she took with her two maidens, placing her right hand on one of thern and leaning on her, as is the royal custom, while the second maiden followed her mistress bearing her train so that the gold '"idrash Rabbah - Esther 85 (Freedman &Io61Dunçky, 191-1 93). Midrash Rabbah - Esther. 53 on 1 should not touch the ground ... Then she came to the inner court facing the king and she stood before him. The king was sitting on his royal throne in a robe adorned with gold and precious stones and when he Iifted up his eyes and saw Esther standing in front of him he was furiously angry because she had broken the law... And when the queen perceived how angry the king was, she was overcome and her heart sank and she plaœd her head on the maiden who was supporthg her rigM hand. But our God saw and had rnercy. ..and He gave her grace in the eyes of the king and invested her with new beauty and cham. Thus the king rose in hast from his throne and ran to Esther and embraced her.2'

"OMidradi Rabbah - Esther 9:1 (Freedman 9:lû9). 54 Chapter Four

CONCLUSIONS

It is clear that the biblical narratives communicate digitally. They transmit information in the most economical way ...We almost never know what people think and feel. It is the artist who must midwife al1 this analogic material. Thus we are often left unsaüsfied by the biblical narratives; but it is not only because so much is left unsaid, henœ ambigwus; it is because of the very limitations of the verbal language... As human beings consistently and simultaneously use both modes, so in the teaching of Bible, texts and art must be used together.'

Above JO Milgrorn describes the Bible as being an economic text, meaning it gives only minimal information, almost leaving out the emotions or thoughts of its characters. Milgrorn suggests that the reader is often left unsatisfied by what the Bible, on its own, has to offer and she suggests two reasons for this dissatisfication, which 0 correspond to the purpose of this thesis. The first is that much is left unsaid, 'ambiguity' is apparent. The gaps in the text that exist. had to be filled in and understood and the rabbis took up this activity very early on in history. They, as readers and interpreters of the Bible, wanted to know what the characters thought and felt and they told each other and their audiences. "Important is that originally midrashic literature was oral - sermons preached in the synagogue and teachings of various sagesm They did not interpret the Bible text only for themselves but also for their audiences, the general public who were not capable of or just did not interpret (or maybe even read) the Bible. Midrash emerged not as a litecary genre but as an active. oral activity which was transrnitted to the public by word of mouth, not by written documents. Today, these traditions, have been preserved in compilations, such as Midrash Rabbah, however, their origins often predate the final compilations. The second aspect Milgrom points to is, the 'limitations of verbal language.' She 'Milgrom, 172-3. 'Holtz. 178. 55 stresses that text and art must be used together in the teaching of Bible. Though the modern world engages in this activity, of wnveying information both in written and in visual form, it is very likely that the rabbis, of the formative years, also had an understanding of the importance of the visual. One sure way to reinforce Midrash as a form of Bible interpretation would be to produce Bible narratives in graphic form. Sermons could be preached in synagogues where corresponding images adorned the walls. Midrash reinforced and enlightened the Bible. art reinforced and enlightened the Midrash (in extension to the Bible). Scholarship must continue with the belief that text and art did go hand in hand and should continue to do so. The discoveries that have been discussed show the relationship between Midrash and the Bible, as well as, text and art. From these illustrations we can learn much about early Jewish Bible Interpretation. The paintings, "...cannot be solved with just an Old Testament in one hand. One might as well try and read a cuneiform inscription with the help only of a Hebrew dictionary. The paintings must be related to their Jewish background. to the Midrash. the Talmud, the apocalyptic literature. It is there where we shall find the answer to many of the problerns posed by these frescoe~.~An atternpt has been made, first, to show the suitability of Midrash Rabbah as an influence on graphic representation and second, to provide exampies and categories of such Midrashim that have yet to be dixovered in the visual form. This exercise has been very valuable because it makes one consider the wnflict between the visual and verbal. In order to fully understand the art of the period, one must also have an understanding of the literature and traditions that existed either in writing or orally that are based on the Bible. ln reverse, to understand Midrash, to help date and clarify its meaning and intention, one must have a knowledge of the art forms that existed pfior to and during the compiling and editing of Midrash Rabbah. For example, "The Dura paintings are of great help in dating and 'Jacob Leveen. The Hebrew Bible in Art (New York: Hermon Ress. 1974) 59. 56 reclaiming lost Midrashim and they open up an area of research which to date has been insufficiently investigated." As a short aside, though this might have various advantages, one must keep in mind that looking only at the Midrashim does not show a complet8 picture. Al1 the art works cited may seem to be related to Midrashim but as Gutmann writes, "...nonetheless one is still not freed from the obligation to consider what that art meant to a conternporary Jew, pagan, or Christian who was familiar with the art of the age."' Nor is one to ignore the impact andlor the influence of other cultures or writingç at this time; most specifically the Greco-Roman, the pagan, as well as, the early Christian inf leunces. One exampie to clarify this point would be appropriate here. At various synagogues in Palestine and elsewhere. (for example, Hammath Tibetius, Beth Alpha, Na'aran and Husifya) a panel consisting of the zodiac and Helios is represented. In the rnosaic at Beth Alpha, for instance, this panel is even more prominent than that of the sacrifice of Isaac. This image has often been attributed to pagan influences-' However, these influences may not stem from artistic representation but rnay have been influenced by Midrashim who themselves were influenced by Greco-Roman influences. "Holy One, blessed be He. showed Abraham ali of the zodiac surrounding his Shechinah (Divine Presence) and said just as the zodiac surrounds me with rny glory in the centre so shail your descendants multiply and camp under many flags with my Shechinah in the v entre."^

'Gutmann. "lllustrated Midrash," 104. 5Gutmann,A Re-evaluatbn. 1 GO. 'Each scholar finds a diMerent meaning in the cycle depending on the conceptual framework he bfÏngs to his interpretations( re-evalu , 139) This sounds very familiar to what was discu.ssed eariier as 70 face to the Torah. This thesis has only tirne to deal with the rabbïnic influence on art though one must reoognise that there are definitely other influences that Goodenough has written extensively about in his 12 volume colfection. 6Formore information on this area see; Mira Friedman, 'Pagan images in Jewish Art," Journal of Jewish Art 19-20(19934); Rachel Hachili, 'The Zodiac in Ancient Jewish Art," Bulletin of the Amefkan School of Oriental Research 228(1977)61-77; Jacob Neusner, 'Jewish Use of Pagan Symbols after 70 C.E.." Journal of Relr'gon 43(1963)285-302; I-ah Sonne. "The Zodiac Therne in Ancient Synagogues and in Hebrew Printed Books," Studies in Biblbgraphy and BDokbre 1 (1953) 3-1 3. ' Gutmann, Sacred Images, Vll, 1337. 57 The above categories and examples have showed that most of the more graphic Midrashim corne from those on the Pentateuch. specifically from Genesis to Exodus. with Numbers dose behind. As for Leviticus and Deuteronomy. there seemed to be far fewer examples that fit into a clear category. Genesis and Exodus, being prirnarily narrative books, as well as the first two books of the Bible. lent themselves to more creative activity by the 1-abbis. The ambiguities of events and characters is challenging to any reader and seemed to be appropriate playing ground for descriptions. As for the five scrolls. much again has to do with the nature of the text. No examples were found from Lamentations, which seemed worthwhile to this study, and at al1 on a par with the examples already found and studied from chapter two. As for Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes, many Midrashim were appropriate but, for the most part, these Midrashim were repeats of those found within the Midrashim of the other books and were not repeated here. An attempt was made to use examples that were found in situ, meaning only for example Genesis Midrashim found in the volumes of Midrash Rabbah on Genesis and not for instance Genesis Midrashim found in Midrash Rabbah - Song of Songs. which in fact has many such cases. Finally. we can conclude that Esther and to a lesser extent Ruth played nicely. king books which set themselves up for visual representation. Like Genesis and Exodus. these books, have a variety of characters, who are somewhat mysterious and whose actions are questionable. They are stories of events that are available to be expanded. explained and enjoyed. It is only fitting to conclude with a Midrash which seems to combine both the importance of the written word in connection with the visual. R. Levi, son of Rabbi says: A pure candlestick came down from heaven. For the Holy One. Blessed be He, said to Moses, 'And thou shalt make a candlestick of pure gold.' Moses asked Him: 'How shall we make it? .. . Nevertheless, Moses still found diff iculty in understanding and when he came down he forgot his construction. He went up again... Still Moses experienced difficulty...He went up again.. .He then showed a model to Moses but the latter still found it hard to construct.-.So He said to him 'See it and make it,' and finally he took a candlestick of fire and showed him its construction. Yet inspite of all this, it caused Moses difficulty. Said the Holy One to him, 'Go to Bezalel and he will make it.' So he told Bezalel and the latter immediately construded it. Moses began to wonder, saying. 'To me it was shown ever so many tirnes by the Holy One, yet I found it hard to make and you who did not see it constructed it with your own intelligence."

The first time God explains to Moses how to make the candlestick, Moses is unable to wmplete th8 task and he returns for further direction. Then God shows Moses a mode1 for the candlestick, yet he is still unable to complete this job. Next, God tries by showing Moses the actual candlestick. foc if he was to actually see it. surely he would understand and be able tu construct it. However, even after ail this Moses fails and the task is given to Bezalel, who in turn not only completes the construction of the candlestick but does so without any instruction. After much thought, this Midrash has many leçsons but it seems to this author to convey the idea that different levels of interpretation may exist arnong different people and that different methods reach people in different ways. Some people can understand merely by hearing, others must be given models to follow. Some people need to actually see the final product and reproduce it. or need to imitate an already existing idea. Finally, some have the intuition or knowledge to know how something rnust appear and need no verbal or visual aid. The combination of Midrash and art can fiIl ali these gaps. It allows for artistic activity both on the part of the verbal thinker and the visual thinker. More importantly, the audience at large, has the opportunity to be influenced and enlightened, either by Midrash, art, or the ultimate sensory experience - the two forms together.

'Midrash Rabbah - Numbers (Freedman 6:651 ). 59 WORKS CITED

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