Antithrombotic Agents in the Management of Sepsis

Antithrombotic Agents in the Management of Sepsis !"#$ Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois-60153, USA ABSTRACT Sepsis, a systemic inflammatory syndrome, is a response to infection and when associated with multiple organ dysfunction is termed, severe sepsis. It remains a leading cause of mortality in the critically ill. The response to the invading bacteria may be considered as a balance between proinflammatory and antiinflammatory reaction. While an inadequate proinflammatory reaction and a strong antiinflammatory response could lead to overwhelming infection and death of the patient, a strong and uncontrolled proinflammatory response, manifested by the release of proinflammatory mediators may lead to microvascular thrombosis and multiple organ failure. Endotoxin triggers sepsis by releasing various mediators including tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1(IL-1). These cytokines activate the complement and coagulation systems, release adhesion molecules, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide (NO). Other mediators involved in the sepsis syndrome include IL-1, IL-6 and IL-8; arachidonic acid metabolites; platelet activating factor (PAF); histamine; bradykinin; angiotensin; complement components and vasoactive intestinal peptide. These proinflammatory responses are counteracted by IL-10. Most of the trials targeting the different mediators of proinflammatory response have failed due a lack of correct definition of sepsis. Understanding the exact pathophysiology of the disease will enable better treatment options. Targeting the coagulation system with various anticoagulant agents including antithrombin, activated protein C (APC), tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) is a rational approach. Many clinical trials have been conducted to evaluate these agents in severe sepsis. While trials on antithrombin and TFPI were not so successful, the double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase III trial of re- combinant human activated protein C worldwide evaluation in severe sepsis (PROWESS) was successful, significantly decreasing mortality when compared to the placebo group. Better understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanism of severe sepsis will provide better treatment options. Combination antithrombotic therapy may provide a multipronged approach for the treatment of severe sepsis. Key Words: Severe sepsis, Inflammatory mediators, Microvascular thrombosis, Activated protein C (APC), Thrombomodulin, Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), Antithrombin, Thrombin activatable fibrinolytic inhibitor. Turk J Haematol 2002;19(3): 349-389 Received: 17.06.2002 Accepted: 24.06.2002 Iqbal O, Tobu M, Hoppensteadt D, Aziz S, Messmore H, Fareed J. Antithrombotic Agents in the Management of Sepsis Background Severe sepsis is defined as sepsis associated with acute organ dysfunction, resulting from a ge- Sepsis, a major challenge in Critical Care Me- neralized proinflammatory and procoagulant res- dicine, has been defined by the American College ponse to an infection and manifested by hypoper- of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medi- fusion and perfusion abnormalities that may inclu- cine (ACCP/SCCM) Consensus Conference, as a de, but are not limited to, lactic acidosis, oliguria systemic inflammatory syndrome in response to or acute alteration of mental status[4]. With a mor- infection which, when associated with acute organ tality rate of 30-50% despite advances in critical dysfunction such as acute renal failure, is said to care, it remains the leading cause of mortality in be severe[1]. Severe sepsis, a common, expensi- the critically ill[5-8]. Of the 750.000 cases of sepsis ve and frequently fatal condition, with annual mor- which occur each year in United States, at least tality similar to acute myocardial infarction, is es- 250.000 are fatal[9]. Approximately two-thirds of pecially common in the elderly and its incidence is the sepsis cases occur in hospitalized patients. likely to increase with the aging United States po- Although, most of the cases of sepsis are caused pulation. The increased prevalence of human im- by gram-negative or positive bacteria, it may oc- munodeficiency virus (HIV) infection contributes cur with diseases caused by fungi, Mycobacteria, to this high incidence as well[2]. Based on 1995 Rickettsia, viruses or protozoans. Factors that state hospital discharge records from seven large predispose to gram-negative sepsis include di- states with population and hospital data from the abetes mellitus, lymphoproliferative disorders, US census, the Centers for Disease Control, the burns, cirrhosis of liver, invasive procedures or Health Care Financing Administration and the devices, drug-induced neutropenic states and American Hospital association, Angus et al, iden- asplenia. However, factors predisposing to gram- tified 192.980 cases, yielding national estimates positive sepsis include vascular catheters, indwel- of 751.000 cases (3.0 cases per 1.000 population ling mechanical devices, burns and intravenous and 2.26 cases per 100 hospital discharges). drug injections. As a complication of broad spect- They noted the incidence increased > 100 fold rum antibiotic therapy, fungal infections occur with age (0.2/1000 in children to 26.2/1000 in tho- most often in immunosuppressed individuals. The se > 85 years old). Mortality was 28.6%, or increased incidence of sepsis in the United States 215.000 deaths nationally and also increased with is attributable to the aging population, increased age, from 10% in children to 38.4% in those > 85 longevity of patients with chronic infections and years old. The estimated average costs per case the relatively high frequency of sepsis in AIDS. were $ 22100 (higher for infants, nonsurvivors, in- The widespread use of antimicrobial agents, glu- tensive care unit patients, surgical patients and cocorticoids, indwelling catheters, mechanical de- patients with more organ failure) with annual total vices and mechanical ventilation are contributing costs of $ 16.7 billion nationally[2]. Martin GS et al, factors as well. evaluated sepsis trends in the US by analyzing data from the 1988 to 1998 National Hospital The response to the invading microorganism Discharge Survey and reported at the recent 67th can be considered as a balance between the pro- annual scientific meeting of the American College inflammatory and antiinflammatory reaction. A pa- of Chest Physicians that the incidence of sepsis in tient could die of an overwhelming infection, when the US increased by 23.3% during 1988-1998. the proinflammatory reaction is inadequate and They attributed the increased incidence to the HIV the antiinflammatory response is strong. Howe- epidemic and to an increase in invasive procedu- ver, a strong and uncontrolled proinflammatory res. They reported that in 1988, sepsis was diag- response, manifested by the release of proinflam- nosed in 207.9 per 100.000 hospitalized patients matory mediators may lead to organ failure. En- and increased to 256.3 cases per 100.000 hospi- dotoxin present in the cell wall of gram-negative talized patients in 1998. The increased incidence bacteria triggers sepsis by releasing various me- was observed in neonates and patients over 55 diators such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha years of age[3]. (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL-1). These cytokines 350 Turk J Haematol 2002;19(3):349-389 Iqbal O, Tobu M, Hoppensteadt D, Aziz S, Messmore H, Antithrombotic Agents in the Management of Sepsis Fareed J. activate the complement and the coagulation sys- tissue factor, TFPI, decreased fibrinogen, and D- tems besides expressing adhesion molecules and dimer[11]. Contact activation of the intrinsic system also releases prostaglandins, leukotrienes, reacti- of coagulation by the lipopolysaccharide in the ve oxygen species and nitric oxide (NO). The ot- cell walls of the bacteria and activation of the ext- her mediators thought to be involved in the deve- rinsic sytem by the generation of tissue factor le- lopment of sepsis syndrome include IL-1, IL-6 and ad to the generation of thrombin. The thrombin IL-8; arachidonic acid metabolites, platelet activa- can activate the thrombin activatable fibrinolytic ting factor (PAF); histamine; bradykinin; angioten- inhibitor (TAFI) which could result in fibrinolytic sin; complement components; vasoactive intesti- deficit or the thrombin can combine with the nal peptide. These proinflammatory responses thrombomodulin generated and form a thrombin- are counteracted by IL-10. thrombomodulin complex which can activate protein C to APC serving as an anticoagulant. In se- Most of the trials targeting the different mediators of proinflammatory response may have fa- vere sepsis, activation of the coagulation system iled due to the lack of a correct definition of sep- can activate the endothelial cells resulting in the sis and also due to great flucuations in the immu- potentiation of proinflammatory responses and nological status of the patient[10]. Selected targets production of inflammatory mediators including α in the treatment of sepsis include TNF-α, IL-1, en- cytokines such as TNF- and IL-1. Thus, it appe- dotoxin, adhesion molecules, complement sys- ars that there is a role for different antithrombotic tem, kallikrein-kinin system, PAF, archidonic acid drugs in the treatment of severe sepsis, there is a metabolites, NO, reactive oxygen species, inflam- role of different agents such antithrombin, TFPI, matory reaction & immunodepression associated

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