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 /% 0 )%1%   / 2-*3 &  # "  '   !     ( '    )    # # 2-*3 An Assessment of Human-Crocodile Conflict Aquatic Biodiversity Conservation in National Chambal Sanctuary, M.P., India

Rajesh Kumar Gurjwar and R.J. Rao

About Authors

Mr. Rajesh Kumar Gurjwar Perusing Ph.D. from School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior (M.P.) India. He has completed M.Sc. and M.Phil. (Zoology) from the same university. He has published many research papers in national and international journals. His area of Wildlife conservation and management, Conservation Biology and Limnology. Addresh for correspondence: Mr. Rajesh Kumar Gurjwar Researh Scholar, Conservation Biology Lab, School of Studies in Zoology Jiwaji University, Gwalior-474011 M.P. India Mobile No. +918269539681 E-mail: [email protected]

Professor R J Rao completed his B.Sc. (1976) from Andhra University, M.Sc. (1978) and Ph.D. (1984) from Bhopal University. After submitting his Ph.D. thesis he joined Wildlife Institute of India as Research Fellow to conduct post-doctoral research work on Ecology of aquatic animals in the National Chambal Sanctuary. He joined School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior in January 1989. He has completed research projects from MOEF, UGC, MOA, MPCST, UNDP-GOI, GCA, and DEC. His field of research is primarily on Wildlife Biology and Management and other research interests are Conservation Biology, Environmental Impact Assessment, Zoo management, Conservation and management of Aquatic resources, Human Ecology etc. He has supervised a number of Ph.D., M. Phil. and PG students. Dr. Rao has published many research papers in National and internationally reputed journals. He organized several scientific programmes like seminars, conferences, workshops, training programmes. He is member of several International and National committees and organizations. Addresh for correspondence: Prof. R.J. Rao Rector, Jiwaji University, Gwalior-474011, M.P., India E-mail: [email protected] Mobile No. +91 9826255137 Preface

Conflicts between humans and Crocodiles are a serious problem in many parts of the world. Human-Crocodile conflicts are common phenomena from the past and have become significant problem throughout the world. Therefore, frequent encounters with humans and their livestock have caused human-crocodile conflicts which result in retaliation killings. An Assessment of Human-Crocodile Conflict (Aquatic Biodiversity Conservation in National Chambal Sanctuary, M.P., India) is a humble effort in this direction. The book is a compilation of various chapters written by Me. First and foremost I would like to pay my deepest sense of gratitude to the Almighty God for granting me the wisdom and forbearance to accomplish this piece of research work. It is indeed a great privilege for me to acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude to my worthy guide, Prof. R.J. Rao, for his valuable guidance, inspiring attitude and constant encouragement without which the present work would have been impossible. I am thankful to all my friends/collogues Mr. Ramkumar Lodhi, Satyanarayan Rawat, Nasrullah Ahad, Sajad Ahmad Bhat, Fozia Mazeed and Yogesh Kumar who have suggested in this book. It is a matter of great pleasure to publish their valuable work in this book. A large number of people helped me in the completion of this book. I am thankful to Mr. S.C. Bhadoria (S.D.O), Research Range Officer Dr. R.K. Sharma and Range Officer Shri Sukhdev Sharma, Research Assistant in the National Chambal Sanctuary for help during the field studies. I specially thankful to all field staffs Jyoti Dandotiya, Shri Jagdish Batham and Dinesh Sharma. Many more deserve a lot of thanks but, it is space that compels me to stop here. Thanking each and every person who raise their hands before GOD for me and remember me in their well wishes.

Mr. Rajesh Kumar Gurjwar

Prof. R.J. Rao 

          Particulars Page No.



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Table No. Contents Page No.

Table 1 Major faunal species of the sampling villages 30

Table 2 Size of crocodiles at various sites 31

Table 3 Climatic condition of the study area 34

Population male-female ratio and literacy rate of sampling Table 4 40 villages

Table 5 Major Accidents in the selected villagers 55 - 57

Temporal frequency of various accidents in different Table 6 58 villages

Table 7 Percentage of injury and death to live stocks 59

Perception of residents about the presence of crocodile in Table 8 the area 60

Discomfort to people due to various activities of crocodile Table 9 61

Awareness about crocodile behaviour Table 10 63

Table of (Human crocodile conflict) in Record of Deori Table 11 Range in the National Chambal Sanctuary. 64 -65

    

Fig. No. Contents Page No. Figure 1 Map of National Chambal Sanctuary showing 17 multipurpose dam on the upper stream, Tributaries and study sites in the present study. Figure 2 Showing the Study site: Bilpur to Used Ghat in 25 National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh.

Figure 3 Size of crocodiles at various sites 31

Figure 4 Climatic condition in different months 35

Figure 5 Bilpur/kithiyana to kisrouli 41

Figure 6 Beech ka pura to Daljeet ka pura 41

Figure 7 Sukhdhyan ka pura to Nohara 42

Figure 8 Basdev ka pura to Nayapura (Usedghat) 42

Figure 9 Injury and death to live stocks 59

Figure 10 Percentages of Negatively affected peoples in the 60 study area

Figure 11 Discomfort activities of people 61

Figure 12 Awareness about crocodile behaviour 63



   

Plate No. Plate

Plate 1a Gharial and Mugger basking on a Sand Island.

Plate 1b Gharial basking on a sand bank.

Plate 2a Chambal River showing different habitat types

Plate 2b Mid-river Sand Island most suitable for basking and nesting of turtles and birds Plate 3a Chambal River showing different habitats- Sand bank on one side and hard soil on other side Plate 3b A long Sand bank on the Chambal River used for basking and nesting by turtles and crocodiles Plate 4a Mugger basking on the Chambal River

Plate 4b Mugger basking on rocks in the Chambal River

Plate 5a Crocodiles basking in the vegetation along the Chambal River camouflaging themselves which sometimes results into attack on animals and human Plate 5b Gharial basking on mid-river Sand Island

Plate 6a Nesting site of gharials in the Chambal River at babusingh ki gher Plate 6b Few eggs from gharial nest excavated by locals

Plate 7a Sand mining activity and mugger basking at Chambal River Plate 7b Sand mining on the bank of Chambal River

Plate 8a Locals extract water from Chambal River for agriculture on the River bank Plate 8b Agricultural production on the River bank by local villagers Plate 9 Water extraction at Rajghat 

Plate 10a River side villagers are engaged in washing, bathing and  collection of drinking water from the Chambal River

Plate 10b Locals frequently visit the river along with their domestic  animals Plate 11a Bathing of cattle in the Chambal River an easy victim of  crocodiles Plate 11b Cattle found to river side village on the river bank  Plate 12a Goats drinking and grazing on the River bank on easy target to crocodiles  Plate 12b People crossing the Chambal River on a temporary bridge  Plate 13a Transportation on boats by river side villages is a frequent activity  Plate 13b Transportation on boats by river side villagers

Plate 14a Camel crossing the Chambal River. People transport goods on Camels Plate 14b Buried ground on the river bank at Rajghat, Dholpur. People throw dead bodies of children in the River, which attracts turtles and crocodiles that feed the dead bodies Plate 15a Locals engaged in different activities like bathing, tilling, and water extraction on the river banks Plate 15b A boy is crossing in the evening time in the Chambal River Plate 16a Showing crocodile attack on a calf at Mallahan ka pura

Plate 16b A Buffalo attacked by a mugger at Ramgadh village

Plate 17    R      

 Chapter 1

An Introduction to Human Crocodile Conflict

Conflicts between humans and animals are a serious problem in many parts of the world.

The damage and destruction caused by a variety of animals to human property-and sometimes to human life-is a real and significant danger to many human communities and with the animals often killed, captured, or otherwise harmed in retaliation, these conflicts are one of the main threats to the continued survival of many species. WWF views human- animal conflict as a priority issue for its work on species protection (WWF, 2006).

Human-Crocodile conflicts are common phenomena from the past and have become significant problem throughout the world. Crocodiles, which play a vital role in maintaining the ecosystem balance through prey-predator interaction, are now on the verge of extinction since they require large aquatic habitats, but much of their habitats have been fragmented and degraded. Therefore, frequent encounters with humans and their livestock have caused human-crocodile conflicts which result in retaliation killings (Deutsch and Coleman, 2000).

More than four lakh human population is directly dependent on the river ecosystem.

They invariably cultivate the land up to the brim, pump out the water for irrigation purposes.

Agricultural practices up to the brim of the river to some extent certainly adversely affect the nesting behavior of Gharials, muggers and turtles. Crocodiles are ambush hunters, waiting for fish or land animals to come close, then rushing out to attack. As cold-blooded predators, they have a very slow metabolism, so they can survive long periods without food. Despite

S  their appearance of being slow, crocodiles are top predators in their environment, and various species have been observed attacking and killing animals.

Studying the basking behaviour of a wild population of Crocodylus palustris, the marsh crocodile or mugger, and made an attempt at understanding the effects of environmental parameters on the basking behaviour. The survey conducted by (Whitaker and Daniels, 1980). Available historical records suggest that in Bangladesh, the wild population of crocodile was extinct and only two wild crocodiles were known to live in community ponds (except in zoos); similarly in Bhutan, mugger crocodiles are considered to have become extinct in the 1960s and in Myanmar last record of the species was observed in

1867 to 1868 (Da Silva and Lenin, 2010).

Adequate areas for nesting should be provided to ensure that every reproductively mature female can access a site, with each site appropriately spaced. This will reduce fighting over nest sites, and during nesting. The sites of nests can be manipulated by strategically placing nesting materials within the enclosure (Lang, 1987)a. American crocodiles are extremely adaptable in their nesting strategy, and while they are mainly recognized as hole-nesters, individuals will readily build mound nests if suitable materials are provided (Kushlan and Mazzotti, 1989; Thorbjarnarson,    R    predominantly mound nesters (Thorbjarnarson, 1992). The mugger is a hole-nesting species, with egg-laying taking place during the annual dry season. Females become sexually mature at approximately 1.8-2 m, and lay 25-30 eggs (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1989). Nests are located in a wide variety of habitats, and females have even been known to nest at the opening of or inside, their burrow (Choudhury et al., 2007).

T         !   "   R     # surplus stock from these facilities can be used in reintroduction programs. Bangladesh and

Bhutan are both candidates for this approach as well as several states in India. In captivity, some Muggers are known to lay two clutches in a single year (Whitaker and Whitaker,

1984), but this has not been observed in the wild. Incubation is relatively short, typically lasting 55-75 days (Whitaker, 1987). Whitaker and Whitaker, (1989) provide a good review of the behaviour and ecology of this species. Like a number of other crocodilians, C. palustrisis known to dig burrows. Whitaker and Whitaker, (1984) referred to mugger burrows in Sri Lanka and India (Gujarat and South India) and noted that yearling, sub-adult and adult mugger all dig burrows. In Iran they are sometimes known to dig two burrows close to each other, which may be used by one or more crocodiles (Mobaraki, 2002).These burrows are presumably utilized as an effective refuge from hot daytime ambient temperatures. These burrows play a critical role in the survival of crocodiles living in harsh environments (Whitaker et al. 2007), allowing them to avoid exposure to excessively low and high temperatures (<5 ºC and >38 ºC respectively) for long periods of time, which may be lethal (Lang, 1987). Muggers are known to undertake long-distance overland treks in Gir

(India) (Whitaker, 1977), Sri Lanka (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1979) and Some Muggers are killed while crossing roads in Iran (Mobaraki and Abtin, 2007).

These crocodiles always prefer sand banks in the wilderness area and a little disturbance makes them to avoid the basking site. The crocodiles particularly Gharial select good sandy areas for nesting. They make trial nest and select suitable place in a sand bank for nesting. The steepness, texture and moisture of the sand are essential parameters for the crocodiles to select or reject the sand bank for nesting. They never compromise in selecting

U  suitable microhabitat for nesting. Although more than 395 km River stretch is habitat for

Gharial and mugger, there are only 18 important nesting areas of crocodiles in the Chambal

River. Thus out of 395 km of the river stretch approximately 2 km of sand bank on small stretches are used by the Gharial for nesting. The mugger also use similar habitat for nesting.

In the study area, sand banks used by the crocodiles were analyzed from Pali to Chakarnagar

(395 km). A total area of 183.846 sq.km area was used by the crocodiles. Crocodiles use sand banks for nesting and basking. Sloppy/steep sand bank with loose earth are essential for nesting.

As detailed elsewhere more than four lakhs population is directly dependent on the river ecosystem. They invariably cultivate the land up to the brim, pump out the water for irrigation purposes. Agricultural practices up to the brim of the river to some extent certainly adversely affect the nesting behavior of Gharials, muggers and turtles. Fishing is almost through the length of the sanctuary. Fishing on commercial scales is most prevalent in NCS.

There are many fake owners who auction the fishing permits every year to small traders.

The fishing activity in recent times is gravely affected actual numbers of Gharial and mugger population. Once caught in to the fishing nets these creatures get entangled and then beaten to death to relieve the fishing nets. Simultaneously fishing activity also reduces the food availability for tertiary components of the biological pyramid (keystone species). Sand mining is the major detrimental activity that is destructing the habitat in a highly dangerous way. Recent survey of NCS and the court commissioner's report has brought out some disturbing picture of habitat destruction and highly mortality of wild animals (Anon, 2003).

Crocodile attacks on people are common in places where large crocodiles are native and human populations live. Only six of the 23 crocodilian species are considered dangerous V  to adult humans and only individuals 2 meters (6.6 ft) in length or more represent a serious danger to humans, as smaller crocodiles are considered incapable of killing a person.

However, even the smallest species can inflict painful bites requiring stitches if harassed. In addition, a small child may be of a similar size to the prey of some of the crocodilian species incapable of preying on adult humans (http://en.wikipedia.org).

Conflict occurs between people in all kinds of human relationships and in all social settings. Because of the wide range of potential differences among people, the absence of conflict usually signals the absence of meaningful interaction. Conflict by itself is neither good nor bad. However, the manner in which conflict is handled determines whether it is constructive or destructive (Deutsch and Coleman, 2000).

There are three species of crocodiles found in India, Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), fresh water marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) and Estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) among them the most common and widely distributed is the mugger, which inhabits all kinds of freshwater habitats such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, hill streams and village ponds. The broad-snouted mugger crocodile is restricted to the Indian sub-continent

(India, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran and Sri Lanka) and is categorized under vulnerable category in

Q %&  '  (   )*R  *    +    !tection Act (1972),

(WTI, 2003). The habitat quality of different aquatic animals had been extensively analyzed in different aquatic bodies including Crocodiles (Singh, 1978; Sharma, 1991; Rao, 1988,

1991). Aquatic animals prefer different habitat characteristics like deep or shallow waters, fast or slow flowing rivers, and sandy or muddy or rocky river banks for various activities like feeding, basking, nesting and breeding. Habitat preferences by various size/age groups

W  were also reported for Crocodiles (Singh, 1978, 1985). In the present study an assessment of human-crocodile conflict in National Chambal Sanctuary (M.P) is discussed.

Objectives:

The present study in based on the following objectives:

 Assess the habitat sharing of crocodiles.

 Assess the anthropogenic pressure on the river ecosystem.

 Determine the crocodiles-human conflict to suggest mitigation measures.

X  Chapter 2

Brief Review of Crocodiles and our ecosystem

The Mugger is a medium-sized crocodile (maximum length 4-5 m), and has the broadest snout of any living member of the genus Crocodylus. It is principally restricted to the Indian subcontinent where it may be found in a number of freshwater habitat types including rivers, lakes and marshes. In India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Iran, C. palustris has adapted well to reservoirs, irrigation canals and man-made ponds. The Mugger can even be found in coastal saltwater lagoons and estuaries (Whitaker, 1987; Whitaker and Whitaker, 1984; Whitaker and Andrews, 2003). In some areas of northern India and Nepal, Mugger tend to occupy habitat that is marginal for Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), but will sometimes compete for basking and nesting banks where they are sympatric. When found together with Gharial,

Mugger will bask on midstream rocks or muddy banks (Groombridge, 1982).

Of all ecosystems rivers are the ones most degraded by humans (Naiman and Turner,

2000; Sala et al., 2000; Gleick, 2003) largely due to changes in hydrology, pollution

(Naiman et al., 2002) and other development activities (Jackson et al., 2001; Arthington and

Pusey, 2003; Nilsson et al., 2005; Dudgeon et al., 2006) which profoundly change the processes that drive ecosystem structure and functioning (Poff et al., 1997; Jansson et al.,

2000). The species diversity of inland waters is among the most threatened of all ecosystems and in many parts of the world it is in continuing and accelerating decline (MEA, 2006).

Such decline could be restrained by acknowledging the scope of target species, so that all relevant stages in their life cycle are considered (Lake et al., 2007; Muotka and Syrjanen,

2007). Y  Of the 23 species of crocodilians, which inhabit a range of aquatic ecosystems in the world, four species are critically endangered, three are endangered, and three are vulnerable

(IUCN, 2006). The other species are at lower risk of extinction, but depleted or extirpated locally in some areas (Revenga and Kura, 2003). Marsh Crocodile is most widely distributed crocodile in India (Ross, 1994; Rahman, 1990; Rao, 1985). The gharial Gavialis gangeticus,

Gmelin 1789 is endemic to the Indian subcontinent occurring in the Indus, Ganges,

Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi river systems (Smith, 1939; Singh, 1978; Groombridge,

1987; Whitaker, 1987; Hussain, 1991, 1999). By the mid-1970s it was on the verge of extinction due to loss of habitat, mortality in fishing nets (Whitaker, 1987; Hussain, 1999) and poaching (Daniel, 1970; Honegger, 1971; Choudhury and Bustard, 1979; Whitaker and

Basu, 1983). It is believed that the gharial is now extinct in Myanmar, Bhutan and Pakistan.

In Bangladesh, fewer than 20 individuals may be present (Groombridge, 1987). Increasing demand for fresh water, particularly from rivers, may affect its existence in other countries too. To conserve this species a captive breeding programme was initiated in India during

1975 and several other conservation measures were undertaken (Bustard, 1980, 1984). As a part of this programme, captive-reared crocodiles were reintroduced into newly created protected wetland areas to augment the wild populations. By 1995, the population of gharial was made secure in the wild with around 1200 gharials in the Chambal River of the National

Chambal Sanctuary (Hussain, 1999; Rao, 1999; Sharma, 1999), 25 gharials in the Girwa

River within the Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, and 30 in the rivers of Nepal (Maskey,

1999). Apart from these, a non-breeding population of 15 gharials was reported from Ken

Gharial Sanctuary, 32 in Sone Gharial Sanctuary (Sharma et al., 1999) and 42 in Ramganga

River within the Corbett Tiger Reserve (Nawab and Hussain, 2006). Since 1999 the gharial

Z  population has shown a dramatic decline throughout its entire range. There were 436 breeding adults in 1997 but by 2006 this number had declined to just 182, a reduction of

58% over the last 10 years (IUCN, 2007). The total breeding population of gharial is now estimated to be less than 200 individuals making gharial a critically endangered species

(IUCN, 2007). Such a drastic decline within the last decade is largely the result of anthropogenic pressures such as reduction in the availability of nesting beaches, encroachment on river banks for agriculture, construction of dams and barrages, reduction in water flow, siltation, channelization, and modification of river morphology by development activities and increased mortality in fishing nets (Hussain, 1999; IUCN, 2007).

Temperature regulation is a dynamic process that involves behavioural and physiological adjustments in order to maintain body temperature within a range. The rise in body temperature of reptiles is achieved through external heat sources (Pough, 1983) and is accomplished in part by a combination of heliothermy (basking in the sun) and thigmothermy (absorbing heat from a warm surface) (Huey, 1982). Climatic conditions, social interactions, circadian rhythms and reproductive state influence thermal behaviour

(Lang, 1987).

Studies on crocodilian thermoregulation have been conducted on Crocodylus niloticus (Modha, 1968), C. porosus and C. johnsoni (Johnson, 1973), Alligator mississippiensis (Lang, 1975) and (Smith, 1975), Gavialis gangeticus (Singh and Bustard,

1977), C. acutus (Lang, 1979) and Crocodylus palustris (Gupta and Sri Hari, 1989).

Whitaker and Whitaker, (1989) and Tibbo, (1991) have studied the thermoregulatory behaviour of captive populations of Crocodylus palustris.

[  Studies have been carried out on the basking behaviour of a wild population of

Crocodylus palustris and made an attempt at understanding the effects of environmental parameters on the basking behaviour (Whitaker and Daniels, 1980). Available historical records suggest that in Bangladesh, the wild population of crocodile was extinct and only two wild crocodiles were known to live in community ponds (except in zoos); similarly in

Bhutan, Mugger crocodiles are considered to have become extinct in the 1960s and in

Myanmar last record of the species was observed in 1867 to 1868 (Da Silva and Lenin,

2010).

The ability of reptiles to thermo regulate (particularly the raising and lowering of body temperature) is often achieved behaviorally (Seebacher and Grigg, 1997; Seebacher et al., 1999). In particular, thermoregulation of crocodilians is determined primarily by behaviour (Ross et al., 1989; Seebacher and Grigg, 1997). Some types of behaviour, such as basking and shuttling between land and water, and between places exposed to the sun and places in the shade, have long been recognized to be of thermal significance in crocodiles (Seebacher et al., 1999). Other species, like Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris), also use burrows as refugia during periods of temperature extreme (Ross et al.,

1989). Cott, (1975) concluded that crocodilian thermoregulation is affected both by habitat selection and behavioural adaptations. Another behaviour that crocodiles may use at high temperatures is to lie with their mouths agape, which increases evaporative cooling

(Loveridge, 1984; Branch, 1998a, 1998b). However, there are differing opinions on the role of gaping in crocodiles (Kofron, 1993). Gaping was shown as a potentially useful mechanism for controlling heat gain of the head region of Alligator mississipiensis under controlled conditions (Spotilia et al., 1977). It was assumed that gaping would reduce heat

SR  gain by the alligator's head and allow it to continue basking, so enabling Tb's to continue to rise towards preferred levels. However, mouth gaping was found to be insignificant in cooling overheated Nile crocodiles Crocodylus niloticus (Diefenbach, 1975). Furthermore, these crocodiles show gaping during the early morning and night (Cott, 1961), which suggests another role other than a physiological one.

Basking behaviour in the Nile crocodile has been described in several studies (Cott,

1961; Cloudsley-Thompson, 1964; Modha, 1967, 1968; Loveridge, 1984; Kofron, 1993).

Frequency and occurrence of basking behaviour appear to be affected by latitude locality and the ambient and water temperatures. In Zimbabwe, Nile crocodiles basked more frequently during winter compared with summer (Kofron, 1993). During winter basking crocodiles showed gaping behaviour usually for threat displays (Kofron, 1993).

The Chambal River in India has the single largest contiguous population of gharial reportedly between 48% and 85% of the global population (Choudhury et al., 2007;

Hussain, 2009). The gharial is threatened by riverbank land-use changes, reduction in river flows, modification of river morphology, loss of nesting and basking sites, increased mortality in fishing nets and egg-collection for consumption (Whitaker and Members of the

GMTF, 2007; Hussain, 2009) and is especially at risk from flow regulation because it prefers fast-flowing river habitats, which are prime sites for dams (Dudgeon, 2000). The

 ,  -       **  R  -wide

(Magnuson, 1982 and Bayliss, 1987), vary greatly in terms of applicability, cost- effectiveness, the species involved, and the socioM political and administrative environment.

Conventional markMrecapture techniques, besides being affected by the above, also suffer from tag loss and unequal catch ability (Bayliss, 1987), altered natural behaviour (Gauthier- SS  Clercet et al., 2004) and ethical and welfare issues arising from the application of tags or marks (Wilson and McMahon, 2006).

In captivity, some Muggers are known to lay two clutches in a single year (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1984), but this has not been observed in the wild. Incubation is relatively short; typically lasting 55-75 days (Whitaker, 1987; Whitaker and Whitaker, 1989) provide a good review of the behaviour and ecology of this species. Muggers are known to undertake long-distance overland treks in Gir (India) (Whitaker, 1977), Sri Lanka (Whitaker and

Whitaker, 1979) and Iran. Some Muggers are killed while crossing roads in Iran (Mobaraki and Abtin, 2007). While the illegal skin trade was a major problem in the past (1950s to

1960s), the principal threats to the Mugger were previously identified as habitat destruction and fragmentation, drowning in fishing nets, egg predation by people, and the use of crocodile parts for medicinal purposes (Groombridge, 1982). These crocodiles always prefer sand banks in the wilderness areas and a little disturbance makes them to avoid the basking sites. The crocodiles particularly Gharial selects good sandy area for nesting. They make trial nest and select suitable place in a sand bank for nesting. The steepness, texture and moisture of the sand are essential parameters for the crocodiles to select or reject the sand bank for nesting. They never compromise in selecting suitable microhabitat for nesting.

The impact of anthropogenic forces on the river ecosystem is either equivalent or greater than natural forces. The importance of humanMenvironment interaction studies are widely recognized to understand the impact of anthropogenic activities on river ecosystems

(Singh and Singh, 2006). Major ecological studies on crocodiles and freshwater turtles have been conducted in the Chambal River from 1983 onwards (Singh, 1985; Rao, 1988, 1990;

Rao and Sharma, 1997; Rao et al., 1995; Sharma, 1991; Hussain, 1991). The Chambal river ST  gharial population is the largest contiguous and most viable population and has been the focus of conservation and restocking programmes. In recent times it has suffered from increasing disturbance from extractive activities and is under severe threat from hydrological modifications due to dam and reservoirs and diversion of river water for irrigation. In the face of increasing proposals for water extraction and impoundments on the Chambal, and nation-wide river linking aspirations, it is critical that species requirements be understood and flow regimes be restored (WII, 2011)

Bunn and Arthington, (2002) illustrate how flow is a major determinant of physical habitat in streams, which in turn is a major determinant of biotic composition; that aquatic species have evolved life history strategies primarily in direct response to the natural flow regimes; that maintenance of natural patterns of longitudinal and lateral connectivity is essential to the viability of populations of many riverine species; and that the invasion and success of exotic and introduced species in rivers is facilitated by the alteration of flow regimes.

Information on the effects of habitat attributes (availability and profile of basking and nesting sites; water flow and quality; channel depth and width, etc.); biotic factors (prey density and diversity, co-predators, etc) and human disturbances (impact of dams, barrages, canals, pollution, excessive water extraction, fishing, sand-mining, riverbed cultivation, livestock presence, etc.) on gharial distribution and abundance are either scant or completely lacking, and thus are an impediment to effectively understand the conservation needs of the species. Few crocodiles reach maturity. Eggs drown as nests are submerged during wet season flooding and small crocodiles are eaten by jackal, mongoose, goannas, birds, fish, other crocodiles and feral pigs. When mature, crocodiles compete with each other for SU  territory, sometimes fighting to the d  "    QR     established territories in Kakadu. Sometimes over 5 meters long, these animals have

 ,  *    /     )  QR for over 15 years (http://en.wikipedia.org).

There is no collation of data to suggest whether the overall wild C. palustris population is increasing or decreasing. Numbers of non-hatchling Mugger in National

Chambal Sanctuary (India) have apparently increased from 105 to 226 in 16 years (Sharma et al., 1995). Human- crocodile conflicts have been reported from different parts of the country (Whitaker, 2007, 2008), indicating possible increases in population and/or Mugger reaching larger sizes. Conflict has the potential for either a great deal of destruction or much creativity and positive social change (Kriesberg, 1998). Therefore, it is essential to understand the basic processes of conflict so that we can work to maximize productive outcomes and minimize destructive ones.

Digras Wadi is located about ½ kilometer from the Krishna River in Kolhapur district (Maharashtra) and one fatal human attack was recorded here in 2003. The fatal attack reported occurred on 29th April 2003 at 1600 hrs, on a boy aged 7, Aniket Rajaram

Kadam. Compensation of Rs.100, 000 was given to the father. Approximate size of the crocodile was 10 feet. The attack occurred when the boy was standing two feet deep in the river washing and Chopadewadi Village is located about ½ a kilometer from the Krishna

River, and is the site of A single non-fatal attack was reported by the victim, Ratnaprabha

Naiku Yadav, a lady aged 35 years. Compensation of INR 15,000 was given. Size of the crocodile was estimated at 4 M 5 feet by her. The attack occurred at 930 hrs on 19th May

2005. Damage caused was a lost left toe, and a laceration on her left calf and Analkhop is a SV  village located about 1.5 kilometers from the Krishna River in Ratnagiri Districts. A single fatal attack occurred on a 22 year old man, Sunil Pandurang Bhosale, on 16th March 2007, at 2030. His father received INR 200,000 in compensation. According to interviewed residents, he had a habit of stealing food and money from ceremonial floating devices let loose on the river at dark by the villagers. On the day of his death, he had swum out to try and do this again when he was attacked (Whitaker, 2007).

   /     O&  12P  "  #        single fatal attack. A fatal attack occurred on Raj Kumar, a 32 year old male, at 0600 hrs on

25th June 2007 and Raj Kumar was a migrant laborer from West Bengal, and had only been at Hut Bay for four days prior to the attack. A sum of INR 100,000 is being sanctioned for the wife or Raj Kumar by the ANFD and Number 8 nala is a tidal creek (open during rains), and is located about 1 km from Nethajinagar and about 1.5 km from Sundrapur (Whitaker,

2008).

A fatal attack occurred here on Subrato Mandal, a male aged 32 years, on 27th

December 2005, at 1930 hrs. INR 100, 00 in compensation was paid by the ANFD to his wife. According to a co-worker and witness, Tezendranath Thandar from R.K. Puram (at the

16th kilometer), he and 4 others including the victim were laying nets across the creek at the time of attack. The victim was about 25 M 30 meters from the other three in thighdeep water

       ** ) R ,   ,   4 day, and the Post-Mortem Examination Report by the Medical Officer, Hut Bay, Primary

Health Centre, noted multiple deep wounds (six in number) in the chest and left hand, and a dislocation of the neck and hip joints (http://en.wikipedia.org).

SW  Chapter 3

Materials and Methods

3.1. Study Area:

3.1.1. Chambal River

The Chambal River is one of the major tributaries of the Yamuna River. Located in Central

India, the river comprises a significant portion of the Greater Genetics Drainage System.

The Chambal River runs according to a north to northeasterly itinerary through Madhya

Pradesh, flowing for a considerable distance through Rajasthan, subsequently creates the border between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan prior to twisting to the southeast to meet the Yamuna in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The 960 km long Chambal River originates from the Janapao hills in the northern slopes of the Vindhyanchal escarpment, 15 km West-

South-West of Mhow in Indore District in Madhya Pradesh state, at an elevation of about

843 m. The river flows first in a northerly direction in Madhya Pradesh for a length of about 346 km and then in a generally north-easterly direction for a length of 225 km through Rajasthan. The Chambal flows for another 217 km between M.P. and Rajasthan and further 145 km between Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. It enters Uttar Pradesh and flows for about 32 km before joining the Yamuna River in Etawah District at an elevation of 122 m, to form a part of the greater Gangetic drainage system. The tributaries of the

Chambal include Shipra, ChotiKalisindh, Sivanna, Retam, Ansar, Kalisindh, Banas, Seep,

Kuwari, Kuno, Alnia, Mej, Chakan, Parwati, Chamla, Gambhir, Lakhunder, Khan, Bangeri,

Kedel and Teelar (Jain et al., 2007). A series of multi- purpose dams at Gandhi Sagar in

M.P. and Rana Pratap Sagar, Jawahar Sagar and Kota Barrage in the state of Rajasthan have been erected in the upper reaches of Chambal River. The Chambal Ravines (height

SX  depth, flow and nature of banks. Animals occupy various habitats suitable to their requirements.

Taigor and Rao (2010) classified the crucial wildlife microhabitats of the River

Chambal as:

A. River bank with sandy substratum: Crucial habitat for nesting and basking of aquatic

reptiles. Sandy banks are also crucial habitat for otters for rest, play and rolling.

B. River bank with clay/loamy soil substratum: Crucial habitat for mugger for nesting

and habitat for several birds for feeding.

C. River bank with aquatic vegetation: Crucial habitat for fishes to breed. Nursery ground

for several species of chelonians, gharial, mugger and birds, as well as shelter and

feeding ground.

D. River bank with rocky substratum: Crucial habitat for mugger and chelonians for

basking and halting site for otters. Habitat for several species of rocky fauna,

which are major food for several birds and fishes.

E. Mid River Islands: Several small islands occur in the River, which acts as excellent

basking and nesting ground for gharial, mugger and chelonians. These islands are

also used by several birds for nesting such as Terns, Skimmer and Pratincole.

Shoreline of these islands provides additional breeding habitats for fishes and

turtles. Feeding and resting ground for otters.

F. Littoral zone: Littoral zone or the banks of the River Chambal is very crucial not only

for several breeding fishes and chelonians as feeding ground, but also protect the

SZ  habitat from further erosions and produce necessary primary producers such as

planktons etc.

G. River bed with rocky substratum: Important habitat of otter for feeding and mating.

H. River bed with deep water: Habitat for river dolphins, gharial, mugger, birds for

foraging, breeding and playing.

I. River bed with deep running water: Crucial habitat for endangered dolphin and otter for

feeding and diving.

J. River bed with shallow water pools: Crucial habitat for several fishes to breed. Feeding

ground for otter, mugger, gharial and birds.

Aquatic species in the Chambal River:

In the National Chambal Sanctuary, two aquatic mammalian species Gangetic dolphin and smooth coated otters are found. Among the reptilies two species of Crocodiles, the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and the mugger (Crocodylus palustris) and seven species of fresh water turtles occur in the Chambal River (Rao, 1990).

3.1.2. National Chambal Sanctuary

The National Chambal Sanctuary was established in 1979. Geographically, the

National Chambal Sanctuary lies between latitude 25°51'N - 26°32'N and longitude

76°34'E - 79°5'E. Chambal Sanctuary is a division of one large region jointly managed by the governments of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The National Chambal

Sanctuary is at the borders of three districts, Sheopur, Morena and Bhind (Chambal

S[  Division) in the state of Madhya Pradesh in North India. In the National Chambal

Sanctuary two species of crocodiles Gavialis gangeticus (gharial) and Crocodylus palustris

(mugger) are present. The National Chambal Sanctuary in M.P. is about 400km long stretch of famous River Chambal. The National Chambal Sanctuary is the main area for the species reintroduction programme of the crocodilian species Gavialis gangeticus (Gharial).

Chambal supports the largest population of Gharials in the wild and other aquatic species in the river.

3.1.3. Geological Feature

The main geological formation of the Sanctuary is the Vindhyan series over much of the area with the exception of Jawahar Sagar the area coverd by a mantle of recent alluvium of various thicknesses. The Vindhyan formation in order of increasing age consists of

Vindhyan Bhandar Sandstone, Bandar Lime stone and Rewa sand stone. These rocks protrude occasionally along the banks and in the River bed itself (Sale, 1982). The Bhandar and the Rewa Sand stone have a good tensile strength and are being exploited as building materials in many parts of the Sanctuary. The Bhandar limestone and lime stone nodules which are found along the bank are also being exploited. The alluvial deposits of the area consist of sand, silt, gravel and clay. The alluvial layer is severely eroded, particularly along the banks of the Chambal and its tributaries. There are signs of severe soil movements, pronounced erosion paverment, frequent rill marks and deep gullies with cutting bottoms.

3.1.4. Management

The sanctuary is protected under India's Wildlife Protection Act of (1972). The sanctuary is administered by the Department of Forest under the Project Officer with TR  headquarter at Morena, Madhya Pradesh. Parts of the sanctuary are threatened by extensive illegal sand mining, which is endangering the fragile lotic ecosystem critical for Gharial breeding. National Tri-State Chambal Sanctuary Management and Coordination

Committee have been formed for the management of NCS. The Committee members will comprise representatives of three states' Water Resources Ministries, Departments of

Irrigation and Power, Wildlife Institute of India, Madras Crocodile Bank, the Gharial

Conservation Alliance, Development Alternatives, and Ashoka Trust for Research in

Ecology and the Environment, World wide Fund for Nature and the Divisional Forest officers of the three states. The Committee will plan strategies for protection of gharials and their habitat. It will conduct further research on the species and its ecology and evaluate the related socio-economic elements of dependent riparian communities. Funding for this new initiative will be mobilized as a sub-    Q     *  +   

5  R

3.1.5. Study Sites

The present study was conducted from Bilpur/Kuthiyana village to Usedghat in

National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh in an area of around 50 kilometers in the

Chambal River. Geographically, the study site lies between latitude 26°40' N - 26°51' N and longitude 78°50' E - 78°22' E. There are 15 villages in the study site. They are Bilpur,

Kuthiyana, Mallahan ka pura, Babusingh ki gher, Kisrouli, Bhamai, Daljeet ka pura, Beech ka pura, Sukhdhyan ka pura, Ramgadh, Indrajeet ka pura, Holapura, Nohara, Basdev ka pura and Naya pura along the river bank in the study area. This study aimed at exploring the human-crocodile conflict in terms of livestock depredation, human casualties, retaliation killing. Locals use the river for various purposes including drinking water collection, cloth TS  washing, extraction of water for irrigation, livestock use etc. some important villages along the Chambal river bank are as follows:

1. Bilpur ghat: The ghat consists of Bipur and Kuthiyana villages. It lies between latitude

26°41'55.82"N and longitude 78° 5'47.88"E. This ghat is 25 kilometer far from Ambah.

Bilpur is located about 200 meter from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude

26°41'57.6'' N and longitude 78°05'56.3'' E. The total village population is about 550

people. Kuthiyana is located about 1 kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies

between latitude 26°41'49.71'' N and longitude 78°06'0.29'' E. The total village

population is about 1,000 people. The ghat is used for drinking and water extraction for

agriculture, bathing, washing, cattle wading and transportation. There are 4 wooden

boats which transport people and goods across the river.

2. Babusingh ki gher ghat: This ghat is 8 km downstream from Bilpur ghat. It lies

between latitude 26°44'19.69'' N and longitude 78°06'44.54'' E. Sand mining occurs on

this part of the Chambal River on these areas. The ghat consists of two villages,

Mallahan ka pura and Babusingh ki gher. Mallahan is located about 1½ kilometer from

the Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°43'29.75'' N and longitude

78°05'51.22'' E. The total village population is about 250 people and Babusingh ki gher

is located about 1½ kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude

26°43'42.5''N and longitude 26°43'42.5''N. The total village population is about 500

people. These villager use the river for cattle bathing and drinking and use diesel pumps

to extract water for irrigation.

3. Kisrouli ghat: This ghat is 7 km downstream from Babusingh ki gher ghat. Its lies

between latitude 26°44'50.1''N and longitude 78°07'23.40''E. This area 5-6 mugger and

TT  gharial are also basking regular. The ghat consists of only one village kisrouli. It is

located about 1 kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude

26°44'51.1''N and longitude 78°07'42.6''E. The total village population is about 450

people. This villagers use the river for cattle bathing, drinking and irrigation.

4. Bhamai ghat: This ghat is 5 km downstream from Kisrouli ghat and its lies between

latitude 26°47'10.18"N and longitude 78° 6'38.46"E. Sand mining occurs on this part of

the Chambal River on these areas. The ghat consists of three villages, Bhamai, Daljeet

ka pura and Beech ka pura. At Bhamai on the Chambal River. It is located about 1

kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°46'53.12''N and

longitude 78°06'50.43''E. The total village population is about 250 people and Daljeet

ka pura is located about 1½ kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between

latitude 26°46'44.89''N and longitude 78°07'11.01''E. The total village population is

about 300 people and Beech ka pura is located about 1 kilometer from the Chambal

River and its lies between latitude 26°46'20.0''N and longitude 78°07'12.7''E. The total

village population is about 250 people. The ghat is used for cattle wading and drinking,

ex*     /     /R       

grazing cattle and irrigation.

5. Sukhdyan ka pura ghat: This ghat is 10 km downstream from Bhamai ghat and its lies

between latitude 26°48'38.0''N and longitude 78°10'20.08''E. There is no direct usage of

the river, apart from the use of diesel pumps to water irrigation of this ghat. With a water

of drinking water. The ghat consists of three villages, Sukhdhyan ka pura, Ramgadh and

Indrajeet ka pura. At Sukhdyan ka pura on the Chambal River (Yamuna tributary). It is

located about ½ kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude

TU  26°48'43.6''N and longitude 78°10'33.5''E. The total village population is about 250

people. With a water tanks as a source of drinking water and Ramgadh is located about

1 kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°48'51.8''N and

longitude 78°10'47.8''E. The total village population is about 300 people and Indrajeet

ka pura is located about 1½ kilometer from the Chambal River and its lies between

latitude 26°48'53.0''N and longitude 78°10'54.5''E. The total village population is about

150 people.

6. Holapura ghat: This ghat is 10 km downstream from Sukhdhyan ka pura and its lies

between latitude 26°49'28.9''N and longitude 78°12'33.7''E. The ghat consists of two

villages, Holapura and Nohara. At Holapura is located about 1 kilometer from the

Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°49'6.67''N and longitude 78°12'38.16''E.

The total village population is about 450 people. Nohara is located about 1 kilometer

from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°49'19.0''N and longitude

78°13'21.8''E. The total village population is about 400 people.

7. Used ghat: This ghat is 10 km downstream from Holapura ghat and its lies between

latitude 26°51'57.3''N and longitude 78°22'02.0''E. The ghat consists of three villages,

Basdev ka pura and Nayapura. Basdev ka pura is located about 2.5 kilometer from the

Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°50'09.9''N and longitude 78°18'30.7''E.

The total village population is about 350 people. Nayapura is located about 1 kilometer

from the Chambal River and its lies between latitude 26°51'38.42''N and longitude

78°21'42.15''E. The total village population is about 500 people. There is no direct usage

of the river, apart from the use of diesel pumps to extract water irrigation. There is a

water extraction project at this ghat.

TV 

Fig.2 Showing the Study site Bilpur to Usedghat in National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh.

3.1.6. Methodology

An assessment of human-crocodile conflict in National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya

Pradesh was carried out from March M October, 2012 at regular intervals to collect data on crocodile population in the study site, socio-economic status of the adjoining villages and human-crocodile conflict.

Collection of Data

The following data collection procedures were adopted and are broadly divided into two categories. Primary data were collected through field surveys and secondary data were collected from Madhya Pradesh Forest Department.

TW  Primary data collection

The field surveys were carried out during MarchMOctober 2012. For the collection of primary data regular site visits were made. The field surveys were classified into two sections, river survey and questionnaire survey for the villages.

The study site from Bilpur/Kuthiyana to Nayapura (Usedghat) was surveyed through motor boat by traversing along the river. The mugger crocodiles were observed and identified according to the age class. The total count of the individuals was done with the help of binoculars (Nikon Action 8X40) and Nikon Digital Camera (D60, 70-300). The locations were marked on a GIS domain through GPS (GARMIN 60) etc.

Questionnaire surveys were carried out in 15 villages in the study area within the

Sanctuary. At Study sites, a total of 100 individuals were interviewed for data like socio- economic information, family income, livelihood, livestock, sex and age of conflict victim, circumstances of attack and compensation amounts (Appendix I). Details of Study sites, including major landmarks, sites of crocodile capture (for translocation), release sites, crocodile nesting sites, basking sites, sand mining, irrigation and other important features and location of villages were recorded using GPS.

The detailed conflict information that was collected was related to human injury/fatality, and injury/fatalities of livestock. Study sites were visited along with State

Forest Department personnel to easily identify regions of conflict.

TX  Secondary Data collection

Secondary data on human-crocodile conflict was collected from records available in the Forest Department. Literature survey was also carried out by consulting different journals, newspapers, and unpublished thesis/dissertations and other study material from the libraries.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis of like mean, frequency, cumulative frequency, percentile of available data was done with the help of Microsoft excel.

TY  Chapter 4

Observations

4.1. Crocodile species:

The Chambal River is one of the major tributaries of the Yamuna River in Ganges River system. Located in Central India, the river comprises a significant portion of the Greater

Gengetic Drainage System. The Chambal River runs to north to northeastern direction through Madhya Pradesh, flowing for a considerable distance through Rajasthan, subsequently creates the border between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan and Madhya

Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh prior to twisting to the southeast to meet the Yamuna in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The 960 km long Chambal River originates from the Janapao hills in the northern slopes of the Vindhyanchal escarpment, 15 km West-South-West of Mhow in

Indore District in Madhya Pradesh.

A study was conducted in the National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh in an area of around 50 km from village Bilpur/Kuthiyana to Nayapura (Pinhatghat).

Geographically, the study site lies between latitude 26°40'N - 26°51'N and longitude 78°5'E

- 78°22'E. There are about 15 villages along the river bank in the study area. National

Chambal Sanctuary is at the borders of three districts, Sheopur, Morena and Bhind in the state of Madhya Pradesh in North India. In this part of the National Chambal Sanctuary two species of crocodiles Gavialis gangeticus (gharial) and Crocodylus palustris (mugger) are present (Plate 1a and 1b).

TZ 

Plate 1a: Gharial and Mugger basking on a Sand Island.

Plate 1b: Gharial basking on a sand bank.

T[  4.1.1. Faunal diversity:

The sampling area is a home to wide variety of aquatic animal likes crocodiles, turtles and mammals (Table 1). It was found that Gharial and mugger are endemic to the area and are basking most of the time.

Table 1: Major faunal species of the sampling villages

S. No Animals Common name Scientific name

Crocodiles

1. Gharial Gavialis gangeticus

2. Mugger Crocodylus palustris

Turtles 3. Soft shell turtles Narrow-headed soft shell turtle Chitra indica

4. Indian soft shell turtle Nilssonia gangeticus

5. Indian flap shell turtle Lissemys punctata

6 Hard shell Turtle Pink ringed tent turtle Pangshura tentoria

7. Red-crowned roofed turtle Batagur kachuga

8. Three striped roofed turtle Batagur dhongoka

9. Brahminy turtle Hardella thurgi

Mammals

10. Gangetic dolphin Platanista gangetica

11. Smooth coated otter Lutra perspicillata

(Revised after Rao, R. J., 2008).

UR 

Plate 3b: A long Sand bank on the Chambal River used for basking and nesting by turtles and crocodiles.

4.2.1. Climate

The average temperature of 360C was recorded in the study area. The minimum temperature was 15.80C in the month of March, however, the maximum temperature was

42.20c in the month of May (Table 3; Fig.4).

Table 3: Climatic condition of the study area

Months Temperature Max. temperature Min. temperature Humidity (0C) (0C) (0C) (%) March 24.4 33.7 15.8 40.1 April 30 38.5 22.1 40.2 May 34 42.2 25.9 35.9 June 36 41.9 31 39.5 July 30.8 35.3 27.5 75.2 August 28.2 31.9 25.6 87.3 September 28.8 33.6 24.5 78.2 October 25 34.3 18 63.4

UV 

Plate 4a: Mugger basking on the Chambal River.

Plate 4b: Mugger basking on rocks in the Chambal River.

UX 

Plate 5a: Crocodiles basking in the vegetation along the Chambal River camouflaging themselves which

sometimes results into attack on animals and human.

Plate 5b: Gharial basking on mid-river Sand Island.

UY  4.3.2. Nesting behaviour:

Adequate areas for nesting should be provided to ensure that every reproductively mature female can access a site, with each site appropriately spaced. This will reduce fighting over nest sites, and during nesting. Although more than 50 km River stretch is habitat for Gharial and mugger, there are only 6 important nesting areas of crocodiles in the study area like Babusingh ki gher, Kisrouli, Daljeet ka pura, Barsala, Sukhdhyan ka pura and Holapura. Approximately 2 km of sand bank on small stretches are used by the Gharial for nesting. The crocodiles particularly Gharial selects good sandy area for nesting. The muggers also uses similar habitat for nesting. In the study area, sand banks used by the crocodiles were analyzed from Bilpur/Kuthiyan to Usedghat (Plate 6a and 6b).

Plate 6a: Nesting site of gharials in the Chambal River.

UZ 

Plate 6b: Few eggs from gharial nest excavated by locals.

4.4. Human Demographic profile:

The 15 villages selected in the present study have a population of about 6400, with overall male female ratio of 1.07. The literacy rate of the selected villages as per the census

2011 is 49.6. Population profile and literacy rate of the 15 villages located in the study sites in National Chambal Sanctuary are given in table 4 and location of these villages along M.P. side of the Chambal River are shown in figures 5-8.

U[  Table 4: Population male-female ratio and literacy rate of sampling villages

S. no. Villages Population M:F Ratio Literacy rate 1. Bilpur 550 1.11 54.5 2. Kuthiyana 1,000 1.04 57.2 3. Mallahan ka pura 250 1.08 46.0

4. Baboo singh ki gher 500 1.04 48.2

5. Kisrouli 900 1.04 47.1 6. Bhamai 250 1.17 44.0 7. Daljeet ka pura 300 1.15 46.6 8. Beech ka pura 250 1.03 52.0 9. Sukhdhyan ka pura 250 1.06 46.0

10. Ramgadh 300 1.06 44.6 11. Indrajeet ka pura 150 1.11 38.0 12. Holapura 450 1.02 46.6 13. Nohara 400 1.07 46.2 14. Basdev ka pura 350 1.03 48.6 15. Nayapura (Usedghat) 500 1.10 52.0 Total 6400 1.07 49.6

VR 

4.5. Human Activities:

4.5.1. Sand mining:

The prime habitat characteristics of the river are the long stretch sand banks. These sand banks are very much useful for the aquatic animals for nesting and basking. Being aquatic animals the reptile in the river such as Gharial, Mugger and fresh water turtles come out on the sand bank for basking and laying eggs specially constructed by individual female.

Extraction of sand for construction work is a major usage from different rivers including

Chambal River. Sand mining is one of the major human activities in the NCS. Sand is continually extracted in the important nesting and basking site, this is reducing the space of nesting and basking habitat and drastically changing the population trends in aquatic biodiversity (Plates 7a and 7b).

Plate 7a: Sand mining activity and mugger basking at Chambal River.

VU 

4.5.3. Agricultural / wood collection:

This is the most serious of long term threats because it damage habitat and alienated wildlife of it. The practice of agricultural on the banks of the Chambal and harvesting of fuel wood leads to heavy erosion in the ravines and shrinkage. During summer when the water level records, the exposed and expanding sand bank are used for growing vegetables and the lamarix growth on the islands which now become accessible is hacker down, disturbing

Gharial, Mugger and turtles nesting sites. More importantly human activities on increasing numbers of sand bank due to cucurbit horticulture will definitely alienate Gharial of all size classes from basking habitat and will lead to permanent emigration of animal from these area as has occurred in the Yamuna and many other hosts Indian river (8a and 8b).

Plate 8a: Locals extract water from Chambal River for agriculture on the River bank.

VW 

Plate 8b: Agricultural production on the River bank by local villagers.

4.5.4. Water development activity

Unsustainable water extraction for agriculture and large scale human consumption will also render the aquatic habitat of the sanctuary uninhabitable for large aquatic wildlife.

Water extraction activities were also observed in the study area. Due to this activity the water level is going down, which further adversely affects gharials and muggers in these areas. Diversion of water from the Chambal River for irrigation is one of the main reasons of reducing in river flow which is adversely affecting the geo-morphology, biota and their habitat (Plate 9)

VX 

Plate 9: Water extraction at Rajghat.

4.5.5. Other activities:

Locals use the river for various purposes including drinking water collection, cloth washing, and livestock use. People also cross the river by means of a temporary bridge, cross the river using the boats and Camels and also the river bank is used for burial purposes etc (Plates 10a to 15b).

VY 

Plate 10a: River side villagers are engaged in washing, bathing and collection of drinking water from the Chambal River.

Plate 10b: Locals frequently visit the river along with their domestic animals.

VZ 

Plate 11a: Bathing of cattle in the Chambal River an easy victim of crocodiles.

Plate 11b: Cattle found to river side village on the river bank.

V[ 

Plate 12a: Goats drinking and grazing on the River bank on easy target to crocodiles.

Plate 12b: People crossing the Chambal River on a temporary bridge.

WR 

Plate 13a: Transportation on boats by river side villages is a frequent activity.

Plate 13b: Transportation on boats by river side villagers.

WS 

Plate 14a: Camel crossing the Chambal River. People transport goods on Camels.

Plate 14b: Buried ground on the river bank at Rajghat, Dholpur. People throw dead bodies of children in the River, which attracts turtles and crocodiles that feed the dead bodies.

WT 

Plate 15a: Locals engaged in different activities like bathing, tilling, and water extraction on the river banks.

Plate 15b: Boy is crossing in the evening time in the Chambal River.

WU  4.6. Incidents of crocodile attacks:

It was found that most of the people who are the residents of the sampled villages were farmers followed by fishermen and laburs. Buffalos, goats, dogs and cows are the prime victim of the crocodile in the study area (Table 5; Plates 16a and 16b).

Plate 16a Showing crocodile attack on a calf at Mallahan ka pura.

Plate 16b: Buffalo attacked by a mugger at Ramgadh village.

WV  Table 5: Major Accidents in the selected villagers

Villages Name of person Occupation Affected Site (location) animal Ramlakhan Sakhwar Farmer Goat 26°42'9.36"N 78° 5'45.29"E Jaysing Tomar Farmer No - Bilpur Ramprkash Sakhwar Farmer No -

Gyasiram Tomar Farmer Dog 26°42'9.36"N 78° 5'45.29"E Ramsingh Tomar Farmer No -

Kuthiyana Chotu Tomar Farmer No -

Sukhram Tomar Farmer Buffalo 26°41'49.50"N 78° 5'49.31"E Munnilal Nisar Fisher man Calf 26°43'37.05"N 78° 5'30.98"E Bijendra Singh Nisar Farmer Goat 26°43'58.54"N 78° 5'39.00"E Mallahan ka Sunder Singh Mallah Fisher man Calf 26°43'58.54"N pura 78° 5'39.00"E Bahaddur Gir Farmer No -

Jagnnaath Singh Mallah Fisher man No -

Avdesh Singh Farmer No -

Asharam Dandotiya Farmer Goat 26°44'13.08''N 78°06'18.65''E Satypal Singh Tomar Farmer No - Baboo Singh ki gher Rambharoshi Dandotiya labor No -

Manoj Karoriya Farmer No -

Lokendra Singh Tomar Farmer Calf 26°44'12.08''N 78°06'24.09''E Pradeep Mishra Priest No -

Banti Baba Priest No -

Kisrouli WW  Chandra Singh Gurjar Farmer Goat 26°44'53.04''N 78°07'07.67''E Munnilal Gurjar Farmer Cow 26°44'51.17''N 78°07'24.17''E Umakant Sharma Farmer Buffalo 26°44'47.66''N 78°07'22.54''E Nand Kishor Gurjar Farmer Cow 26°47'24.92"N 78° 6'46.98"E Bhamai Ramveer Gujar Farmer No -

Shri Krishna Gujar Farmer No -

Surendra Gurjar Farmer Buffalo 26°47'24.92"N 78° 6'46.98"E Motiram Jatav Farmer Goat 26°46'16.53"N Beech ka 78° 6'11.11"E pura Dharmendra Gurjar Labor No -

Hari Singh Baretha Farmer No -

Amar Singh Gurjar Farmer Goat 26°46'28.48"N 78° 6'11.42"E Kalicharan Singh Farmer Cow 26°46'49.62"N Daljeet ka 78° 6'9.21"E pura Raghunath Singh Gurjar Farmer Cow 26°46'28.48"N 78° 6'11.42"E Rambeer Singh Farmer No -

Ramnivash Tomar labor Buffalo 26°48'36.19"N 78°10'26.54"E Laxminarayan Tomar Farmer Dog 26°48'29.07''N Sukhdhyan 78°11'09.02''E ka pura Sankar Singh Farmer Buffalo 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E Sugreev Singh Tomar Farmer Buffalo 26°48'38.0''N 78°10'20.08''E Chote Singh Tomar Farmer Calf 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E Mahendra Singh Tomar Farmer Goat 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E Ramgadh Sobaran Singh labor Buffalo 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E Kalian Singh Tomar Farmer Calf 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E

WX  Prem Singh Tomar Farmer Buffalo 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E

Mohar Singh Farmer Buffalo 26°48'29.07''N 78°11'09.02''E Raghuraj Tomar labor Buffalo 26°48'29.07''N Indrajeet ka 78°11'09.02''E pura Sobannah Tomar Farmer No -

Murari Tomar labor No -

Chote Singh Farmer Calf 26°49'20.15"N 78°12'19.47"E

Ramraj Tomar Farmer No -

Holapura Teekam Singh Tomar labor No -

Satyveer Tomar Farmer No -

Sughar Singh Farmer Goat 26°49'35.48"N 78°12'55.16"E

Nohara Sobran Singh Mallah Fisher man No -

Indrajeet Tomar Farmer No -

Rajendra Singh Baghel Farmer No - Basdev ka pura Ramdash Singh labor No -

Shivtar Singh Baghel Farmer No -

Kulle Singh Tomar Farmer Goat 26°51'57.03''N 78°22'02.0''E Kailash Nishar Fisher man Goat 26°51'38.42''N 78°21'42.15''E Nayapura Bhojraj Singh Farmer Dog 26°51'59.18"N (Used ghat) 78°20'55.67"E Naredra Singh labor No -

Kailashi Singh Farmer Goat 26°51'59.18"N 78°20'55.67"E

WY  4.7. Timing of crocodile attacks:

It was found that timing has a direct relationship with accidents rate in the evening

hours when people are mostly indoors, however, certain accidents have occurred early in the

morning (Table 6).

Table 6: Temporal frequency of various accidents in different villages

Village\Time Morning (hrs) After noon (hrs) Evening (hrs) Night (hrs)

Bilpur - - 1730 -

Kuthiyana 1000 - 1830 -

Mallahan ka pura 1030 - 1700-1730 -

Baboo singh ki gher 0930 - 1700 -

Kisrouli - 1250 1715 -

Bhamai - - 1650 -

Daljeet ka pura 0930 - 1750 -

Beech ka pura - - 1700-1730 -

Sukhdhyan ka pura 0900-1000 1200 1630 -

Ramgadh 0900-1000 - 1600 -

Indrajeet ka pura - - 1630-1700 -

Holapura 0830 - - -

Nohara - - 1800 -

Basdev ka pura - - - -

Nayapura (Usedghat) 1000 1330 1630 -

WZ 

4.9. Perception of residents

29% of the people reported that they are negatively affected by the presence of crocodile and 54% told that they do not have any affect due to presence of crocodile in the area (Table 8; Fig.10).

Table 8: Perception of residents about the presence of crocodile in the area

Negatively affected peoples Frequency Percentage Cumulative frequency

Yes 29 29 29

No 54 54 83

No response 17 17 100

-V$: 10VC7:``VH VR]VQ]CV

V  Q Q`V ]QJ V

 Q  Q

Q

Fig.10: Percentages of negatively affected people in the study area

XR 

It was found that most of the people are aware of the crocodile behavior in these villages and 80% of the people have seen crocodile once in their life and to escape from clutches of crocodiles and 75% people think to construct alternate source for drinking water, due to the presence of crocodiles and only 9% people prefer to go for fishing (Table 10;

Fig.12; Plate 17).

Plate 17: Discussion with local villagers on Chambal River.

XT 



Table 11. Table of (Human crocodile conflict) in Record of Deori Range in the National Chambal Sanctuary.

S. no Date and Name of Attacked person Place Remarks Compensation Time 1. 28/06/06 Mukesh S/o Laxminarayan Bale ka pura (Bhind) Injured 10,000 Game range Bhind. Evening Nisad Cheque no. 500/11-10-02. 2. 01/07/02 Shrinivash S/o Ramswroop Khudo Dead 50,000 Game range Bhind. 2:30 pm Nisad (20 yrs ) (Bhind) Cheque no. 01/20-09-02. 3. 15/04/03 Shri Harinandan S/o Baresura ghat (nare Injured 10,000 Game range Sabalgadh. 12:00 pm Udaysingh Mallah (11 yrs) ka pura) sabalgadh. Order no. 03/20-04-03. 4. 02/06/03 Sannu S/o Ghudilal Harijan Adwad (Sabalgadh) Dead No compensation due to FIR. 2 pm Game range Sabalgadh. 5. 24/06/03 Thakurilal S/o Lalpati Rawat Magroul (Sabalgadh) Injured 7,260 Game range Sabalgadh. Order no. 01/06-09-03. 6. 21/07/04 Shri kulla S/o Girandh Baghel Ratan basai Injured 2,500 Game range Bhind. (28 yrs) (Rehghat) Bhind 7. 02/02/05 Shri Setbandhu S/o Mangilal Khiviri Dead No compensation due to FIR Mallah (26 yrs) (Morena) and PM.

8. 26/10/06 Banti S/o Ramswroop Mallah Gajikheda (Palari Dead 50,000 ghat) Order no. 01/02-11-06 Sabalgadh. 9. 06/08/07 Halle S/o Vijay Singh Mallah Baldev ka pura Dead 50,000 12 pm (Doobghat) A/19-523997/14-08-07 Sabalgadh. 10. 22/11/07 Raje Jatav S/o Punya Jatav Barotha ghat Dead 50,000 8 am (Morena) Cheque no. 524102/03-12-07

XV  

11. 31/12/07 Ramlakhan S/o Tilokha Rawat Pallara (Barotha ghat) Dead 50,000 Morena. Cheque no. 524205/08-02-08 12. 23/05/08 Bali S/o Ramjilal Mallah Rejhetha (Sabalgadh) Injured 7,000 by R.K. Sharma 5 pm 13,000 by Forest department Morena. 13. 14/05/09 Yogendra S/o Banti Nai Jetpura ghat Dead 11,765 (Dholpur) Order no. 04/29-10-09 14. 14/05/09 Ku. Preeti D/o Ramavtar Jetpura ghat Dead 1000 Gurjar (Dholpur) 15. 06/12/12 Imran Khan S/o Afeesh Khan Barhi ghat (Bhind) Dead Compensation pending.

XW  

Chapter 5

Discussion

The natural resources of our country are priceless possessions and nature has been very generous to India in the form of its wildlife. The natural river bears a natural balance of plants and animals, some interdependent, some competing, some independent. To understand the status of restoration of any managed ecosystem it is essential to study the biotic components of the ecosystem, especially on the indicator species (Cairns, 1982). The present investigation was carried out from Bilpur-Kuthiyana to Usedghat a 50 Km stretch adjoining the boundary of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The present study is based on information on population, habitat use and human-crocodile conflict in the National Chambal Sanctuary.

Efforts to conserve crocodiles in India effectively began in 1972 with the declaration of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act under which all three species of Indian crocodiles were declared as totally protected fauna. The gharial is considered as endangered in IUCN Red

Data Book. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. A Nation-wide Crocodile Conservation

Project was initiated in the Country by the Govt. of India during 1975 in technical collaboration with FAO/UNDP (FAO, 1985). Under the Crocodile Project many crocodile habitats were identified and protected by declaring thirteen of them as crocodile sanctuaries.

Among them 7 (54%) sanctuaries with an area of 2986 Sq.km. are specially created for the protection of gharial (Rao, 1985).

In recent years, impact of human activities in protected area management has been identified by conservation management agencies as a significant issue for planning, reporting

XX   and decision-making. Although considerable interest has been directed towards sustainable utilization of natural resources, the adverse impact on survival of endangered species in protected areas is a major concern. With the growing pressure on natural resources from human and animal populations, various forms of environmental degradation are evident in different protected areas. The competition for land for human settlement, farming, grazing, fishing and mining or for other uses the forests and protected areas are frequent targets. For proper management of protected areas it is apparent that without the cooperation of local people, it will be impossible to preserve wildlife and their habitats. The increased human disturbances in Chambal River caused forced migration of wild animals. The wildlife then concentrates on relatively undisturbed forest areas leading to overloading on the carrying capacity of these sites.

The Ganges river system in North India includes in its fauna two species of crocodiles - the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus and the marsh crocodile Crocodylus palustris (FAO, 1985). The Chambal River in India is one of the most remarkable riverine habitats for large number of aquatic animals including Gangetic dolphin, gharial, mugger, otter and aquatic birds, which breed in the river. The National Chambal Sanctuary is a notified protected area of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Part of the

Chambal River has been declared as Wildlife Sanctuary to conserve the river ecosystem as such and gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and other aquatic and terrestrial animals (Rao, 1992).

The Sanctuary is identified for its water resources, aquatic faunal resources and genetic resources. The local people living in the areas of National Chambal Sanctuary, where they were settled as landless labourers, limit the exploitation of natural resources. People use local natural resources like fish traditionally at sustainable level. The use is mostly for own

XY   purposes. Sometimes people collect fish and sell in the local markets. The problems arose, when larger economics started penetrating in the system and commercial use of resource started replacing the traditional ways of resource use. The overuse of natural resources results in resource depletion and ecological degradation that threaten the livelihood of poor.

Human impacts on the conservation of biological diversity are a matter of concern.

Many rivers in India have come under tremendous human pressure in the recent years due to several factors. The most important factors are over exploitation of available water, diversion of water due to multi-purpose projects, pollution etc. Rao (1992) reported the impact of human activities on wildlife in the National Chambal Sanctuary. Population reduction of various important aquatic animals from natural habitat may be the result of over exploitation of natural resources (Rao, 1995). Many of the local people depend on the rivers for their basic needs including frequent visits to the river for various purposes.

In the Chambal River human activities are increasing slowly. In the past the local people collected and utilized the fish for themselves, but gradually people outside the

Chambal region are collecting the fish and turtles for sale in different states particularly West

Bengal. Wildlife habitats were considerably altered and there are disturbances along the river by wood collectors, poachers, farmers and sand miners. Such human activities have increased instances of human-crocodile conflict. There are many reports in the sanctuary regarding killing of cattle and human by mugger crocodile in the Chambal River. It is the responsibility of the wildlife managers and researchers to take suitable measures for controlling such human-crocodile conflict in the National Chambal Sanctuary. There is a

XZ   need to take education and awareness programme to the local human population, which depends totally on the river.

Rivers are used for a wide range of human purposes other than fisheries. The fish population in the Chambal River is decreasing due to large-scale illegal fishing. The fishing in the Chambal River has reduced fish resources for the aquatic animals like crocodiles. This resulted into competition between human and crocodiles.

In India many rivers, lakes and marshes offer variety of habitat that are exploited by three species of crocodiles. The early records reveal that these crocodiles were at one time very abundant throughout their distribution range (FAO, 1974). However, due to commercial exploitation and habitat destruction their populations were reduced to near extinction. A timely action was taken during 1975 when Govt. of India initiated a Crocodiles Project to save all three species of crocodiles by giving protection to them as well as to their habitats through Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, besides a rehabilitation program (Bustard,

1980). In some areas the populations of crocodiles has been increased due to conservation programmes. In such areas conflict between crocodiles and human has been increased. The monitoring studies conducted in different parts of the country revealed that the number and distribution of crocodiles have changed markedly over the last 15 years.

In the present study, mugger population densities were estimated in a limited area of the Sanctuary. Social and biological surveys indicated that numbers of the mugger crocodile were increasing. Mugger was included in the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection

Act of 1972. This act provided for greater protection of species and its habitat.

X[  

People have been living with wild animals from time immemorial. Though man- animals conflict is emerging seriously it is possible for the many to coexist with wild animals provided a little attention is given to know the habits, behavior, active time and basic requirements of wild animals coming to our vicinity (Udgata, 2011). Habitat studies provide crucial information about the ecological requirements of a species or community. Increasing habitat loss causes a significant increase in the resource use by crocodiles and human and their livestock.

In many parts of the world crocodiles and alligator attacks are increasing.

Overfishing and dumping of waste into rivers has been suggested as possible causes of increased attacks (Scott and Scott, 1994). Human-crocodile conflict studies have been carried out extensively in many parts of the world (Langlay, 2005; Whitaker, 2007, 2008;

Aust, 2009; Dunham et al, 2010; Fergusson, 2010; Udgata, 2011; Mendis, 2012, Webb,

2012; Chomba et. al. 2012). For over four decades the crocodile population in the Northern

Territory in Australia has been increasing, crocodile attacks have been occurring, and calls for culling have been raised (Webb, 2012). It is not a simple issue to culls the problem crocodiles. A refined public education programme ensures residents and visitors are well-

   Q    ,R  o the negligence of people, there has been a spike in the number of crocodile attacks on humans in recent years. The growing human toll, deaths and injuries, have had a far more detrimental consequence on the crocodiles, with the villagers being provoked into poisoning, trapping and killing the crocodiles (Mendis, 2012).

Local people in Mozambique are poor and regularly venture into the crocodile areas for collecting fish and are sometimes being attacked by crocodiles. Against crocodile attacks the locals opportunistically killed crocodiles and destroyed their nests because of the danger they

YR   posed and the damage they caused to fishing nets. It is suggested that good land-use planning, a long-term solution to many conflicts, is particularly relevant in Mozambique, where crocodile populations of protected areas are often in rivers that boarder these areas, and cause conflicts outside them, and where people commonly live within protected areas.

Poverty may prompt fishermen to risk crocodile attack by entering rivers or lakes.

Conservation of aquatic biodiversity in the National Chambal Sanctuary is major subject of research since 1983 (Singh, 1985; Rao, 1989; Sharma, 1991; Hussain, 1992).

There are direct conflicts like injury and death of human and indirect conflicts like crocodile destroying the fishing nets, damage to fish population, predate domestic livestock. The present study is mainly focused on the crocodile-human conflict in the National Chambal

Sanctuary. Large numbers of people residing in the riverside villages are directly dependent on the Chambal River. They collect sand, grow agriculture along the river banks and collect fish from the river.

Ecologically, crocodiles are top predator and play a key role in maintaining the structure and function of freshwater ecosystems. Due to conservation programme under

Indian Crocodile Project population numbers of muggers have increased dramatically in recent years and they are now considered abundant in many regions. However, increasing anthropogenic activities have a negative impact on the survival of crocodiles. The deterioration and loss of suitable habitat is a conservation threat facing crocodiles in India

(IUCN 2007). In many areas in India socio-economic poverty crisis is heavily dependent on the increased utilisation of freshwater resources, due to this crocodile-specific habitat is threatened. In India under Wildlife Protection Act, (1972) all species of crocodiles are

YS   protected and since they are CITES species all these crocodile species enjoys considerable national and International protection and the killing of crocodiles is heavily regulated. These species have no direct benefit to the riverside villagers, so the locals see crocodiles only as dangerous problem animals. Locals always consider that crocodiles attack on humans and livestock so the species receive less local support for conservation programmes. In addition large sections of river banks of big rivers including the Chambal River are difficult to govern by the government as the freshwater is a valuable commodity for river side people.

In the National Chambal Sanctuary sand mining is considered one of the prime threat to the crocodile habitat. The economy of the locals along the river largely depends on collection and selling of sand from the river banks and sometimes from the core areas where crocodile are nesting. Since, the river is under the management of the sanctuary, extracting sand from the river banks has been banned. This resulted into illegal sand mining, which posed a problem to various departments like forest/wildlife and police for controlling such illegal activities in crocodile habitats. Crocodile-human conflict is having social implications resulting in fractious relationships between local communities and wildlife and police authorities. The locals started mass movements saying that crocodile conservation in

Chambal River and in other areas is the greatest obstacle facing poverty allevation.

Recently, during December 2012 there is a major conflict between villagers and police at

)        #  , !      6/ ' R illegally collecting sand from the Chambal River. Since sand mining is banned from the

Chambal River Sanctuary as the river habitat is protected under Wildlife Protection Act

1972, the conservation authorities have taken action against the people collecting sand. The local villagers consider that due to Crocodile conservation programmes in the Chambal River

YT   they were not allowed to collect sand from the Chambal River, a livelihood that is not being allowed by the Government which resulted into poverty. Such apprehensions have negative impact on the crocodile conservation programmes.

In the Chambal River indigenous crocodiles are once again abundant due to conservation and management programmes. In addition human population in different riverside villages has been increased and they and their livestock depend heavily on the river.

The recovery of crocodile population and increase in human population has resulted in substantial levels of human-crocodile conflict. Conflicts between humans and wild animals are as old as the co-existence between them. They occur in all continents only varying in typology and circumstances. When human-wildlife conflicts occur, negative media reporting often exacerbates negative perceptions of the general public towards those species which cause the most conflict such as the crocodile (Chomba, et. al. 2012). The increased and progression loss of natural habitats and biodiversity have probably exacerbated human- wildlife conflicts and may continue in future as communities continue to ignore the need to comply with the provisions of General Management Plans in regulating human settlements.

The ignorance on the general behavior of crocodiles coupled with the inability to detect crocodiles in water aggravate the conflicts. According to Chomba et. al. (2012) crocodiles live very close to humans without being detected. This factor together with the inability to detect crocodiles by people may be responsible for high incidences of crocodile attacks on humans and livestock. Many crocodile attacks may additionally go unnoticed and unreported, since at times, human or livestock may be stealthily taken when a person is alone or livestock is not accompanied by a person.

YU  

The findings of this study indicate that major habitats of crocodiles are under pressure due to increase in human activities. The major threat at present is habitat loss due to human encroachment, and disruption of populations through fishing and other hunting activities. In the present study it is observed that due to Crocodile-human conflict relationships between local communities and wildlife authorities is not cordial. Locals consider that crocodile programmes in the Chambal River are major obstacles for poverty alleviation as they depend primarily on the river for livelihood and Government restricts use of resources for crocodile conservation. Information collected in this study is useful and thereby provide an insight into the human-crocodile conflict in the National Chambal

Sanctuary and help in taking measures for the conservation management of crocodiles. There is a need for greater awareness among the local villagers on the crocodile conservation programmes and its benefits. It is essential to monitor the conflict between crocodiles and people living in the Sanctuary. Since large number of people depends on the freshwater ecosystems there is a need to restructure the crocodile conservation policies to accommodate

 ** R    dependency on freshwater ecosystems. To control crocodile-human conflict mitigation measures like conflict reduction and benefit generation schemes such as improving alternative water sources, the education of local communities on crocodile ecology, conflict avoidance measures and crocodile-specific tourism potential have to be taken. Research programmes should be aimed at undertaking mitigation programmes to be used as baselines for future monitoring projects.

YV  

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

The findings of this study indicate that major habitats of crocodiles are under pressure due to increase in human activities. The major threat at present is habitat loss due to human encroachment, and disruption of populations through fishing and other hunting activities. In the present study it is observed that due to Crocodile-human conflict relationships between local communities and wildlife authorities is not cordial. Locals consider that crocodile programmes in the Chambal River are major obstacles for poverty alleviation as they depend primarily on the river for livelihood and Government restricts use of resources for crocodile conservation. Information collected in this study is useful and thereby provide an insight into the human-crocodile conflict in the National Chambal Sanctuary and help in taking measures for the conservation management of crocodiles. There is a need for greater awareness among the local villagers on the crocodile conservation programmes and its benefits. It is essential to monitor the conflict between crocodiles and people living in the

Sanctuary. Since large number of people depends on the freshwater ecosystems there is a

          *      ** R   and dependency on freshwater ecosystems. To control crocodile-human conflict mitigation measures like conflict reduction and benefit generation schemes such as improving alternative water sources, the education of local communities on crocodile ecology, conflict avoidance measures and crocodile-specific tourism potential have to be taken. Research programmes should be aimed at undertaking mitigation programmes to be used as baselines for future monitoring projects.

YW  

Following are some recommendation for Crocodile Conservation in the Chambal

River.

 The information collected in the present study is very important in order to reduce

human crocodile conflicts in the future.

 Proper base-line assessment and monitoring of muggers and gharials population has

to be done in Chambal River especially of banks. Nesting and basking sites should

be identified and mapped and potential ecosystems need to be restored scientifically.

 Community based conservation efforts should be initiated and participation of

stakeholders (people living in mugger areas, relevant Government departments-

Forest, wildlife, irrigation, fisheries, research institutions, NGOs) should be ensured;

additionally, their favorable views about conservation should be involved in policy

making.

 Females crocodiles are known to lay eggs in sandbanks between February and April,

and hatching occurs between March and June, therefore, proper monitoring of habitat

should be done on regular basis.

 Prevent encroachments on the river bank by the locals for commercial use.

 Launch an awareness program to propagate conservational value of muggers and

gharials.

 Design new action plan at state levels on muggers and gharials.

YX  

Chapter 7

Summary

The study was conducted in the National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh in an area of around 50 km from village Bilpur/Kuthiyana to Nayapura (Pinahatghat). Geographically, the study site lies between latitude 26°40'N - 26°51'N and longitude 78°5'E - 78°22'E. There are about 15 villages along the river bank in the study area. National Chambal Sanctuary is at the borders of three districts, Sheopur, Morena and Bhind in the state of Madhya Pradesh in

North India. In this part of the National Chambal Sanctuary two species of crocodiles

Gavialis gangeticus (gharial) and Crocodylus palustris (mugger) are present.

The sanctuary is protected under India's Wildlife Protection Act of (1972). The sanctuary is administered by the Department of Forest under the Project Officer with headquarter at Morena, Madhya Pradesh. Parts of the sanctuary are threatened by extensive illegal sand mining, which is endangering the fragile lotic ecosystem critical for Gharial breeding. National Tri-State Chambal Sanctuary Management and Coordination

Committee have been formed for the management of NCS.

The Chambal River in India has the single largest contiguous population of gharial reportedly between 48% and 85% of the global population. The gharial is threatened by riverbank land-use changes, reduction in river flows, modification of river morphology, loss of nesting and basking sites, increased mortality in fishing nets and egg-collection for consumption. Few crocodiles reach maturity. Eggs drown sometimes as nests are submerged during wet season flooding and small crocodiles are eaten by jackal, mongoose, goannas,

YY   birds, fish, other crocodiles. Anthropogenic processes have physically, chemically and

  ,   R   , 

Crocodile attacks on people are common in places where large crocodiles are native and human populations live. Only six of the 23 crocodilian species are considered dangerous to adult humans and only individuals 2 meters (6.6 ft) in length or more represent a serious danger to humans, as smaller crocodiles are considered incapable of killing a person.

Conflicts between humans and animals are a serious problem in many parts of the world. The damage and destruction caused by a variety of animals to human property-and sometimes to human life-is a real and significant danger to many human communities and with the animals often killed, captured, or otherwise harmed in retaliation, these conflicts are one of the main threats to the continued survival of many species.

An assessment of human-crocodile conflict in National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya

Pradesh was carried out from March M October, 2012 at regular intervals to collect data on crocodile population in the study site, socio-economic status of the adjoining villages and human-crocodile conflict. Primary data were collected through field surveys and secondary data were collected from Madhya Pradesh Forest Department.

This study aimed at exploring the human-crocodile conflict in terms of livestock depredation, human casualties, retaliation killing, asses the habitat sharing of crocodiles, asses the anthropogenic pressure on the river ecosystem and determine the crocodile-human conflict to suggest mitigation measures.

The 15 villages selected in the present study have a population of about 6400, with overall male female ratio of 1.07. The literacy rate of the selected villages as per the census

YZ  

2011 is 49.6. The average temperature of 360C was recorded in the study area. The minimum temperature was 15.80C in the month of March, however, the maximum temperature was 42.20c in the month of May.

The Gharial bask on the sand bank and mugger also use sand banks for basking, although they prefer hard soil and rocks for basking for long hours. Both crocodiles nest on sand banks at many sites. They use sand banks throughout the sanctuary wherever suitable habitats are available. Sand mining is one of the major human activities in the NCS. Sand is continually extracted in the important nesting and basking site, this is reducing the space of nesting and basking habitat and drastically changing the population trends in aquatic biodiversity.

Although fishing is totally banned in the Chambal River to avoid incidental mortality of aquatic animal in the gills nets, occasional illegal fishing is continuing. There are many reports of crocodile and turtles mortalities by drawing in fishing nets. Two dolphins were recorded to be killed in the fishing nets and the fishermen extracted oil from the dolphins in

April 1987. Because of the fishing activities in the Chambal River the animals are facing a lot of disturbance.

People use the river for various purposes including drinking water collection, cloth washing etc. People also cross the river by means of a temporary bridge, cross the river using the boats and Camels and also the river bank is used for burial of dead bodies and extraction of water for irrigation, livestock use etc. Most of the crocodiles that are present in the study area were adults and only a few among them were juvenile. 14 gharials and 19 sub adult mugger were also seen in the study area.

Y[  

Although there are reports of human M crocodile conflict in the National Chambal

Sanctuary, the present studies revealed that in the study area human beings are not attacked by crocodiles but livestock is attacked by the mugger crocodiles. In several villages it is reported that 5-6 accidents have been occurred during 2011-2012. Mostly buffaloes, cows, and goats have been attacked by the mugger crocodile when they visit the river for drinking purpose.

It was found that most of the people who are the residents of the sampled villages were farmers followed by fishermen and labours. Buffalos, goats, dogs and cows are the prime victim of the crocodile in the study area. It was found that timing has a direct relationship with accidents rate in the evening hours when people are mostly indoors, however, certain accidents have occurred early in the morning. It has been calculated that 37 casualties of animals viz, cows, goats, buffalos and dogs have occurs in the area due to the conflict with crocodiles and 2 cows and 1 buffalos have become injured during the study period. 29% of the people reported that they are negatively affected by the presence of crocodile and 54% told that they do not have any affect due to presence of crocodile in the area.

85 residents living close to the victim of the sampling area believed that their

   R    ,  *    78#  #  # / and watering have become different for the residents in the area. The opinion of the residents regarding the discomfort of people is listed below.

It was found that most of the people are aware of the crocodile behavior in these villages and 80% of the people have seen crocodile once in their life and to escape from

ZR   clutches of crocodiles and 75% people think to construct alternate source for drinking water, due to the presence of crocodiles and only 9% people prefer to go for fishing.

The data of table revealed that most of the people who were affected by human crocodile conflict received compensation amount of Rs 5000- 10,000 as a relief from Deori

Range.

In the Chambal River human activities are increasing slowly. In the past the local people collected and utilized the fish for themselves, but gradually people outside the

Chambal region are collecting the fish and turtles for sale in different states particularly

West Bengal. Wildlife habitats were considerably altered and there are disturbances along the river by wood collectors, poachers, farmers and sand miners. Such human activities have increased instances of human-crocodile conflict. There are many reports in the sanctuary regarding killing of cattle and human by mugger crocodile in the Chambal River. It is the responsibility of the wildlife managers and researchers to take suitable measures for controlling such human-crocodile conflict in the National Chambal Sanctuary. There is a need to take education and awareness programme to the local human population, which depends totally on the river.

In the Chambal River indigenous crocodiles are once again abundant due to conservation and management programmes. In addition human population in different riverside villages has been increased and they and their livestock depend heavily on the river. The recovery of crocodile population and increase in human population has resulted in substantial levels of human-crocodile conflict. Conflicts between humans and wild animals are as old as the co-existence between them. They occur in all continents only varying in typology and circumstances. When human-wildlife conflicts occur, negative media reporting

ZS   often exacerbates negative perceptions of the general public towards those species which cause the most conflict such as the crocodile (Chomba, et. al. 2012). The increased and progression loss of natural habitats and biodiversity have probably exacerbated human- wildlife conflicts and may continue in future as communities continue to ignore the need to comply with the provisions of General Management Plans in regulating human settlements.

The ignorance on the general behavior of crocodiles coupled with the inability to detect crocodiles in water aggravate the conflicts. According to Chomba et. al. (2012) crocodiles live very close to humans without being detected. This factor together with the inability to detect crocodiles by people may be responsible for high incidences of crocodile attacks on humans and livestock. Many crocodile attacks may additionally go unnoticed and unreported, since at times, human or livestock may be stealthily taken when a person is alone or livestock is not accompanied by a person.

The findings of this study indicate that major habitats of crocodiles are under pressure due to increase in human activities. The major threat at present is habitat loss due to human encroachment, and disruption of populations through fishing and other hunting activities. In the present study it is observed that due to Crocodile-human conflict relationships between local communities and wildlife authorities is not cordial. Locals consider that crocodile programmes in the Chambal River are major obstacles for poverty alleviation as they depend primarily on the river for livelihood and Government restricts use of resources for crocodile conservation. Information collected in this study is useful and thereby provide an insight into the human-crocodile conflict in the National Chambal

Sanctuary and help in taking measures for the conservation management of crocodiles. There is a need for greater awareness among the local villagers on the crocodile conservation

ZT   programmes and its benefits. It is essential to monitor the conflict between crocodiles and people living in the Sanctuary. Since large number of people depends on the freshwater ecosystems there is a need to restructure the crocodile conservation policies to accommodate

 ** R    *,   ter ecosystems. To control crocodile-human conflict mitigation measures like conflict reduction and benefit generation schemes such as improving alternative water sources, the education of local communities on crocodile ecology, conflict avoidance measures and crocodile-specific tourism potential have to be taken. Research programmes should be aimed at undertaking mitigation programmes to be used as baselines for future monitoring projects.

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Chapter 8

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Appendix-1

Data sheet for the collection of information in National Chambal Sanctuary, M. P.   GGGGGG  GGGGGG  GGGGGGGGG

1. Study area

 Name of the Wetland: Tehsil:

 Name of the village: District:

 Population of village:

 Location:  Distance of the village from the water body:

2. Profile of respondents

 Name of the Respondent :  Occupation:  Family members:  Employed in family:  Yearly income: 3. Dependence on water body  " ,   /;* GGG= > yes, then ):  &   /;*  > GGGG GG GG?  How do you feed them? (stall feeding, grazing, or both):  If stall fed, where does the fodder come from (own land, forest, or both):  If grazed, where do livestock go for grazing (near water body, near forest area, or both):  Dependence on water body (drinking water, bathing and washing clothes, washing of household materials, cattle bathing, irrigation):  Time of utilization of water body: (0500-1000 hrs, 1000-1300 hrs, 1300 M 1600 hrs, 1600 M 1830 hrs, other):  Do you have your own water-source available? (yes/no): [V  

4. Crocodile conflict  Have any crocodile attacked your livestock? (Humans, livestock/pets, other):  Damage caused by attack:  *   GGG > ,#  5  = ?  Approximate size of crocodile (small/medium/huge):     / >: R  ? Details of attack(s) Date time Area (GPS location) Name of victim Age Male/female Occupation

5. Awareness about crocodile behavior (good/normal/nil)  Do you go for fishing? (yes/no, if yes, specify mode of fishing):

 Have you seen crocodiles in the wild? (Yes/no):

 How do you avoid crocodiles now?

 Are you thinking of evacuating from here because of this problem? (Yes/no):

 Would you prefer construction of a well/rain-water harvesting as an alternative source of drinking water? (Yes/no):

 Do you know that crocodiles are protected? (Yes/no):

 How can this problem be solved?

[W