Reading Proficiency and Comprehension Among English Language Students in Selected Department in Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola, Nigeria

READING PROFICIENCY AND COMPREHENSION AMONG ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDENTS IN SELECTED DEPARTMENT IN ADAMAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC YOLA, NIGERIA

BABA JIMETA USMAN 1163-07086-08684

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF HIGHER DEGREES AND RESEARCH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS ENGLISH LANGUAGE OF KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY, UGANDA.

MARCH, 2019

APPROVAL

This thesis was supervised and approved by me as a supervisor for the award of a Master of Arts English Language.

……………………………………… Dr. Simon Peter Ongodia

………………………………………… Date

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my profound gratitude and happiness to Allah (SWA) for giving me the strength and wisdom to withstand the challenges of studying away from my sweet home. Despite all the challenges, I finally made it. I wish to thank my entire family members for their courage in confronting the challenges of life during my leave of study. I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Ongodia Peter Simon, for his tireless effort in ensuring that this work has become successful. Also not forgetting the tremendous effort imputed by my able lecturer, Dr. John Kalema, in this work.

My appreciation goes to Dr Siraj, Prof. Ijeoma Anumaka, Dr. Ibrahim Wunti, Dr. Kayindu, Dr. James Wasaja, Dr. Nkonge Kiniyikibi, Dr. Susan Akinkurolere, Dr. Tindi, Dr. Muhammad Kibuuka, Prof. Salami and all other scholars not mentioned. Not forgetting my friends and colleagues whom we share everything together. I love you all.

Lastly, I would like to thank the management of Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola for nominating and forwarding my request for Study leave to Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND).In which without that, i would not have made it to Kampala International University, Uganda to pursue my Master’s program. Thank you all.

DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and the topic has never been submitted to any university or institution of higher learning for an academic award.

…………………….. Baba Jimeta Usman

……………………… Date

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DEDICATION

I dedicated this work to Almighty Allah for giving me the opportunity to proceed with my academic activities up to this stage of learning. I believe many are willing to attain but could not make it because of one reason or the other. ALHAMDULILLAH ALA KULLI –HAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPROVAL ...... i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii DECLARATION ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv List of Abbreviations ...... ix

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2.1. Historical Perspectives ...... 3 1.2.2. Theoretical Perspective ...... 4 1.2.3 .Conceptual perspective ...... 5 1.2.4. Contextual perspectives ...... 5 1.3. Statement of the Problem ...... 6 1.4. Purpose ...... 8 1.5. Objectives ...... 8 1.6. Research Questions ...... 8 1.7. Scope of the Study ...... 9 1.7.1 Geographical Scope ...... 9 1.7.2 Content Scope ...... 9 1.7.3 Time scope ...... 9 1.8. Significance of the Study ...... 9

CHAPTER TWO ...... 11 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11 2.1. Introduction ...... 11 2.2. Theoretical Review ...... 11 2.3. Conceptual Frame Work ...... 14 2.4. Literature Review...... 14

2.4.1. Reading Proficiency ...... 14 2.4.2. Reading Rate ...... 16 2.4.3. Reading strategies ...... 17 2.4.4. Comprehension ...... 20 2.4.5. Mother Tongue Interference ...... 23 2.4.6 Students' Background Knowledge ...... 24 2.4.7. Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Group ...... 26 2.4.6. Investigating the Effects of Reading Proficiency on Students ...... 27 2.4.7. Reading- Proficiency strategies impact on Comprehension of students ...... 29 2.5. An Intervention Approach ...... 31 2.6. Summary of the Gap ...... 32

CHAPTER THREE ...... 34 METHODOLOGY ...... 34 3.1. Introduction ...... 34 3.2. Research Design...... 34 3.3. Target population ...... 35 3.4. Sampling Techniques ...... 35 3.5. Sample Size ...... 35 3.6. Data collection ...... 36 3.7. Research Instrument...... 36 3.8. Data analysis ...... 36 3.9. Validity of the study...... 37 3.10. Reliability of the instruments ...... 37 3.11. Ethical consideration ...... 37

CHAPTER FOUR ...... 38 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ...... 38 4.1. Introduction ...... 38 4.2. Response Rate ...... 38 4.3 Demographic Data for both Departments (DELE AND DBAM) ...... 38

4.3.1 Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) ...... 38 4.3.2 Diploma in Business Administration and Management (BAM)...... 40 4.3.3 Pre-Test for Two Departments (DELE AND DBAM) ...... 41 4.5.1 Summary of the Findings for Pre-test of DELE and DBAM...... 57 4.3.5 Post –Test for Diploma in English Language Education Department (DELE) ...... 58

4.7. Post-Test for Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) and Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) ...... 70 FAIR ...... 70 4.7.1 Summary of the findings for post-test of DELE and DBAM ...... 72

CHAPTER FIVE ...... 74 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 74 5.1. Introduction ...... 74 5.2. Discussion of the Findings ...... 74 5.3 Conclusion ...... 75 5.4. Recommendations ...... 76 5.5. Suggestion for Further Research ...... 77

REFERENCES ...... 78 APPENDIX 1 ...... 83 BRIDE PRICE ...... 83 APPENDIX II ...... 86 SECTION B: APPENDIX III ...... 87 APPENDIX IV...... 89 APPENDIX V ...... 90 APPENDIX VI...... 93 Post-Test for Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) and Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) ...... 93

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 ...... 38 Table 2 ...... 39 Table 3 ...... 39 Table 4 ...... 39 Table 5 ...... 40 Table 6 ...... 40 Table 7 ...... 40 Table 8 ...... 41 Table 9 ...... 42 Table 10 ...... 44 Table 11 ...... 46 Table 12 ...... 48 Table 13 ...... 50 Table 14:Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension ...... 52 Table 15 ...... 55 Table 16:The Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Groups ...... 58 Table 17: The Effects of Reading Proficiency on the Comprehension of Students in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola ...... 60 Table 18: Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension ...... 62 Table 19: The Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Groups ...... 64 Table 20:The Effects of Reading Proficiency on the Comprehension of Students in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola ...... 66 Table 21: Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension ...... 68 Table 22 ...... 70

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DELE Diploma in English Language Education DBAM Diploma in Business Administration and Management Exclln Excellent V.GD Very Good GD Good EGP English for General Purpose ESP English for Specific Purpose

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola Nigeria. The two selected departments are Diploma in English Language Education and Diploma in Business Administration and Management. Indeed, the ability to read efficiently in English is deemed an important skill to be acquired for academic, business and other purposes. In Nigeria, English is a compulsory subject in all schools. However, some students in Nigerian tertiary institutions, especially those in Nigeria are unaware of or do not have effective strategies to comprehend English reading materials. The objectives of the study were i) to identify the level of proficiency among the experimental groups, ii) to investigate the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of students in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola, and iii) to establish the effect of reading proficiency on comprehension. The underlying theory for this research is Schema theory. More so, to achieve these objectives, the study looked at what the SQ3R method for reading texts and the benefits of using it. Experimental technique was employed as a design of the study. Then the purposive sampling was used to select the two departments and simple random sampling technique was also used to determine the sample size of the study. The target population of this study was 200 on the basis of 100 students from each department. The sample size of this study was 114 respondents obtained by using the Sloven’s formula. To get the sample size for each department, 114 were divided by 2= 57. The instrument used for the exercise was an extract from their recommended Diploma 1 English textbook (Understanding Use of English for Schools and Colleges). The reading topic is, ‘BRIDE PRICE’. Besides, a 5 point liker scale was designed by the researcher to extract data from the respondents. The finding of the study revealed that both students performed poorly before the intervention with SQ3R method of teaching reading. After the intervention, the performance improved significantly. More efforts should be made to improve reading for better comprehension. The Study recommends i) that teachers of English language should equip themselves with effective reading strategies and to master the SQ3R method of teaching reading at all levels of learning before embarking on the task. Ii) head of departments of the tertiary institution across the state and the country at large should encourage the use of appropriate reading materials for their students; and iii) government should ensure that, the teachers attain rigorous training after every two years and recruitment agency should

x ensure that those to be recruited are professional in their various disciplines. More so, the National Board of Technical Education (NBTE) should ensure that appropriate curriculum have been designed and reviewed after every five years; so as to enable the polytechnic grandaunts to have the capability of confronting challenges in the labour market after graduation.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This chapter is a general introduction to the study. It includes background of the study, historical perspective, theoretical perspective, conceptual perspective, and contextual perspective. Statement of the problem, purpose, objectives, research questions, hypothesis, and scope of the study, geographical scope, content scope and significance of the study.

1.2. Background of the Study

Reading is a skill and, like any skill, it wanes and flourishes, depending upon how actively one practices it. Increasing your eye span, and thereby your absorption rate, will improve your comprehension and make the act more meaningful and enjoyable. Reading is a lifelong skill to be used both at school and throughout life. This is in consonance with Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, and Wilkinson (1985) submission that “It is a cornerstone for a child's success in school and, indeed, throughout life. Without the ability to read well, opportunities for personal fulfilment and job success inevitably will be lost”. Despite its importance, reading is one of the most challenging skills in the education system. The ever-increasing demand for high levels of literacy in our technological society makes this problem even more pressing (Snow, Burns, &Griffin, 1998).

However, most people read an average of 250 words per minute. That is about 1-2 minutes per page. Increasing one’s reading speed, while maintaining 50% comprehension rate could make one more effective in any career of choice. Reading efficiently is different from speed reading. Reading efficiently is increasing your reading speed, while still maintaining 85-90% comprehension. A college student reads about 150 to 200 words per minute but when we talk about technical contents, the average reading speed is about 50-75 words per minute. This is because they cannot process information smoothly and rapidly enough to grasp the matter and meaning quickly. Therefore, it is important to monitor comprehension as one reads. It may be discovered, for important or challenging material, one needs to read slowly so that the material can be fully understood.

Proficient reading is about reading in a way that allows one to understand the writer's message without spending too much time in the process. It is also about reading with a clear purpose in mind so that one only read material that is relevant. When reading in preparation for an essay or for understanding generally, it is good to remember reading strategies that go hand-in-hand with good note-taking skills. Efficient reading starts with choosing a strategy to suit the kind of text to be read because purpose in reading and the nature of text to be read will determine the best strategy. The purpose in reading might be to gather information for an essay, learn about a particular topic or understand a particular theory and prepare for an examination. In all of these cases, the nature of the text will help one to decide how to read. According to (Tuckman, 2003), “learning strategies are more important for college students because educational tasks at the college level require powerful thinking and more self-reliant learning”. It is along this reasoning that Grabe and Stoller (2001) posit that educational reading requires developing strategic readers who are aware of their goals in reading and able to administer strategies effectively. This signifies that efficient reading strategies are vital to tertiary institutions’ students, if really their proposed learning outcomes are to be achieved.

However, the communicative approach is based on the idea that learning a language successfully comes from communicating meaning; when learners are involved in real communication. The learners’ natural strategies for language acquisition are being engaged in reading process, which facilitates their learning to use the language. Tertiary institutions are colleges that are not in the mainstream of learning, they are bias in terms of their professions. Tertiary education, also known as third stage, third level, and post-secondary education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education. Bakvis and David (2000) define tertiary education as including universities, as well as institutions, that teach specific capacities of higher learning such as colleges, technical training institutes, community colleges, nursing schools, research laboratories, centres of excellence, and distance learning centres. Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees by the students.

In other to realise the above afore mentioned, the study used the SQ3R method in teaching reading during the intervention period by the teacher. It is a reading comprehension method named for its five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review. It was introduced by Francis Pleasant Robinson, an American education philosopher in his 1946 book Effective Study. The method offers a more efficient and active approach to reading textbook material. It was created for college students, but is extremely useful for young students as well. (Gunning, 2002).

1.2.1. Historical Perspectives

The history of reading dates back to the invention of writing during the 4th millennium BC. Although, reading print text is now an important way for the general population to access information, this has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution. Some of the pre-modern societies with high literacy rates included classical Athens and the Islamic Caliphate.

Scholars assumed that reading aloud (Latin clare legere) was the more common practice in antiquity, and that reading silently (legere taciteor legere sibi) was unusual. In his Confessions, Saint Augustine remarks on Saint Ambrose's unusual habit of reading silently in the 4th century AD (De Certeau 1984). Thus, reading in all its variety is vital to becoming better informed. It helps people to have a better understanding of themselves as well as others. Without doubt, the economic, social and political health of our nation today depends on building literate citizens who are able to read widely and apply this practically for development. The development of Nigeria depends on the quality of its human resources.

All historical knowledge is mediated by the practice of reading. This is conventionally understood not to matter. But if reading is a practice that has its own history – if it is something the acquisition, conduct, properties, and impact of which has varied across times and places – then that conventional assumption is put in doubt. In our generation, we have come to appreciate that reading is indeed a historical entity of this kind. A history of reading is therefore a fundamental prerequisite for the continued reputation of cultural history in general. This class is designed to provide the foundations for one. (Adrian Johns and Winter Quarter, 2010)

Books and other texts have not always been read in the way that we read them today. The modern practice of reading—privately, silently, with the eyes alone—is only one way of reading, which for many centuries existed alongside other forms. In the ancient world, in the Middle Ages, and as late as the seventeenth century, many texts were written for the voice. They were addressed to the ear as much as the eye, and they used forms that were oriented toward the demands of oral performance. This is one of the themes explored in this landmark volume. Written by a distinguished group of international contributors, it analyzes the transformations of reading methods and materials over the ages, showing that revolutions of reading have generally preceded revolutions of the book. The authors examine not only the technical innovations that changed physical aspects of books and other texts, but also the evolving forms of reading and the growth and transformation of the reading public. The volume will be invaluable to students of cultural history and to all those who want a fresh perspective on the history of books and their uses.( Guglielmo Cavallo and Roger Chartier,2003)

1.2.2. Theoretical Perspective

The theoretical orientation for this research is Schema theory. The concept of Schema theory has a pervasive influence on notions of reading and it has formed the framework of several empirical studies in the domain (Devine 1988; Alderson & Urquhart 1988; Steffensen & Joag-Dev 1984). The notion of Schema in reading suggests that it is an interactive process involving conceptual and textual processes functioning interactively. Schema theorists attribute poor reading comprehension to prior knowledge and vocabulary (Taylor, et al., 2009; Ebro, 2010). Likewise, schema theorists posit that students require strong linguistic (understanding what words mean) skills before they will be able to understand what they read (Berninger, Abbott, Nagy, & Carlisle, 2010; Bowers, & Kirby, 2010). The major strength of Schema theory is that presenting readers with reading material which is congruent with their pre-existing schema will, to a large extent, facilitate reading comprehension. Although Anderson (1984) asserts that activation of background knowledge has facilitative effects on the act of comprehending and remembering because some readers may demonstrate poor comprehension and memory skills, which is not based on deficits in comprehension and memory, but because they lack the background knowledge or fail to activate the background

4 knowledge that presuppose the text. This limitation notwithstanding, Schema theory underscores the role of background knowledge in reading comprehension.

1.2.3 .Conceptual perspective

Standard Definition Nwuneli (2003) suggests that “reading is an act of deciphering what is written. It is a receptive form of communication and differs from speaking and writing in being a comprehensive activity. It is a thinking process, which involves making sounds and interpreting symbols”. Also, Block and Israel (2005) posits that “Reading efficiently is the most fundamental skill for academic learning and success in school, the ability to read efficiently is significantly related to how much a person can achieve in his or her personal and professional life”.

Reading proficiency is the most fundamental skill for academic learning and success in school. However, the ability to read proficiently is significantly related to how much a person can achieve in his or her personal and professional life (Block & Israel, 2005).

Michael (2006) opines that “Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of thought processes". Some people learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences”.

Operational Definition Reading is the ability of an individual to recognise and interpret a written symbol or sign and to relate it to what he has in mind in terms of understanding. Reading gives us access to full participation in various activities in our modern society. It also empowers and emancipates us as citizens as well as brings people together as a nation. Proficient reading is about reading in a way that allows you to understand the writer's message without spending too much time in the process. It is reading with a clear purpose in mind so that you only read material that is relevant.

1.2.4. Contextual perspectives Reading skill is the most important skill as it is the basis of all the success in one’s life. Good readers can gain more knowledge of any kind from reading. It makes the reader more knowledgeable, have wider perspectives and vision. Ilechukwu (2004) laments that “reading is

5 an established fact that reading is a complex process and learning to read a foreign language is a more difficult task”. For Nigerian children, reading is much more complex and rather more difficult. The Nigerian language and the country's political situations are such that Nigerian children are necessarily faced with the task of having to learn two languages - their first language and the English language. The latter is supposed to be mastered sufficiently well and within a reasonably short time because, among other reasons, it becomes the language of instruction beginning in the third year of the child in the elementary school.

Therefore, in tertiary institutions, many comprehension strategies are significant for students to learn and use before, during, and after reading. Before students read a book, it is imperative for teachers to activate their prior knowledge to help them connect the information to their new found knowledge. There are various methods for teachers to activate students’ prior knowledge which will be discussed in the literature review of this study. So, it is important for teachers to explore the appropriate reading efficiency strategies that will help students understand the information and engage them in reading.

Besides, reading proficiency reading proficiency requires that students have to identify the words on the page accurately and fluently; that they have enough knowledge and thinking ability to understand the words, sentences, and paragraphs; and that they be motivated and engaged enough to use their knowledge and thinking ability to understand and learn from the text. More so, Keene, E.O., & Zimmermann, S.,(1997) postulates that “comprehension is an interaction between the reader and text to extract and construct meaning. It occurs before, during and after reading. Comprehension is a lifelong process that develops and changes based on the complexity and purpose of the text, as well as the use of metacognitive processes”.

1.3. Statement of the Problem English language is regarded as an international language used both globally and locally. The language functions as a second language in Nigeria, has been widely utilised as a means of interaction in various fields particularly in education. The ability to read efficiently in English is deemed an important skill to be acquired for academic, business and other purposes. In Nigeria, English is a compulsory subject in all schools and reading strategies are part of language learning strategies.

Comprehension is affected by the reader's knowledge of the topic, knowledge of language structures, knowledge of text structures and genres, knowledge of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, their reasoning abilities, their motivation, and their level of engagement.

Reading comprehension is also affected by the quality of the reading material. Some writers are better writers than others, and some writers produce more complex reading material than others. Text that is well organized and clear is called "considerate text" and text that is poorly organized and difficult to understand can be called "inconsiderate text." The more inconsiderate the text, the more work will be required of a reader to comprehend the text. Readers who do not have the background, abilities, or motivation to overcome the barriers presented in inconsiderate text will have more difficulty comprehending these types of texts.

Students who had trouble learning to decode and recognize words often will have difficulty with reading comprehension. Students who struggle with decoding rarely have a chance to interact with more difficult text and often learn to dislike reading. As a result, these students do not have sufficient opportunities to develop the language skills and strategies necessary for becoming proficient readers.

Readers with poorly developed language skills and strategies will not have the tools to take advantage of the obvious structures and comprehension cues that are part of considerate text nor will they have the extra tools needed to overcome the barriers of inconsiderate text.

The type of instruction that a student receives will also affect reading comprehension. Strategies for improving reading comprehension must be taught directly by teachers. Simply providing opportunities or requiring for children to read will not teach many students the comprehension strategies they need to be proficient readers. These need to be taught directly as students learn to read simple sentences and this direct instruction need to continue in different forms throughout a student's elementary and secondary school experience.

No wonder, Mckey (2002) posits that “Reading strategies are deliberate, goal-directed attempts to control and modify the reader’s efforts to decode text, understand words and construct meanings of text”. However, some students in Nigerian tertiary institutions especially those in North-East Nigeria are unaware of or do not have effective strategies to comprehend English

7 reading materials. This is a resultant effect of more focus on grammar in the teaching of English language than other aspects such as reading, listening, writing and speaking. Hence, the research intends to fill the gap observed by applying Schema theory through experimental design to reading in North-East Nigeria.

Diverse approaches have been adjudged relevant reading comprehension, including improving one's vocabulary and reading strategies. These strategies help students achieve higher level of reading proficiency in comprehending academic texts. It is against this background that this study tends to investigate the reading proficiency and comprehension among the English language students of Business Management and English Language Education Departments Adamawa state Polytechnic, Yola.

1.4. Purpose The main purpose of the study was to investigate the reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola, through the application of a reading strategy.

1.5. Objectives The objectives of the present study were: 1) To identify the level of proficiency among students of the experimental groups; 2) To investigate the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of the students; and 3) To establish the impact of reading- proficiency strategies on comprehension.

1.6. Research Questions This study has the following research questions: 1) What is the level of proficiency among the experimental groups? 2) What are the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of the students? 3) How do reading-proficiency strategies impact on students’ comprehension?

1.7. Scope of the Study

The scope of this study focused mainly on the geographical and content scope respectively.

1.7.1 Geographical Scope The scopes of this study are the Departments of English language Education and Diploma in Business Administration and Management within Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola, Nigeria. The institution is situated in the capital city of the State. Moreover, the two departments were selected because they are both training departments for career development and progression; which require reading proficiency and comprehension for good performance in selected fields.

1.7.2 Content Scope This study has looked at the reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments of Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola; Nigeria. Three strategies were selected out of the various reading efficiency strategies. i.e. survey, making connections and summarizing; so as to improve the students reading proficiency.

1.7.3 Time scope

The study, thus, employed observation during the experiment in order to find out how students interact with a given text by the teacher. In this regard, a pre-test was done and the experimental groups received an intervention for a period of three weeks on reading proficiency and comprehension. 1.7.4 Theoretical scope The theoretical scope for this research is Schema theory. The major strength of Schema theory is that presenting readers with reading material which is congruent with their pre-existing schema will, to a large extent, facilitate reading comprehension.

1.8. Significance of the Study Linda. (2013). opined that “Data on reading proficiently and comprehension among English language students in Nigeria is often generalised. The concentration is mainly on teaching grammar and the blame, for the students’ inability to read proficiently and comprehend a given text, is laid on teachers”

Thus, there was need to generate specific data on reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola. This study hoped to yield data for the institutionalisation of a frame work of action in improving reading proficiency and comprehension among selected departments in Adamawa state polytechnic Yola. The findings, recommendations and conclusion will hopefully benefit the English teachers, curriculum developers, educationist, language experts, policy makers, education officers, students, as well as opinion leaders. The study would also form the basis for further research on reading proficiency and comprehension in Nigeria; specifically, Adamawa state.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction The chapter covers the theoretical review and conceptual frame work. It reviews other related literature under the sub-topics adopted from the objectives of the study; as the summary of the identified gap was also analysed.

2.2. Theoretical Review This study was grounded on Schema theory of reading comprehension by Barlett (1932). Schema is a term used in psychology and cognitive science, which describes a systematic pattern of thought and behaviour. Schemata affect attention and the absorption of new information. People use schemata to organize prior knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. There are various influential ways of defining schema, and nearly all cognitive definitions of schema stem from Bartlett (1932). He claimed that “an active organization of past reactions and past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operational in any well-adapted organic response”. Rumelhart (1980) puts forward the concept of Schema theory basically as a theory of how knowledge is mentally represented in the mind and used. He wrote that “all knowledge is packaged into units. These units are the schemata”. Three years later, Widdowson (1983) defines schema as “cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in a long-term memory”. From the above definitions, the researcher may conclude that schema is the prior knowledge gained through experiences stored in one’s mind. It is an abstract structure of knowledge. Linguistic Schemata: Linguistic schemata refer to readers’ existing language proficiency in vocabulary, grammar and idioms. They are the foundation of other schemata. As is known, linguistic knowledge plays an essential part in texts. Analysis of Schema Theory and its Influence on Reading Comprehension: Without linguistic schemata, it is impossible for the reader to decode and comprehend a text. Therefore, the more linguistic schemata a reader has in his mind, the faster the reader acquires information and the better understanding the reader may get. In view of that, this study tends to examine the reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in

Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola Nigeria; the researcher felt that the need for linguistic schema is imperative for the realisation of the research objectives. Linguistic Schemata and Reading comprehension: As mentioned before, linguistic schemata refer to readers’ existing language proficiency in vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure. As the basis of comprehension, language knowledge plays an important role on understanding of the text, especially for learners at the elementary stage of learning. Without basic language knowledge, no reading strategy or skill can function effectively. Therefore, the more language schemata readers have in their mind, the more information readers may acquire from the text, and the more effective readers they may become. The Importance of Schema in Reading Comprehension as Influenced by Attitude: Comprehension simply means understanding. Indeed, it is the ultimate goal of reading generally. The poor state of reading comprehension in Nigeria is caused by a lack of knowledge of relevant reading strategies; whereas reader’s attitude played a vital role to the poor state of reading comprehension. Intention to read is proposed as the primary mediator between attitude and reading. Intention is defined as "commitment to a plan for achieving one or more reading purposes at a more or less specified time in the future" (Mathewson, 1994). All other moderator variables (e.g. extrinsic motivation, involvement, prior knowledge, and purpose) are viewed as affecting the attitude- reading relationship by influencing the intention to read.

Therefore, classroom environments that include well-stocked libraries, magazines, reading tables, and areas with comfortable chairs will enhance students' intentions to read. It is in consonance with this that Mathewson (1994) states, "Favourable attitudes towards reading thus sustain intention to read and reading as long as readers continue to be satisfied with reading outcomes.

Schema Activation Based on Pre-reading, While-reading and Post-reading.: Pre-reading activities, based on Schema theory, determines readers' comprehension of the text but, sometimes, the information that the texts provide are not enough to activate the relevant schema in students' minds. That is, there are cases when students do not store the proper schema. Under such circumstances, teachers can help students activate previous schema or construct related schema through the activities at the pre-reading stage. These include questions, brainstorming

12 and pre-teaching, pre-texting and pre-discussing, which are the simple and efficient pre-reading activities.

While-reading Activities in the pre-reading activities, students' schemata are activated and expanded. While it is possible to activate existing schemata with a given topic, it does not necessarily follow that a student can use this activated knowledge to develop new knowledge and skills. Depending on what they already know, students are required to expand on the terms and information they already understand, elicit a large number of associations by the prior knowledge they already possess and make clear connections. Reading under the guidance of teacher and discussing with partners are effective in-class activities, which benefit the development of students' reading abilities.

Post-reading Activities: Schema theory views that the more schema students have, the better students predict. So it is necessary to do the post-reading activities to solidify and enlarge students' schema. Otherwise, the problems students meet in the pre-reading stage and the while- reading stage needs to be cleared more after class. There are several effective ways, such as outlining, abbreviation and so on, which are helpful to students' comprehension. However, a number of organized efficient-reading approaches and methods have been proposed in the literature for improvement of efficient reading strategies through activation of background knowledge through the use of SQ3R approach of teaching reading comprehension.

2.3. Conceptual Frame Work

Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

.Reading proficiency

.Reading rate Comprehension

.Reading strategies

. Mother tongue

.Background knowledge

Source: Keene and Zimmermann (1997)

2.4. Literature Review

2.4.1. Reading Proficiency Reading helps student to get new ideas leading to cognitive development. When the readers transfer what they read to apply with their own idea, a new perspective or idea is created. Reading efficiency strategies is one of the most important skills in second language learning activity and also the basis of all the success in one’s life. Good readers can gain more knowledge of any kind from reading. Reading makes the reader more knowledgeable, have wider perspectives and vision. Reading involves the use of the eyes and the brain. In order to read fast, you need to use more of the brain. Reading fast means reading efficiently. This means not

14 wasting time and using the eyes and brain together well. To do this, one needs to read purposefully and interactively.

Reading is purposeful: The way one reads something will depend on one’s purpose. Reading different texts are different ways. In everyday life, there is a purpose for reading with questions that require answers from the reader. General efficient reading strategies such as scanning to find the book or chapter, skimming to get the gist and careful reading of important passages are necessary as well as learning about how texts are structured in your subject. Reading is an Interactive Process: It is a two-way process. A reader is not passive but active. This means one has to work at constructing the meaning from the symbols on the paper, which are necessary. Also, construction of meaning using one’s knowledge of the language, subject and world involves continual predicting and assessing of meaning. McLachlan and Reid (1994) shed more light on interpretive framing, which is essential in order to understand what you are reading. They discuss four types of framing as follows: Extra-textual framing – This is using information outside the text, your background knowledge and experience, to understand texts. Intra-textual framing – This implies making use of cues from the text, such as headings and sub-headings and referential words such as "this" and "that" to understand texts. Inter-textual framing – It involves making connections with other texts you are reading to help to understand your text. Circum-textual framing – It is a process of using information from the cover of the book, title, abstract, references etc. to understand the text. Students need to be active, all the time, when they are reading and use all the information that is available. It is useful, therefore, before they start reading to try to actively remember what they know, and do not know, about the subject and as they are reading to formulate questions based on the information they have. All the information given above can be used to help them formulate question to keep them interacting. Useful skills are Scanning, Surveying and Skimming. Scanning is to locate specifically required information. Surveying a text using the title implies that, sometimes, one has to make quick decisions based on the title. Skimming a text to get an overall impression is useful when one wants to survey a text to get a general idea of what it is about.

According to Tuckman (2003), learning strategies are more important for college students because educational tasks at the college level require powerful thinking and more self-reliant learning. In addition, Grabe and Stoller (2001), educational reading requires developing strategic readers who are aware of their goals in reading and able to administer strategies effectively. Students sometimes use these reading strategies in the second language learning context because reading strategies are important in assisting the learners’ reading process and provide them with a clear sense of guidance in their interpretation of written text. Thus, teachers play a vital role in training students on reading strategy use in order to enhance the effectiveness of their reading.

2.4.2. Reading Rate

Varying reading rate to suit the difficulty and type of writing of the text is important because poor readers always read at the same slow rate. An efficient reader speeds up for easy material and slows down for the hard. Some texts were not meant to be read quickly at all. Legal material and very difficult text should be read slowly. Easier material and magazines and newspapers can be read quickly. Poetry and plays were meant to be performed, and if not acted out, then at least, spoken out loud orally. This obviously will conflict with good speed reading method which forbids vocalization. Religious writings and scripture were originally written to be recited and listened to by an audience which was likely to be intelligent, but illiterate. The "fun" of poetry, plays, or prayer is not really experienced if you "speed read" the text. Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depends on the age of reader. Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100–200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm); and skimming (400–700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people. Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%) ( Mc Norgan, 2011).

Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented and when the material is new, and increasing when the material is familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to continually accelerate while comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her

16 comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming is dangerous, as a default habit.

A) Factors contributing to reduced reading rates Some of the factors which contribute to a reduced reading rate are: (a) Faulty eye movements, inaccuracy in placement of the eye while reading. (b) Regression, or the re-reading of material already read. (c) Limited perception span leading to word-by-word reading. (d) Vocalization, which is the process of putting sounds to words you read. (e) The false belief that slows reading leads to better comprehension. (f) Poor evaluation regarding the relevant parts of the reading material. (g) Lack of concentration.

B) Optimal reading rate Conflicting data exist regarding the optimal or sufficient reading rate. Some authorities suggest that 180 words per minute “may be a threshold between immature and mature reading and that a speed below this is too slow for efficient comprehension or for the enjoyment of text” (Higgins and Wallace, 1989). But scholars like Dubin and Bycina (1991) state that “a rate of 200 words per minute would appear to be the absolute minimum in order to read with full comprehension.” In the same vein, Jensen (1986) recommends that second language readers seek to “approximate native speaker reading rates and comprehension levels in order to keep up with classmates” and suggests that 300 words per minute is the optimal rate. This rate is supported by Nuttall (1996), who states that “for an L1 speaker of English of about average education and intelligence… the reading rate is about 300 words per minute”.

2.4.3. Reading strategies There are a variety of strategies used to teach reading. Strategies vary according to the challenges like new concepts, unfamiliar vocabulary, long and complex sentences, etc. Trying to deal with these challenges at the same time may be unrealistic. Again strategies should fit to the ability, aptitude and age level of the learner. Some of the strategies, teachers employ, are reading aloud, group work, and more reading exercises (Michael Gorrell, 2011). So, it is very important for a teacher to analyse his students in terms of their age, sex, educational background, socio- economic background etc.; before carrying that student into the reading exercise.

According to Abbott (2006), reading strategies are “the mental operations or comprehension processes that readers select and apply in order to make sense of what they read”. The term of ‘reading strategy’ is specific tactics carried out by the reader in order to comprehend the intended meaning. That is why, it is imperative for the teacher to help and guide students through the reading exercise; by doing this, it will help a long way in enhancing the reading proficiency and comprehension of the target students. There are a wide range of reading strategies suggested by reading programs and educators. Effective reading strategies may differ for second language learners, as opposed to native speakers (Tanyeli, 2008; Iwai, 2008; Deacon, Wade-Woolley, & Kirby, 2009).

Moreover, Berkeley (2007) posits that “the use of effective comprehension strategies that provide specific instructions for developing and retaining comprehension skills, with intermittent feedback, has been found to improve reading comprehension across all ages, specifically those affected by mental disabilities”. More so, for one to read different types of texts, it requires that individual uses variety of reading strategies; so as to make his/her reading an active one. A good reader struggles and interacts with the text in order to develop and comprehend the theme of the author. Some good reading strategies are predicting, connecting, visualizing, summarizing, and predicting. In fact, most of the teaching of reading comprehension depends on the availability of selected technique employed by the reading teacher; so as to enhance his/her students’ ability to read proficiently and comprehend the given text at hand. However, the use of SQ3R method of teaching reading seems to be the best based on the variables of this study. Berkeley further explained that “the use of effective comprehension strategies is highly important when learning to improve reading comprehension. These strategies provide specific instructions for developing and retaining comprehension skills across all ages found to improve reading in early ages, specifically those affected by mental disabilities”.

Besides, Hellekjaer (2009) perceives reading as “a crucial means of gaining new knowledge, students need to acquire effective strategies to cope with reading demands. Students often struggle with texts: reading at a painfully slow speed, picking up tiny bits of information while being barely able to grasp even major ideas that are directly stated”. This leaves a lot to be desired when they have to process the text inferentially. In order for them to read efficiently, they need much training in handling unfamiliar words, automatically processing the seemingly

18 ambiguous syntax, relying on the existing knowledge base for the top-down operation to drive meaning, to infer, and to successfully reach the intended conclusions.

More interestingly, Grabe (2010) is of the opinion that “extensive reading should be encouraged or even required to build up reading accuracy and fluency”. Extensive reading in various disciplines is necessary to build broad-based schemata that will eventually help speed up reading. In order to cope successfully with challenging texts, polytechnic students will have to apply strategies as outlined by Wiener and Bazerman (1991). Specifically, they could benefit from adopting the SQ3R (survey, question, read, recite and review) technique when reading for academic purposes. By following the before-, while- and after-reading procedural steps, they could approach their reading selection with a firm reading purpose, make a sustained effort and boost their learning with a concrete product of own understanding. The above assertion by (Grabe, 2010) clears the way for the adaptation of the SQ3R method of teaching reading as proposed by this study.

As a matter of fact, the effectiveness of the use of those strategies does not rely on the strategy itself. (Farrell, 2001; Carrell, 1998). Instead, the factors which make a strategy effective can be sorted as: (a) who is employing it? (b) how consciously is it employed? (c)what kind of text is being read? (d) when it is being employed? and (d) why it is being used? (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001). What benefits one reader may not benefit for another reader. Similarly, a strategy can be useful for a reader with a specific text, it may not be an appropriate tool with another text when the purpose of reading is different.

Therefore, the use of these reading strategies are considered to be the indicators of how readers perceive a task, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they are unable to comprehend. In other words, as Singhal (2001) points out, such strategies are the techniques used by the learner to enhance reading comprehension and overcome comprehension errors, which has been confirmed by many different studies. Akkakoson and Setobol (2009) explore the influences of metacognitive strategies instruction on Thai students’ English reading comprehension.

2.4.4. Comprehension Comprehension simply means understanding, but for one to understand anything he/she needs to be acquainted with some necessary techniques and ingredients within the text’s context. In order to read accurately, students need to have grasped the alphabetic principle – that is, the knowledge that there is a predictable and reversible relationship between the sounds (phonemes) in the words we say, and the letters (graphemes) we use to write those words down. It is now widely accepted that the most effective approach to the teaching of accurate reading and spelling includes a multi-sensory, structured, synthetic phonics program, taught systematically, cumulatively and with ample opportunity for practise and application (NICHD, 2005; Rose, 2006; Hattie, 2009). As children’s reading develops, they also need to be taught – and make use of – orthographic, morphological and semantic knowledge in order to read and spell accurately (Plaut, 2005). He further argued that, the understanding of how best to teach reading comprehension has not been as extensively researched, or as well-documented, as the strategies recommended for the development of reading accuracy, despite its obvious importance. In order to comprehend written material students need to:  Accurately read and understand the words being used (phonic knowledge and vocabulary);  Successfully link the units of meaning within each sentence (syntax);  Activate and integrate prior knowledge in order to make successful inferences (retrieve connected information from long term memory);  Successfully integrate the meaning of successive sentences (local coherence / working memory); and,  Establish how the whole text fits together (global coherence).

Comprehension is fundamentally the goal of both reading and listening. It enables readers and listeners to: acquire new knowledge and skills; experience and be aware of alternate ‘environments’; communicate successfully; and, achieve academically. The long-term goal of the reading teacher is to ensure that students learn to understand written languages as well as they understand spoken language. It has been recognised that, when children first start learning to read, there is very little correlation between their language comprehension and their reading comprehension. However, once they are able to read accurately and fluently, there is a very

20 strong correlation. The language of any text, whether it is spoken or written, is rarely explicit. In order to comprehend at a deeper level, readers need to make inferences that bridge elements of the text and support the coherence necessary for comprehension to occur (Plaut, 2005).

Inference Making The process of inference making allows readers to ‘fill the gaps’ in both spoken and written language and ensures that the text is understood at a deeper level. It allows readers to make sense of otherwise unconnected actions in a text (causal inferences) or may be used to elaborate or make predictions (elaborative inferences). Once students are reading fluently they tend to approximate the adult model of inference making (Perfetti, Landi and Oakhill, 2006). This is, in part, due to the fact that inference generation is considered to require high levels of cognitive processing. If a significant amount of processing is being dedicated to reading accuracy or semantic retrieval, then it is less likely to be utilised for inference making. It is also the case that less skilled readers are more likely to make inferences that support coherence than inferences that elaborate. Essentially, to comprehend, readers need to make inferences by drawing on prior knowledge (including vocabulary knowledge) and experience. This means that individual differences in both knowledge and experience will impact on a person’s capacity to comprehend. However, deep understanding is likely to require the construction of meaning, not just passive retrieval of information (Kintsch and Rawson, 2005). For example, to understand a story, a student may need to infer the protagonist’s motivations, to understand a philosophical argument, or a reader may need to analyse the relationships between different aspects of the text.

Inference Making Difficulties Four possible reasons that readers struggle to make inferences include:  Prior knowledge deficits (including poor vocabulary);  Poor understanding of syntax;  Apparent inability to know when to make inferences; and,  Processing limitations – e.g. Poor working memory, attention-calling issues or language deficits. Working memory deficits, in particular, are strongly correlated with poor reading comprehension (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008). Understanding a sentence involves remembering the words within the sentence, retrieving information from any preceding text, interpreting and connecting

21 syntactic information, integrating prior knowledge, monitoring text coherence, and making and including inferences. All of these places high demand on working memory. If a student has mastered the ability to read proficiently, then comprehension strategies can be taught. Such student needs to learn how to identify – what has happened in the text, who was involved, when did the event occur, where the event took place, and why the occurrence of the event; all at a sentence level. This strategy serves as a foundation for later comprehension of longer text. As part of their extensive and systematic review of early literacy teaching, the NRP (National Reading Panel, 2000) identified seven categories of effective evidence-based comprehension instruction:  Comprehension monitoring;  Cooperative learning;  Graphic and semantic organisers;  Question answering (teachers model active questioning);  Question generation (students self-question to clarify understanding);  Story structure; and,  Summarisation. The research suggests that explicitly teaching a combination of strategies to boost comprehension is the most successful approach. However, the issue of effective and appropriate comprehension strategies needed to assist students in having active interaction with the text, so as to infer meaning out of it, which has become a debatable issue among scholars.

Based on the outcome of findings by Speed Reading Tip (2016) for its study on “7 Reading Strategies To Read More Proficiently - Read Write Work” laments that “highly proficient readers utilize a number of different strategies to comprehend various types of texts, strategies that can also be used by less proficient readers in order to improve their comprehension”. The study further suggested that, the following should be considered as strategies of reading comprehension 1. Making Inferences: In everyday terms we refer to this as “reading between the lines”. It involves connecting various parts of texts that are not directly linked in order to form a sensible conclusion. A form of assumption, the reader speculates what connections lie within the texts.

2. Planning and Monitoring: This strategy centres on the reader’s mental awareness and their ability to control their comprehension by way of awareness. By previewing text (via outlines, table of contents, etc.), one can establish a goal for reading-“what do I need to get out of this”? Readers use context clues and other evaluation strategies to clarify texts and ideas, and thus monitoring their level of understanding. 3. Asking Questions: To solidify this, understanding of passages or texts requires that readers inquire and develop their own opinion of the author’s writing, character motivations, relationships, etc. This strategy involves allowing oneself to be completely objective in order to find various meanings within the text. 4. Determining Importance: Pinpointing the important ideas and messages within the text. Readers are taught to identify direct and indirect ideas and to summarize the relevance of each. 5. Visualizing: With this sensory-driven strategy readers form mental and visual images of the contents of text. Being able to connect visually allows for a better understanding with the text through emotional responses. 6. Synthesizing: This method involves marrying multiple ideas from various texts in order to draw conclusions and make comparisons across different texts; with the reader’s goal being to understand how they all fit together. 7. Making Connections: A cognitive approach also referred to as “reading beyond the lines”, which involves (A) finding a personal connection to reading, such as personal experience, and previously read texts to help establish a deeper understanding of the context of the text, or (B) thinking about implications that have no immediate connection with the theme of the text.

2.4.5. Mother Tongue Interference

In the teaching of reading, grammar is often ignored because of many misconceptions about the role of grammar. According to Dudley Evans et al. (1998), ‘in reading, the learners’ grammatical weaknesses interfere with comprehension of meaning’ (1998, 95). Alderson (1988) cited by Dudley Evans et. al. (1998) shows that ‘poor reading in a foreign language is due to in part to poor reading in the L1, together with an inadequate knowledge of the foreign language. Learners

23 need to reach a threshold level of language knowledge before they are able to transfer any L1 skills to their L2 reading tasks’. Moreover, the cognitive processes involved in processing a text cannot be ignored. Learners must be aware of two simultaneous ways of processing a text – top-down and bottom-up. In top- down processing, learners use the prior knowledge to make predictions about the text. In bottom- up processing, learners rely on their linguistic knowledge to recognize linguistic elements – vowels, consonants, words, phrases, etc. (Lingzhu , 2003). The fundamental process involved in the second language learning is the transfer between L1 and L2 literacy skills (Carson, 1994). The transfer of skills is not automatic, but training students in learning reading strategies can facilitate the transfer. Initially, most comprehension teaching was based on imparting selected techniques that would allow students to be strategic readers. One such strategy for improving reading comprehension is the technique called SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review that was introduced by Francis Pleasant Robinson in his 1946 book “Effective Study”.

Reading comprehension and vocabulary are inextricably linked. The ability to decode or identify and pronounce words is self-evidently important, but knowing what the words mean has a major and direct effect on knowing what any specific passage means. Students with a smaller vocabulary than other students comprehend less of what they read and it has been suggested that the most impactful way to improve comprehension is to improve vocabulary. Most words are learned gradually through a wide variety of environments: television, books, and conversations.

2.4.6 Students' Background Knowledge

One of the significant criterions for selecting appropriate material for the students of tertiary institution reading class is students' background knowledge. For one to select suitable reading materials for the students, the instructor must be familiar with the students' background knowledge. Research findings have emphasized the importance of considering this aspect in the material selection process. Smith, for example, affirms that reading cannot be separated from the readers' previous knowledge. Referring to ESL readers in particular, Lotherington-Woloszyn and Nunan, (1989) agree that the lack of background knowledge may cause more difficulties for the ESL reader than language complexity does. In the same vain, background knowledge is an important part of the students' ability to read and understand a particular text. It is possible and

24 not uncornmon for a reader to understand every word in a passage, without really understanding what the words mean. For this reason, the role of the teacher is to consider students' background knowledge when selecting materials for the reading class. This does not imply that it is not possible to use texts for which the students or the instructor himself lack the background knowledge, but rather that it is the teacher's responsibility to provide the students with the information required for comprehending a particular text. Pre-reading activities are particularly useful for this purpose.

In other words, the teacher must be aware of the students’ to utilize the reading comprehension process by either giving the students the background knowledge along with the reading material, or requiring them to get it by their own means, for example, doing a kind of informal research. To sum up, the issue of students' background knowledge should be considered in the text selection process and course design due to the fact that background knowledge plays a critical role in the reading comprehension process. This aspect is particularly important when the students need to read in a second or foreign language, for they possible lack the necessary understanding of the target culture.

Choosing reading materials wisely also implies considering the text itself. The topic, the type of text and the information it sustains make the text relevant. Students must find that the reading material used in the course is relevant for their professional lives. Richards (1994) mentions that “readings should be related to real world reading purposes”. For this reason, it is necessary to involve the learners to contribute to the reading selection process. Permitting the students to contributing will certainly benefit the educator as well. Gebhard (1989) asserts that “understanding the needs of students in specific fields can provide the means through which materials can be selected and created”. The teachers can determine how appropriate the reading materials are by considering whether they are relevant to the learner or not. (Lotherington woloszyn and David Numan, 1989). If the instructor carefully selects pertinent reading material for the EFL c1ass, the students are more likely to be interested in the c1ass and will probably be anxious to use diverse strategies to comprehend the material.

2.4.7. Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Group

Reading is commonly defined as the ability to read and interpret meaning out of reading texts. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (2011) posits that “reading is an active and complex process that involves: (a) understanding written text, (b) developing and interpreting meaning, and (c) using meaning as appropriate to type of text, purpose, and situation”.

However, in academic settings, reading is the most important ingredient and the central means for learning new information and gaining access to alternative explanations and interpretations. Grabe and Stoller, (2001) opined that “reading also provides the foundation for synthesis and ‘critical evaluation’ skills. In addition, reading is the primary means for independent learning whether the goal is performing better on academic tasks, learning more about subject matter, or improving language abilities”. In addition to that effect, the scholars argued that reading process requires that the reader draw knowledge from a text and combine it with information and expectations that the reader already has.

The National Reading Panel (NRP), (2000) has identified the following skills critical to reading development: phonemic awareness, phonics, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. However, the panel identified the following definitions for reading:

• Reading is the process of constructing meaning from written texts. It is a complex skill requiring the coordination of a number of interrelated sources of information.

• Reading is the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among: (1) the reader's existing knowledge; (2) the information suggested by the text being read; and (3) the context of the reading situation.

Furthermore, it postulates that “reading proficiency requires students to identify the words on the page accurately and fluently; that they have enough knowledge and thinking ability to understand the words, sentences, and paragraphs; and be motivated and engaged enough to use their knowledge and thinking ability to understand and learn from the text. We want to

26 emphasize that motivation to understand and learn from text is a critical component of reading comprehension”.

Based on the submission made by the NRP, it is clear that reading proficiency requires three sets of interrelated skills that would be develop over time; which includes the use of language and communication, mechanics of reading, as well as content knowledge.

The National Early Literacy Panel (2008) lamented that “proficiency in language and literacy contributes substantially to the likely success students will have in mastering all areas of the curriculum by enabling students to read and write complex texts, communicate thoughts, and participate actively in discussion”. The panel furthermore, viewed the concept of proficiency as follows:

• Basic—Denotes partial mastery of prerequisite knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at each grade.

• Proficient—Represents solid academic performance for each grade assessed. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter.

• Advanced—Signifies superior performance.

The central language of proficient, "competency over challenging subject matter,"

2.4.6. Investigating the Effects of Reading Proficiency on Students

There are various ways of addressing the problem of language difficulty. The most common ones are pre-teaching difficult or unfamiliar lexis, encouraging learners to read extensively, training learners in intensive reading, and developing reading strategies. Skimming and scanning are useful as the first stages for proficiency in reading skills. Michael (2006) opines that “Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of thought processes". Some people learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences”.

However, some scholars argued that reading proficiency and comprehension suffers serious drawbacks these days. This leads to difficulties in deliverance of smooth teaching/learning

27 process in our schools. This statement was affirmed by Vicki & Dana (2012), who lamented that “Reading proficiency rates are stagnant or declining among all adults”. To develop an independent reader, a number of other strategies like inferring, summarizing, checking and monitoring students’ comprehension, connecting information from different parts of the text, evaluating and fault-finding are necessary. These strategies involve deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words and word groups as well as implications, i.e. not explicitly stated information, conceptual meaning, understanding relationship in the text structure and parts of a text through lexical-grammatical cohesion devices and indicators in discourse, distinguishing facts from opinions.

In reality, it is not an easy task for one to become a proficient reader. This is because, reading proficiently does not happened over night, the strategies that are involved need to be applied simultaneously. These basic skills should be learned first in isolation, and then as readers become more adept at each one, they can progress and combine until they can read independently with full comprehension of what they read. Keene and Zimmermann (1997) believe that readers who are proficient used the following strategies: i) They use relevant prior knowledge before, during, and after reading the text: Their prior knowledge helps them to evaluate the meaning they develop while reading text and to store new information with other related memories. ii) They can determine the most important themes and ideas in the text: They use their conclusion about important ideas to focus their reading. They ask questions of themselves, the authors, and the text to clarify and to focus their reading. iii) They create visual and other sensory images from text during and after reading to support their understanding: These images may be visual, auditory, and other sensory connections to the text. iv) They draw inferences from the text: They use their prior knowledge and textual information to draw conclusion, make judgments, and form interpretations from the text. These inferences may be in the form of a conclusions, predictions, or new ideas about the topic. v) They use retelling to help synthesize what was read: retelling includes the most important information of the text to better understand what was read.

vi) They use a variety of fix-up strategies to repair comprehension when it breaks down: These are skip word, reread, use context, think about the story, sound it out, chunk word, does it make sense, self- monitor reading, check the picture.

More so, each and every task must have a goal, reading proficiency is not left out. On this note, the following goals of proficient reading represent the purpose and focus of reading instruction. The goals are as follow: - engaged readers, comprehension, and fluency. Proficient readers incorporate all three goals when reading.

Engaged readers believe they are capable and choose to read for a variety of purposes (to learn, seek specific information, and for enjoyment). They persevere through reading challenges and apply appropriate strategies for comprehension.

Comprehension is an interaction between the reader and text to extract and construct meaning. It occurs before, during and after reading. Comprehension is a lifelong process that develops and changes based on the complexity and purpose of the text, as well as the use of metacognitive processes. Fluency involves automaticity and prosody (phrasing, pausing, rate, stress, intonation and integration of these five factors) in a way that demonstrates understanding. The goals of proficient reading are achieved using the gradual release of responsibility model, purposeful instruction, curriculum expectations, and various forms of assessment. Using the four instructional approaches, teachers can model, observe, and support students as they become proficient readers (Allington, 2012; Fountas & Pinell, 2009; Routman, 2009, Wilhelm, 2001).

2.4.7. Reading- Proficiency strategies impact on Comprehension of students

Research shows good readers are actively involved with the text, and they are aware of the processes they use to understand what they read. Teachers can help improve student comprehension through instruction of reading strategies. Predicting, making connections, visualizing, inferring, questioning, and summarizing are strategies shown by research to improve reading comprehension (Block & Israel, 2005). However, in view of the above suggestions, Duke and Pearson (2005) emphasise that “it is important to teach the strategies by naming the

29 strategy and how it should be used, modelling through the think-aloud process, group practice, partner practice, and independent use of the strategy”.

A) Predicting In order to be a good reader, learners should set a goal for their reading; therefore, good readers have a purpose for reading. One strategy for improving comprehension is predicting, which helps the reader set a purpose for their reading. Research has shown that good readers use their experiences and knowledge to make predictions and formulate ideas as they read (Block & Israel, 2005). This strategy also allows for more student interaction, which increases student interest and improves their understanding of the text (Oczkus, 2003). It is important to compare the outcome in the actual text with the prediction process as it will lead the learner to improve his understanding without this aspect of prediction process, it becomes meaningless to improve the students’ comprehension (Duke & Pearson, 2005). Some of the approaches for teaching predicting are teacher modelling, predicting throughout the text; with partners, with a graphic organizer, or using post-it notes throughout the text. Using the title, table of contents, pictures, and key words is one prediction strategy. Another key prediction strategy is to have students predict at specific points through the text, evaluate the prediction, and revise predictions if necessary (Teele, 2004).

B) Making Connections Making connections is another strategy that can be used in the reading process. By making connections, the learners can activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experiences. Reading becomes meaningful when the reader connects the ideas in the text to their experiences and beliefs, and the things happening in the outer world. -to-Text, Text- to- Self, Text-to- make connections. Students can make text-to- self connections through drawing, making a chart, or writing. Teachers might ask students if they have ever experienced anything like the events in the text. Students can make text-to-text connections through drawing, making a chart, writing, and graphic organizers. These text-to-text connections could be based upon how characters in the story relate to each other, or how story elements relate between stories. Students can make text-to-world connections through drawing, making a chart, writing, or graphic organizers. Text-to-world connections could be done by comparing characters in a

30 story to characters today or comparing the content of the text to the world today (Teele, 2004). Asking students to find connections would help them comprehend the ideas better in the text.

C) Summarizing The process of summarization requires the reader to determine what is important when reading and to condense the information in the readers own words (Adler, 2001). During the summarizing process, the students will be able to distinguish the main ideas from the supporting ideas. Distinguishing the related knowledge from the unrelated ones is another point in the summarizing process which will help the students’ capacity to improve text comprehension. Summarizing is a strategy which helps the students to organize the ideas even in the long reading passages, which are usually perceived as a threat by the students.

2.5. An Intervention Approach

Finally, the study tends to look at what the SQ3R method for reading texts is and the benefits of using it. It is a method of teaching reading comprehension which is employed in teaching effective reading to students in tertiary institutions. This is because; it is a powerful reading strategy that supports student learning. It provides concrete steps for interacting with information that results in high levels of comprehension. Fisher and Frey (2004) posits that: “SQ3R is a comprehension strategy that helps students think about the text they are reading while they are reading. Often categorized as a study strategy, SQ3R helps students "get it" the first time they read a text by teaching students how to read and think like an effective reader”. This means that strategically, it can help a reader not only move through his reading more efficiently but it can also make him a more effective reader and learner. This strategy includes the following five steps as outlined by Robinson (1946): Survey: Students review the text to gain initial meaning from the headings, bolded text, and charts. Question: Students begin to generate questions about their reading from previewing it. Read: As students read, they need to look for answers to the questions they formulated during their preview of the text. These questions, based on the structure of the text, help focus students' reading.

Recite: As students move through the text they should recite or rehearse the answers to their questions and make notes about their answer for later studying. Review: After reading, students should review the text to answer lingering questions and recite the questions they previously answered.

The Benefits of Using the SQ3R Method SQ3R is especially beneficial to readers because it activates knowledge and thinking about the text even before the student begins reading. Also, it allows the student to review information as he is learning it. Moreover, it creates study guides students can use to review for tests.

2.6. Summary of the Gap

The clear understanding of mind-set of a language teacher and that of a course designer is paramount to effective teaching of reading proficiency and comprehension. However, the synergy between the former and the latter can enrich a program to a great extent. In fact, the planning and setting up of a course of study lays on the shoulder of the curriculum designer, while the language teacher implements it. It is true that the main responsibility of a course rests on the hands of a language teacher. The language teacher should consider all the curriculum components if he wants to produce competent learners.

Wolf (2016) postulates that “An individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their skills and their ability to process information. If word recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read. There are a number of reading strategies to improve reading comprehension and inferences, including improving one's vocabulary, critical text analysis (intertextuality, actual events vs. narration of events, etc.) and practicing deep reading”.

The researcher is optimistic that without a solid foundation of reading strategies the students will struggle throughout their academic and adult life. The researcher hopes to explore his students’ reading proficiency and comprehension and by this way the students will develop a more meaningful reading experience.

Tuckman (2003) opined that “learning strategies are more important for college students because educational tasks at the college level require powerful thinking and more self-reliant learning”.

In addition, Grabe and Stoller (2001), asserts that “educational reading requires developing strategic readers who are aware of their goals in reading and able to administer strategies effectively”. Students sometimes use these reading strategies in the second language learning context because reading strategies are important in assisting the learners’ reading process and provide them with a clear sense of guidance in their interpretation of written text. Thus, teachers play a vital role in training students on reading strategy use in order to enhance the effectiveness of their reading. More so, different researchers have undertaken various studies on promoting reading proficiency and comprehension using different approaches at different levels of learning; in regards to Nigerian schools.

Among those who work on this study include Oyetunde (2002) with a work titled: ‘teaching reading comprehension and summary writing in secondary schools’. Also, Uhou’s (1986)‘The study of reading’. More so, Adewole (2001) with a journal, ‘what reading skills do students need to comprehend literature? In fact, Floranmi (2007) works on ‘challenges of making the teaching profession viable’. Moreover, Otagburuagu and Anyanwu (2002) research on “With Concepts and Issues in Language Studies in Nigeria”. While, Oyetunde (2002) focuses on English as a Second Language in Nigeria. Finally, Buzan’s (2000) dwells on the speed reading book. However, none of these researchers pay attention to the insertion of SQ3R approach in the improvements of reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola, Nigeria.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter presents the research design, target population, sample size, sampling technique, research instrument, validity and reliability of the instrument, data collection procedure and analysis, ethical considerations. The study was carried out in the two selected departments within Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola. They are Diploma in Business Administrative and Management and Diploma in English language Education departments.

3.2. Research Design

The researcher used an experimental research design to investigate measures in the teaching of reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in Adamawa State Polytechnic in Yola. The aim was to establish a causal connection between the dependent and independent variables. The study, thus, employed observation during the experiment in order to find out how students interact with a given text by the teacher. In this regard, a pre-test was done and the experimental groups received an intervention for a period of three weeks on reading proficiency and comprehension. This involved the text reading, comprehension, reading speed and analysis of mother tongue interference and regression during reading texts among others. A post-test was then administered to analyse reading proficiency and comprehension among students.

3.3. Target population

The target population of the study is 200; which comprised of all students in the Departments of Diploma in English Language Education and in the Department of Diploma in Business Administration and Management in Adamawa State Polytechnic in Yola.

3.4. Sampling Techniques

The study used a combination of sampling techniques. A non-probability sampling technique involving purposive sampling was used to select the departments for study and a probability sampling technique involving simple random sampling was used to select the respondents. With purposive sampling, it was on the researcher’s judgement to select the two departments as they were deemed suited to provide the best information to achieve the objectives of the study. For simple random sampling, it provided objectivity by ensuring that every student in the selected departments had an equal chance of being included in the study.

3.5. Sample Size

The sample size of this study was 114 respondents obtained by using the Slovene’s formula as follows: n = N divide by 1+Ne Where n= sample size N= population E= level of significance If N= 200 N n  1 3000.052

300 n  10.025 n= 200 divide by1+0.75 n=200 divide by 1.75 n= 114.2857143 n= 114

3.6. Data collection

The study relied on both primary and secondary data sources. Data of primary nature were collected using observations from the field experiments. Secondary data were collected by the review of related literature from journals, textbooks thesis, dissertation and internet search.

3.7. Research Instrument

The observation instrument involves the use of all senses to perceive and understand the experiences of interest to the researcher. Observations were used to gather data that were generated from the field experiments. In this regard, an observation checklist based on a five point Likert scale ranging from excellent to very good, good, fair and poor was designed showing a list of items to be observed from the experiments. The list consisted of the following: text reading, text use, speed of reading texts, reading proficiency and fluidity, pronunciation of texts, comprehension, receptive and productive skills, grammatical weaknesses, reading proficiency and ability to give meaning to new words among others [Appendix B]. The observation checklist enabled the researcher to elicit information from the students as they read text extracts. As the students read, the researcher observed and ticked the column which had the scale identified. The observation method was employed first to see how the students speed read when reading materials was given to them; so as to identify their level of proficiency. Then a pre-test was given to investigate the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of the experimental groups. The experimental method then followed to establish the effect of reading proficiency on comprehension of the experimental groups.

3.8. Data analysis

First, the analysis of data involved the editing to rid it of errors and irregularities. Subjects of discussion related to the objectives of the study were then generated. This was preceded by the qualitative analysis of the data. That is, by the description or content analysis of the subject matter. This was then be followed by the making of authentic conclusions from the data. Thus, the quantitative and qualitative data of the study was measured via the used of SPSS package in analysing the data. However, the researcher intends not to generalise his findings beyond the

36 sample. So, a student-t test technique of analysis was employed to get the differences between mean score of two departments.

3.9. Validity of the study

To ensure the validity of the instruments used in this study, the researcher has discussed with an expert concerning the task at hand; so as not to derail from the specific objectives in which the study was built upon.

3.10. Reliability of the instruments

The reliability of the observation was determined by identifying their drawbacks on the materials at hand. But the experimental was determined by using the survey, read, recite and review technique.

3.11. Ethical consideration

In order to ensure that ethics of research study are duly observed, a Letter of Introduction was presented at every place necessary and subjects’ consent was sought. All data collected were treated with utmost confidentiality. All literature quoted was properly cited and referenced. Moreover, the respondents made their decision to participate in the study based on adequate knowledge of the study. Because they were informed about the procedures of the research in which they were being to participate. The researcher have provided them with: purpose of the research, the expected duration of participation and the procedure to be followed, the extent of privacy and confidentiality among others.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter comprised the presentation, analysis and interpretation of the results of the study on the reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola. The data was presented according to the objectives of the study. The chapter also covered the findings of the study which was conducted.

4.2. Response Rate

A total number of 57 students were used each from the two selected departments and all have participated actively during the exercise. Though a (five) 5point linker scale was used as a tool for assessing the students’ performance in terms of reading proficiency and comprehension.

4.3 Demographic Data for both Departments (DELE AND DBAM)

Below tables are the demographic data for both departments since the study is a comparative one. 4.3.1 Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) Table 1

Gender Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage

Male 22 38.6 38.6 38.6 Female 33 57.9 57.9 96.5 Valid 3.00 1 1.8 1.8 98.2 5.00 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The above table is the gender representation of students in Diploma in English Language Education which reads as follow: the male are 22 with 38.6 % and female are 33 with 57.9 % all out of 57 as their total number.

Table 2

Age Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage 16-19 years 26 45.6 45.6 45.6 Valid 20-25 years 31 54.4 54.4 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The above table is the representation of students’ age in Diploma in English Language Education which reads as follow: range of 16-19 has 45.6% and 20-25 has 54.4% all out of 57 as their total number.

Table 3

educational Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative qualification Percentage

SSCE 30 52.6 52.6 52.6 Valid Certificate 27 47.4 47.4 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The above table is the representation of students’ educational qualification in Diploma in English Language Education which reads as follow: those with SSCE has 52.6% and those with certificate has 47.4% all out of 57 as their total number.

Table 4

course of study Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage

Valid DELE 57 100.0 100.0 100.0

The above table is the representation of students’ course of study in which; they are all from Diploma in English Language Education with 1oo%, all out of 57 as their total number.

Table 5

year of study Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage 2016 1 1.8 1.8 1.8 Valid 2017 56 98.2 98.2 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The above table is the representation of students’ year of study which reads as follow: 2016 has 1.8% and 2017 has 98.2 % all out of 57 as their total number.

4.3.2 Diploma in Business Administration and Management (BAM)

Table 6

Gender Frequen Percentage Valid Cumulative Percentage cy Percentage Male 30 52.6 52.6 52.6 Valid Female 27 47.4 47.4 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Frequen Percentage Valid Cumulative Percentage Age cy Percentage 16-19 years 5 8.8 8.8 8.8 20-25 years 47 82.5 82.5 91.2 Valid 26 and 5 8.8 8.8 100.0 above Total 57 100.0 100.0

The above table is the gender representation of students in Diploma in Business Management Education which reads as follow: the male are 30 with 52.6 % and female are 47 with 47.4 % all out of 57 as their total number. Also, students’ age reads as follow: range of 16-19 has 8.8 % while 20-25 has 82.5 % and 26year above has 8.8 % all out of 57 as their total number.

Table 7

Educational Frequen Percentage Valid Cumulative Percentage Qualification cy Percentage

SSCE 34 59.6 59.6 59.6 Valid Certificate 23 40.4 40.4 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The above table is the representation of students’ educational qualification in Diploma in Business Management Education which reads as follow: those with SSCE has 59.9 % and those with certificate has 40.4% all out of 57 as their total number.

Table 8

Course of Study Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage

Valid BAM 57 100.0 100.0 100.0 Year of Study Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage

2016 1 1.8 1.8 1.8 Valid 2017 56 98.2 98.2 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The above table is the representation of students’ course of study in which; they are all from Diploma in Business Management Education with 1oo%, all out of 57 as their total number. However, students’ year of study which reads as follow: 2016 has 1.8% and 2017 has 98.2 % all out of 57 as their total number.

4.3.3 Pre-Test for Two Departments (DELE AND DBAM)

Below are the results of pre-test for both students of Diploma in English language Education and Diploma in Business Administration and Management, all from Adamawa state polytechnic Yola.

The Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Groups The tables below shows the level of proficiency among the two selected departments in respect to pre-test conducted during the research.

Frequency Table 9: A Pre-Test for DELE

The student's level of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative lexis and structure Percentage

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Valid Good 17 29.8 29.8 31.6 Fair 34 59.6 59.6 91.2 Poor 5 8.8 8.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of student's Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative ability to manipulate Percentage both receptive and productive skills

Very good 4 7.0 7.0 7.0

Valid Good 16 28.1 28.1 35.1 Fair 28 49.1 49.1 84.2 Poor 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of mother Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative tongue interference Percentage surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Valid Good 24 42.1 42.1 43.9 Fair 22 38.6 38.6 82.5 Poor 10 17.5 17.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Elements of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative appropriate reading Percentage strategies for comprehension by students

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 Valid Good 15 26.3 26.3 29.8

Fair 31 54.4 54.4 84.2 Poor 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Regression duration Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative reading by students Percentage

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Valid Good 25 43.9 43.9 47.4 Fair 17 29.8 29.8 77.2 Poor 13 22.8 22.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

In assessing the level of reading proficiency and comprehension among the English language students in selected departments in Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola. However the assessment was done base on the objectives of the study. Objective number one: The level of proficiency among the experimental groups (DELE). To achieve this, the respondents were rated base on their performances in terms of their proficiency levels. As a result of that; the above tables were used for the students of Diploma in English language education (DELE). The results indicated that Only 1 student had a very good background in lexis and structure which had 1.8% and 17 students rated as good with 29.8%, 34 students rated as fair which made 59.6%; while, 5 students were rated as poor with 8.8% respectively.

Only 4 students had a very good ability in manipulating both receptive and productive skills, which was at 7.0%. 16 students were rated good with a 28.1%. And a total number of 28 students were rated fair with 49.1%; while 9 students were rated as poor with 15.8%. Only 1 student had an upper hand on the level of mother tongue interference as it surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning; which was 1.8%, 24 students had 42.1%, 22 had38.6% and 10 students had 17.5% respectively. Only 2 students had elements of appropriate reading strategies for comprehension which made 3.5%, 15 students with 26.3%, 31 students 54.4%, 9 students 15.8% as of poor rate. Only 2 students were very good in not regressing during reading, which made 3.5% but 25 students were good with 43.9%, 17 students with 29.8% and 13 students with 22.8% as the poor rate. To investigate the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of students in Adamawa state polytechnic, Yola. Table 10

Discovering the theme Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative of the author Percentage

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8 Valid Good 16 28.1 28.1 29.8 Fair 30 52.6 52.6 82.5 Poor 10 17.5 17.5 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to speed read Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative and comprehend Percentage

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Good 17 29.8 29.8 31.6 Valid Fair 28 49.1 49.1 80.7 Poor 11 19.3 19.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Give meaning to new Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative words and expression Percentage

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Valid Good 10 17.5 17.5 21.1 Fair 30 52.6 52.6 73.7 Poor 15 26.3 26.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Readers ability to use Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior knowledge Percentage to make prediction about the text

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Valid Good 19 33.3 33.3 36.8 Fair 28 49.1 49.1 86.0 Poor 8 14.0 14.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The second objective of the study was the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of the students. In achieving this, students of English language Education department (DELE) were assessed base on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow: It shows that only 1 student had very good skills of discovering the theme of the author with 1.8%,16 students with 28.1% as good, 30 students with 52.6% as fair and 10 students with 17.5% as poor rate. It indicates that only 1 student had very good ability to speed read and comprehend

45 the given text which rated as 1.8%, while 17 students had good with 29.8%,28 students had fair rate with 49.1% and 11 students rated as poor with 19.3 %. It shows that only 2 students had the ability to give meaning to new word and expression, rated as very good with 3.5%, 10 students rated as good with 17.5%, 30 students rated fair with 52.6% and 15 students rated as poor with 26.3%.

It shows that only 2 students were very good while using their prior knowledge in making prediction about the text with 3.5%, 19 students were rated good with 33.3%,28 students were rated as fair with 49.1% and 8 students were rated as poor with 14% respectively. It indicates that only 1 student had a very good ability in summarizing what had been read, rated as very good with 1.8%, while 15 students were rated as good in that with 26.3%, 34 students rated as fair with 59.6% and 7 students were rated as poor with 12.3% in total. Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension Table 11

Ability to actively Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative involve with the Percentage text and understand what has been read Very 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 good Good 23 40.4 40.4 43.9 Valid Fair 23 40.4 40.4 84.2 Poor 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to interpret Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative strange words Percentage

Good 17 29.8 29.8 29.8 Fair 32 56.1 56.1 86.0 Valid Poor 8 14.0 14.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Improvement of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative student's Percentage comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie prediction, making connections, visualizing etc. Very 3 5.3 5.3 5.3 good

Valid Good 21 36.8 36.8 42.1 Fair 25 43.9 43.9 86.0 Poor 8 14.0 14.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to activate Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior Percentage knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience Very 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 good

Valid Good 18 31.6 31.6 35.1 Fair 25 43.9 43.9 78.9 Poor 12 21.1 21.1 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to give Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative meaning of the Percentage underlined words as used in the passage Valid Good 19 33.3 33.3 33.3 Fair 29 50.9 50.9 84.2 Poor 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 SOURCE: FIELD DATA 2017

The third objective of the study was; how do reading-proficiency strategies impact on students’ comprehension. To achieve this, students of Diploma in English language Education (DELE)

were assessed base on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow: It shows that 17 students had the Ability to actively involve with the text and understand what had been read, rated as very good with 29.8%, while 36 students rated as good with 63.2%, 4 students rated as fair with 7.0% . It shows that 17 students were rated very good with 29.8% in terms of ability to interpret strange words, while 29 students were rated good with 50.9%, 10 students rated fair with 17.5% and 1 student rated poor with 1.8%. It shows the rate of 16 students as very good with 28.1%, 34 students with 59.6%, 7 students rated as fair with 12.3% all in terms of improvement of student's comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie prediction, making connections, visualizing etc. It shows that only 19 students were rated as very good with 33.3% in terms of ability to activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience. While27 students are rated as good with 47.4% and 11 students as fair with 19.3%.It shows that 12 students were rated as very good with 21.1% in terms of their ability to give meaning of the underlined words as used in the passage. However, 34 students were rated as good with 59.6%, 8 students rated as fair with 14.0% and 3 students were rated poor with 5.3%.

4.3.4 Pre-Test for Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) The Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Groups Table 12

The student's level of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative lexis and structure Percentage

Very good 20 35.1 35.1 35.1

Valid Good 35 61.4 61.4 96.5 Fair 2 3.5 3.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of student's Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative ability to manipulate Percentage both receptive and productive skills

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Valid Good 20 35.1 35.1 36.8 Fair 31 54.4 54.4 91.2 Poor 5 8.8 8.8 100.0

Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of mother Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative tongue interference Percentage surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning Good 18 31.6 31.6 31.6 Valid Fair 26 45.6 45.6 77.2 Poor 13 22.8 22.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Elements of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative appropriate reading Percentage strategies for comprehension by students

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Valid Good 17 29.8 29.8 31.6 Fair 23 40.4 40.4 71.9 Poor 16 28.1 28.1 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Regression during Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative reading by students Percentage

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Good 14 24.6 24.6 26.3 Valid Fair 26 45.6 45.6 71.9 Poor 16 28.1 28.1 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Objective number one: The level of proficiency among the experimental groups (DBAM). To achieve this, the respondents were rated base on their performances in terms of their proficiency levels. As a result of that; the above tables were used for the students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM). The results indicated that, at least 20 students had a very good background in lexis and structure which has 35.5% and majority rated as good which made 61.4% with a total number of 35 students; 2 students rated as fair with 3.5%. Only 1 student had a very good ability in manipulating both receptive and productive

49 skills, which made 1.8%. And a total number of 20 students rated as good with 35.1%, 31 students rated as fair with 54.4% while 5 students were rated as poor with 8.8%.

It indicates that only 18 students had an upper hand on the level of mother tongue interference as it surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning; which made 31.6%, 26 students have 45.6%, 13 students had 22.8% respectively. It shows that only 1 student had elements of appropriate reading strategies for comprehension which made 1.8%, 17 were rated good with 29.8 %, 23 students rated as fair with 40.4%, 16 students rated as poor with 28.1%. It shows that only 1 student was very good in not regressing during reading, which made 1.8% but 14 students are good with 24.6%, 26 students rated as fair with 45.6% and 16 students with 28.1% as the poor rate.

The Effects of Reading Proficiency on the Comprehension of Students in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola Table 13

Discovering the Frequency Percenta Valid Percentage Cumulative theme of the ge Percentage author

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Good 16 28.1 28.1 31.6 Valid Fair 30 52.6 52.6 84.2 Poor 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to speed Frequency Percenta Valid Percentage Cumulative read and ge Percentage comprehend Good 18 31.6 31.6 31.6 Valid Fair 24 42.1 42.1 73.7 Poor 15 26.3 26.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Give meaning to new Frequen Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative words and expression cy Percentage

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 Valid Good 13 22.8 22.8 26.3

Fair 30 52.6 52.6 78.9 Poor 12 21.1 21.1 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Readers ability to use Frequen Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior knowledge cy Percentage to make prediction about the text

Very good 1 1.8 1.8 1.8

Valid Good 16 28.1 28.1 29.8 Fair 28 49.1 49.1 78.9 Poor 12 21.1 21.1 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Student's ability to Frequen Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative summarize what has cy Percentage been read

Very good 3 5.3 5.3 5.3

Valid Good 14 24.6 24.6 29.8 Fair 26 45.6 45.6 75.4 Poor 14 24.6 24.6 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The second objective of the study was the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of students in Adamawa state polytechnic, Yola. In achieving this, students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) were assessed base on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow: It shows that only 2 students had very good skills of discovering the theme of the author with 3.5%, 16 students with 28.1% as good, and 30 students with 52.6% as fair and 9 students with 15.8% as poor rate. It indicates that only 18 students had been rated good in terms of ability to speed read and comprehend the given text which is 31.6%, while 24 students were rated fair with 42.1%, 15 students had poor rate with 26.3%. It shows that only 2 students had the ability to give meaning to new word and expression, rated as very good with 3.5%, 13 students rated as good with 22.8%, 30 students rated fair with 52.6% and 12 students rated as poor with 21.1%. It shows that only 1 student was very good while using their prior knowledge in making prediction about the text with 1.8%, 16 students were rated good with 29.8%,28 students were rated as fair with 49.1% and 12 students are rated as poor with 21.1% respectively.

It indicates that only 3 students had a very good ability in summarizing what had been read, rated as very good with 5.3%, while 14 students were rated as good in that with 24.6%, 26 students rated as fair with 45.6% and 14 students were rated as poor with 24.6% in total.

Table 14: Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension

Ability to actively Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative involve with the text Percentage and understand what has been read

Very good 3 5.3 5.3 5.3

Valid Good 17 29.8 29.8 35.1 Fair 22 38.6 38.6 73.7 Poor 15 26.3 26.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Ability to interpret Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative strange words Percentage

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Good 19 33.3 33.3 36.8 Valid Fair 26 45.6 45.6 82.5 Poor 10 17.5 17.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Improvement of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative students’ Percentage comprehension through instructions of reading strategies ,i.e prediction, making connections, visualizing, etc.

Very good 2 3.5 3.5 3.5

Good 14 24.6 24.6 28.1 Valid Fair 26 45.6 45.6 73.7 Poor 15 26.3 26.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to activate Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience

Good 18 31.6 31.6 38.6

Fair 26 45.6 45.6 84.2 Poor 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to give Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative meaning of the Percentage underlined words as used in the passage Very good 4 7.0 7.0 7.0 Valid Good 20 35.1 35.1 Fair 23 40.4 40.4 100.0

Poor 10 17.5 17.5 Total 57 100.0 100.0

SOURCE: FIELD DATA 2017

The third objective of the study was how to establish the effect of reading proficiency on comprehension. In achieving this, students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) were assessed base on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow: It shows that 3 students had the ability to actively involve with the text and understand what had been read, rated as very good with 5.3%, while 17 students rated as good with 29.8%, 22 students rated as fair with 38.6% and 15 students rated as poor with 26.3%. It shows that 2 students were rated very good with 3.5% in terms of ability to interpret strange words, while 19 are rated good with 33.2%, 26 students rated fair with 45.6% and 10 students rated poor with 17.5%.

It also shows 2 students were rated as very good with 3.5%, 14 students with 24.6%, 26 students rated as fair with 45.6% and 15 students with 26.3% all in terms of improvement of student's comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie prediction, making connections, visualizing etc. It shows that only 4 students were rated as very good with 7.0% in terms of ability to activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience. While 18 students were rated as good with 31.6%, 26 students as fair with 45.6% and 9 students rated poor with 15.8%. It shows that 4 students were rated very good with 7.0% in terms of ability to give meaning of the underlined words as used in the passage. While 20 students were rated as good, 23 fair with 40.4% and 10 students rated as poor with 17.5% in total.

4.5. Pre-Test Analysis for Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) and Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM)

Table 15 DELE DBAM s/n ITEM EXCL V.GD GD FAIR POO EXCL V.GD GD FAIR POO R R 1 The level of --- 1 17 34 5 --- 20 35 2 --- students’ knowledge of lexis and structure. 2 The level of --- 4 15 28 9 --- 1 20 31 5 students’ ability to manipulate both receptive and productive skills. 3 The level of --- 1 24 22 10 --- 18 26 13 --- mother tongue interferenc e surfaces as their grammatic al weaknesses interfere with meaning. 4 Elements of --- 2 15 31 9 --- 1 17 23 16 appropriat e reading strategies for comprehen sion by students. 5 Regression --- 2 25 17 13 --- 1 14 26 16 during reading by students.

6 Discovering --- 1 16 30 10 --- 2 16 30 9 the theme of the author. 7 Ability to --- 1 17 28 11 ------18 24 15 speed read and comprehen d. 8 Give --- 2 10 30 15 --- 2 13 30 12 meaning to new words and expressions . 9 Reader’s --- 2 19 28 8 --- 1 16 28 12 ability to use their prior knowledge to make prediction about the text. 10 Students’ --- 1 15 34 7 --- 3 14 26 14 ability to summarize what has been read. 11 Ability to --- 17 29 10 1 --- 3 17 22 15 actively involved with the text and understand what has been read. 12 Ability to --- 16 34 7 ------2 19 26 10 interpret strange words. 13 Improveme --- 16 34 7 ------2 14 26 15 nt of students’ comprehen sion

through instruction of reading strategies ie connection, visualizing e t c. 14 Ability to --- 19 27 11 ------4 18 26 9 activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience. 15 Ability to --- 12 34 8 3 --- 4 20 23 10 give meaning to the underlined words as used in the passage.

4.5.1 Summary of the Findings for Pre-test of DELE and DBAM In the table above, none of the students from both departments had performed at an excellent level of their reading proficiency and comprehension. However, a lot of poor rated performances had been witnessed at many levels. i.e level 2 with only 5 students, level 6 and14 with9 students each, level 12 with 10 students, level 8 and 9 with 12 students each, level 10 with 14 students, level 7, 11and 13 all with 15 students each and level 4 and 5 with 16 students each. Moreover, a high number of students performed at a fair rate.eg level 2 with 31 students, level1 and 10 with 34 students, level 6 and 8 with 30 students all at fair rate. For the DBAM students at the pre-test exercise, a high number of them performed poorly i.e at level 2=5 students. Level 6 and 14=9 students each, level 12 and 15=10 students each, level 8 and 9=12 students each, level 10 =14 students, level 11 and 13=15 students each and lastly level 4 and 5=16 students each. In view of the above performances, the need for intervention is highly imperative; so, the SQ3R was employed. SQRRR or SQ3R is a reading comprehension method named for its five steps:

57 survey, question, read, recite, and review. The method was introduced by Francis P. Robinson, an American education philosopher in his 1946 book Effective Study. The method offers a more efficient and active approach to reading textbook material. It was created for college students, but is extremely useful for young students as well. Classrooms all over the world have begun using this method to better understand what they are reading. (Gunning, T.G. 2002).

4.3.5 Post –Test for Diploma in English Language Education Department (DELE)

Table 16:The Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Groups

The student's level of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative lexis and structure Percentage

Very good 8 14.0 14.0 14.0 Good 27 47.4 47.4 61.4 Valid Fair 21 36.8 36.8 98.2 Poor 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of student's Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative ability to manipulate Percentage both receptive and productive skills

Very good 18 31.6 31.6 31.6

Valid Good 27 47.4 47.4 78.9 Fair 12 21.1 21.1 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of mother Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative tongue interference Percentage surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning

Very good 14 24.6 24.6 24.6 Valid Good 38 66.7 66.7 91.2

Fair 5 8.8 8.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Elements of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative appropriate reading Percentage strategies for comprehension by students

Very good 16 28.1 28.1 28.1

Valid Good 33 57.9 57.9 86.0 Fair 8 14.0 14.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Regression duration Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative reading by students Percentage

Very good 15 26.3 26.3 26.3

Valid Good 33 57.9 57.9 84.2 Fair 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

In assessing the level of reading proficiency and comprehension among English language students in selected departments in Adamawa state polytechnic Yola. However the assessment was done base on the objectives of the study. Objective number one: The level of proficiency among the experimental groups (DELE). To achieve this, the respondents were rated base on their performances in terms of their proficiency levels. As a result of that; the above tables were used for the analysis of performances for the students of Diploma in English language education (DELE). The results indicated that. The table above shows that only 8 student had a very good background in lexis and structure which had 14.% and 27 students rated as good with 47.4%, 21 students rated as fair which makes 36.8%; 1 students rated as poor with 1.8% respectively. The above table shows that only 18 students had a very good ability in manipulating both receptive and productive skills, which made 31.6%. 27 students were rated good with a 47.4%. And a total number of 12 students with a Fair rate of 21.1%.

The above table indicates that only 14 student had an upper hand on the level of mother tongue interference as it surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning; which makes 24.6%, 38 students had 66.7%, 5 students had 8.8% respectively. The above table shows that only 16 students were rated very good in terms of Elements of appropriate reading strategies for comprehension which makes 28.1%, 33 students were rated good with 57.9%, 8 students with 14.0 as of fair rate. The above table also shows that only 15 students were rated very good in not regressing during reading, which made 26.3% but 33 students were good with 57.9% and 9 students with 15.8% as the fair rate.

Table 17: The Effects of Reading Proficiency on the Comprehension of Students in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

Discovering the theme Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative of the author Percentage

Very good 18 31.6 31.6 31.6

Valid Good 33 57.9 57.9 89.5 Fair 6 10.5 10.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Ability to speed read Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative and comprehend Percentage

Very good 12 21.1 21.1 21.1

Valid Good 35 61.4 61.4 82.5 Fair 10 17.5 17.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Give meaning to new Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative words and expression Percentage

Very good 19 33.3 33.3 33.3

Valid Good 34 59.6 59.6 93.0 Fair 4 7.0 7.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Readers ability to use Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior knowledge Percentage to make prediction about the text

Very good 16 28.1 28.1 28.1

Valid Good 36 63.2 63.2 91.2 Fair 5 8.8 8.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Student's ability to Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative summarize what has Percentage been read

Very good 11 19.3 19.3 19.3

Valid Good 32 56.1 56.1 75.4 Fair 13 22.8 22.8 98.2 Poor 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The second objective of the study was to investigate the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of the students. To achieve this, students of Diploma in English language Education (DELE) were assessed base on the above objective; the above table was used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow. It shows that only 18 students had very good skills of discovering the theme of the author with 31.6%, 33 students with 57.9% as good,6 students with 10.5% as fair rate. It indicated that

61 only 12 student had very good ability to speed read and comprehend the given text which rated as 21.1%, while 35 students had good with 61.4%,10 students had fair rate with 17.5%. It shows that only 6 students had the ability to give meaning to new word and expression, rated as excellent with 10.5%, 16 students rated as very good with 28.1%, 22 students were rated good with 38.6% and 13 students rated as fair with 22.8%. It also shows that only 16 students were very good while using their prior knowledge in making prediction about the text with 28.1%, 36 students were rated good with 63.2%, 5 students were rated as fair with 8.8% respectively. It indicates that only 11 student had a very good ability in summarizing what had been read, rated as very good with 19.3%, while 32 students were rated as good in that with 56.1%, 13 students rated as fair with 22.8% and 1 student rated as poor with 1.8% in total. Table 18: Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension

Ability to actively Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative involve with the text Percentage and understand what has been read

Very good 17 29.8 29.8 29.8

Valid Good 36 63.2 63.2 93.0 Fair 4 7.0 7.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to interpret Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative strange words Percentage

Very good 17 29.8 29.8 29.8

Good 29 50.9 50.9 80.7 Valid Fair 10 17.5 17.5 98.2 Poor 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Valid Good 34 59.6 59.6 87.7 Fair 7 12.3 12.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to activate Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior knowledge Percentage and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience

Very good 19 33.3 33.3 33.3

Valid Good 27 47.4 47.4 80.7 Fair 11 19.3 19.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to give meaning Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative of the underlined Percentage words as used in the passage

Very good 12 21.1 21.1 21.1

Good 34 59.6 59.6 80.7 Valid Fair 8 14.0 14.0 94.7 Poor 3 5.3 5.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 SOURCE: FIELD DATA 2017

The third objective of the study was on how do reading proficiency impact on the comprehension on the students. To achieve this, students of Diploma in English language Education (DELE) were assessed base on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow. It indicated that 17 students had the Ability to actively involve with the text and understand what had been read, rated as very good with 29.8%, while 36 students rated as good

63 with 63.2%, 4 students rated as fair with 7.0% . It shows that 17 students were rated very good with 29.8% in terms of ability to interpret strange words, while 29 students were rated good with 50.9%, 10 students rated fair with 17.5% and 1 student rated poor with 1.8%. It also shows that 16 students were rated as very good with 28.1%, 34 students with 59.6%, 7 students rated as fair with 12.3% all in terms of improvement of student's comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie prediction, making connections, visualizing etc. It shows that only 19 students were rated as very good with 33.3% in terms of ability to activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience. 27students were rated as good with 47.4% and 11 students as fair with 19.3%. It shows that 12 students were rated as very good with 21.1% in terms of their ability to give meaning of the underlined words as used in the passage. However, 34 students were rated as good with 59.6%, 8 students rated as fair with 14.0% and 3 students were rated poor with 5.3%.

4.3.6 Post-Test for Diploma in Business Administration and Management (BAM) Table 19: The Level of Proficiency among the Experimental Groups Table 1 The student's level of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative lexis and structure Percentage Excellent 1 1.8 1.8 1.8 Very good 22 38.6 38.6 40.4 Valid Good 25 43.9 43.9 84.2 Fair 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 The level of student's Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative ability to manipulate Percentage both receptive and productive skills

Very good 24 42.1 42.1 42.1

Valid Good 29 50.9 50.9 93.0 Fair 4 7.0 7.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The level of mother Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative tongue interference Percentage surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning Excellent 5 8.8 8.8 8.8 Very good 20 35.1 35.1 43.9 Valid Good 23 40.4 40.4 84.2 Fair 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Elements of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative appropriate reading Percentage strategies for comprehension by students Excellent 3 5.3 5.3 5.3 Very good 20 35.1 35.1 40.4 Valid Good 25 43.9 43.9 84.2 Fair 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Regression duration Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative reading by students Percentage Excellent 3 5.3 5.3 5.3 Very good 19 33.3 33.3 38.6 Valid Good 26 45.6 45.6 84.2 Fair 9 15.8 15.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Objective number one: The level of proficiency among the experimental groups (DBAM). To achieve this, the respondents were rated base on their performances in terms of their proficiency levels. As a result of that; the above tables were used to interpret the performances of the students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM). The results indicated that only 1 students had an excellent rate in terms of background in lexis and structure which has 1.8 %, 22 students were rated as very good which made 38.6%, 25 students were rated as good with 43.9% and 9 students rated as fair with 15.8%.The table shows that only 24 students had a very good ability in manipulating both receptive and productive skills, which

65 made 42.1%. And a total number of 29 students rated as good with 50.9% and 4 students rated as Fair with 7.0%. It also indicated that only 5 students had an excellent rating on the level of mother tongue interference as it surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning; which made 8.8%, 20 students had 35.1% as very good, 23 students rated as good with 40.4% and 9 students rated as fair 15.8% respectively. The table shows that only 3 student had an excellent rating in terms of Elements of appropriate reading strategies for comprehension which makes 5.3%, 20 were rated very good with 35.1 %, 25 students rated as good with 43.9%, 9 students rated as fair with 15.8% . The table indicated that only 3 students were rated excellent with 5.3%, 19 students were rated very good in not regressing during reading, which made 33.3% but 26 students were good with 45.6%, 9 students with 15.8% as fair rate.

Table 20:The Effects of Reading Proficiency on the Comprehension of Students in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

Discovering the theme Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative of the author Percentage Excellent 3 5.3 5.3 5.3 Very good 19 33.3 33.3 38.6 Valid Good 24 42.1 42.1 80.7 Fair 11 19.3 19.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage Excellent 3 5.3 5.3 5.3 Very good 21 36.8 36.8 42.1 Valid Good 27 47.4 47.4 89.5 Fair 6 10.5 10.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Give meaning to new Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative words and expression Percentage

Excellent 6 10.5 10.5 10.5 Very good 16 28.1 28.1 38.6 Valid Good 22 38.6 38.6 77.2 Fair 13 22.8 22.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

Readers ability to use Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior knowledge Percentage to make prediction about the text

Very good 23 40.4 40.4 40.4

Valid Good 31 54.4 54.4 94.7 Fair 3 5.3 5.3 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Student's ability to Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative summarize what has Percentage been read Excellent 5 8.8 8.8 8.8 Very good 14 24.6 24.6 33.3 Good 27 47.4 47.4 80.7 Valid Fair 10 17.5 17.5 98.2 Poor 1 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0

The second objective of the study was to investigate the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of the students. To achieve this, students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) were assessed base on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow. It shows that only 3 students had an excellent rating with 5.3 %, 19 students are rated very good in respect to discovering the theme of the author with 33.3%, 24 students with 42.1% as good, and 11 students with 19.3% as fair with 19.3% .It indicates that only 3 students had been rated excellent in terms of ability to speed read and comprehend the given text which is 5.3%, while 21 students were rated very good with 36.8%, 27 students rated good with 47.4 and 6 students rated as fair with 10.5%. It also shows that only 6 students had the ability to give meaning to new word and expression, rated as excellent with 10.5%, 16 students rated as very good with 28.1%, 22 students were rated good with 38.6% and 13 students rated as fair with 22.8%.

It shows that only 23 students were rated as very good with 40.4% in terms of ability to activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience.31students were rated as good with 54.4%, and 3 students as fair with 5.3%. It indicated that only 3 students had

67 an excellent rating with 8.8%, 14 very good with 24.6% in terms of ability in summarizing what had been read, 27 students rated as good with 47.4%, while 10 students were rated as fair with 17.5% and 1 student rated as poor with 1.8% in total.

Table 21: Establishing the Effect of Reading Proficiency on Comprehension

Ability to actively Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative involve with the text Percentage and understand what has been read Excellent 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 Very good 19 33.3 33.3 36.8 Valid Good 26 45.6 45.6 82.5 Fair 10 17.5 17.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to interpret Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative strange words Percentage Excellent 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 Very good 19 33.3 33.3 36.8 Valid Good 28 49.1 49.1 86.0 Fair 8 14.0 14.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Improvement of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative student's Percentage comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie prediction, making connections,visualisi ng etc. Very good 18 31.6 31.6 31.6 Good 33 57.9 57.9 89.5 Valid Fair 6 10.5 10.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to activate their Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative prior knowledge and Percentage connect the ideas in the text to their own experience Excellent 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 Valid Very good 15 26.3 26.3 29.8

Good 30 52.6 52.6 82.5 Fair 10 17.5 17.5 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 Ability to give meaning of Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative the underlined words as Percentage used in the passage

Very good 24 42.1 42.1 42.1

Valid Good 25 43.9 43.9 86.0 Fair 8 14.0 14.0 100.0 Total 57 100.0 100.0 SOURCE: FIELD DATA 2017

The third objective of the study was on how do reading proficiency impact on the comprehension of the students. To achieve this, students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management (BAM) were assessed based on the above objective; the above tables were used for assessment. The respondents were assessed based on the above scales and the findings are as follow. It shows that 2 students had the ability to actively involve with the text and understand what have been read, rated as excellent with 3.5%, while 19 students rated as very good with 33.3%, 26 students rated as good with 45.6% and 10 students rated as fair with 17.5%. It also shows that 2 students were rated excellent with 3.5% in terms of ability to interpret strange words, while 19 were rated very good with 33.3%, 28 students rated good with 49.1% and 8 students rated fair with 14.0%. It shows the rate of 18 students as very good with 31.6%, 33 students rated good with 57.9%, 6 students rated as fair with 10.5% all in terms of improvement of student's comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie prediction, making connections, visualizing etc. It shows that only 2 students were rated as excellent with 3.5% in terms of ability to activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience. While 15 students were rated as very good with 26.3%, 30 students as good with 52.6% and 10 students rated fair with 17.5%.It shows that 24 students were rated very good with 42.1% in terms of ability to give meaning of the underlined words as used in the passage. While 25 students were rated as good with 43.9% and 8 students rated as fair with 14.0% in total.

4.7. Post-Test for Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) and Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM)

Table 22 DELE DBAM S/n Item Exclln V.GD GD FAIR POOR Exclln V.GD GD FAIR POOR 1 The level of --- 8 27 21 1 1 22 25 9 --- students’ knowledge of lexis and structure. 2 The level of --- 18 27 12 ------24 29 4 --- students’ ability to manipulate both receptive and productive skills. 3 The level of --- 14 38 5 --- 5 20 23 9 --- mother tongue interference surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning. 4 Elements of --- 16 38 8 --- 3 20 25 9 --- appropriate reading strategies for comprehension by students. 5 Regression --- 15 33 9 --- 3 19 26 9 --- during reading by students. 6 Discovering --- 18 33 6 --- 3 19 24 11 the theme of the author. 7 Ability to --- 12 35 10 --- 3 21 27 6 --- speed read and comprehend. 8 Give meaning 6 16 22 13 --- 6 16 22 13 --- to new words and expressions.

9 Reader’s --- 16 36 5 ------23 31 3 --- ability to use their prior knowledge to make prediction about the text. 10 Students’ --- 11 32 13 1 3 14 27 10 1 ability to summarize what has been read. 11 Ability to --- 17 36 4 --- 2 19 26 10 --- actively involved with the text and understand what has been read. 12 Ability to --- 17 29 10 1 2 19 28 8 --- interpret strange words. 13 Improvement --- 16 34 7 ------18 33 6 --- of students’ comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie connection, visualizing e t c. 14 Ability to --- 19 27 11 --- 2 15 30 10 --- activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience.

15 Ability to give --- 12 34 8 3 --- 14 25 8 --- meaning to the underlined words as used in the passage.

4.7.1 Summary of the findings for post-test of DELE and DBAM

After the intervention with Sq3r formula for reading by Robinson (1946), some tremendous changes occurred at all levels. For the DELE, 8 students performed excellently at level 8. In terms of poor performance only 8 students were observed at different levels. i.e only 1 student at level 1, 10 and 12. With 3 students at level 15.concerning the high number of fairly performance before the intervention; only few were left at that rate, majority performed very good and good. For the DBAM students, a lot of achievements had been recorded in terms of excellent performance after the intervention. For instance, at level1=1 student. Level 11, 12 and 14=2 students each, level 4,5,6,7 and 10=3 students each. Level 3,=5 students. Level8= 6 students. More so, at poor rate, only 1 student had been recorded at level 10. And majority had performed at very good and good levels respectively. COMPARISM Knoll J. H. (2002) asserts that : “Comparative research will only then succeed in asserting itself, when it no longer circles around methodological problems and continually discusses the difficulties of comparison, and when it delivers works in which the yield of the comparison is visible.

So comparatively, the student of the two departments varies in terms of their reading proficiency and comprehension; before and after the intervention. Though, both failed to perform any excellent record before the intervention. Besides, after the intervention, the DBAM students seemed to have better performance than their counter part of DELE at almost all the levels. Without any doubt and base on the previous data presented above, it is clear that the reading proficiency and comprehension of DBAM students is of better than that of DELE.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Introduction

This chapter presents a discussion of the findings, conclusion and recommendations. Finally the chapter ends with suggestions for further research.

5.2. Discussion of the Findings

5.2.1 What are the levels of proficiency among the experimental groups? The study examined the levels of proficiency among the experimental groups. The result showed that none of students from both departments performed excellently at all levels during the pre-test period. However, a lot of poor rated performances were recorded. In addition, none of the two departments performed excellently in terms of their levels of proficiency. Besides, an intervention with the SQ3R method of teaching reading helps a lot in creating an enabling environment for the teaching and learning process to be realized. More so, because of the importance of reading proficiency among the students, Block and Israel (2005) asserts that ‘reading proficiency is the most fundamental skills for learning and success in school. However, the ability to read proficiently is significantly related to how much a person can achieve in his/her personal or professional life. This is why, this study deemed it very vital for the students’ level of proficiently to be considered as a yard-stick for measuring their proficiency and comprehension. ii What are the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of students? The students of the two departments had deficiencies in terms of their reading proficiency as it affects their comprehension. This was because, they lacked effective utilization of reading strategies; it was the reason why some were unable to explain what they had read, some could not make connections between the reading material and real life activities. Some could not give meaning to the underlined words or give interpretation to the strange words or even explain the theme of the author. But after an intervention with the SQ3R method of teaching reading; gradual shifting in behaviour of the two departments were observed. Moreover, the urgent need for an effective

74 reading strategies are needed from the students to enable them comprehend a reading text. If students have mastered a good reading strategies, their comprehension towards a reading material will not be difficult. This concord with Abbot (2006) which opined that ‘reading strategies are the mental operations or the comprehension process that a reader select and apply in order to make sense of what they read’. iii How do reading proficiency strategies impact on the students’ comprehension? To answer the above question, an intervention was employed through the use of SQ3R formula for teaching comprehension; which helps the students to thinks about the text they are reading while they were reading. During the experimental, the used of SQ3R helps the students to "get it" the first time they read a text. This was realized because, they were taught how to read and think like an effective reader. Moreover, the approach helps the students to activate their thinking and review their understanding throughout their reading. It also dissuades students from waiting and then cramming for tests since the five steps requires them to review information and create notes during their initial reading. Their notes from the initial reading become their study guides.

5.3 Conclusion

Objective one

From the findings above, it was concluded that the levels of proficiency among the two departments during the pre-test period was not encouraging. Because most students from the two departments were unable to manipulate both receptive and productive skills nor had the knowledge of lexis and structure. Most of them do not have the element of appropriate reading strategies for neither comprehension nor had the ability to control their mother tongue interference as it surfaced and unveiled their grammatical weakness. Many among the two departments regressed a lot during the pre-test reading exercise. But after the intervention with SQ3R formula for teaching reading, a fruitful result emerged from the two different departments; though their performances vary clearly. The students of Diploma in Business Administration and Management were of better than students of Diploma in English Language Education in all aspect of proficiency levels.

Objective two

Most of the students before intervention could not speed read and comprehend nor give meaning to new words and expressions. Some could not discover the theme of the author nor summarized what has been read. Some were unable to use their prior knowledge to make prediction about the text. But with the intervention, changes occurred at all levels; the above mentioned obstacles had been degraded to the minimal.

Objective three

The findings of this study made it clear that, the establishment of impact of reading proficiency strategies on comprehension was possible; because the road map was clear. Before the intervention period, the students from both departments could not actively involved with the text and understand what had been read nor interpret strange words. Many lacked the ability to manipulate readings strategies i.e making connection, prediction, visualizing e tc. Some failed to neither activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experiences nor give meaning to the underlined words as used in the passage. But immediately they had the blessing of SQ3R formula for teaching reading, a shift was observed from the departments. Where by all the above militating factors were not seen at high rate.

5.4. Recommendations

Based on the findings made in by this study and the conclusion presented above, the following recommendations are made: i. The study recommends that teachers of English language should equip themselves with effective reading strategies and to master the SQ3R method of teaching reading at all levels of learning before embarking on the task. This will go a long way in enhancing the reading proficiency and comprehension of their students. ii.The study recommends that head of departments of the tertiary institution across the state and the country at large should encourage the use of appropriate reading materials for their students; so as to avoid unnecessary regression during the reading exercise as it affects proficiency and comprehension.

76 iii.The government should ensure that, the teachers attain rigorous training after every two years and recruitment agency should ensure that those to be recruited are professional in their various disciplines, so as not to bring in non-professionals in to the field so as to enhance their productivity in the teaching and learning task. More so, the National Board of Technical Education (NBTE) should ensure that appropriate curriculum have been designed and reviewed after every five years; so as to enable the polytechnic grandaunts to have the capability of confronting challenges in the labour market after graduation.

5.5. Suggestion for Further Research Further research needs to be conducted to explore the importance of reading proficiency and comprehension among the students of English language in two tertiary institutions of Adamawa State. This will help a lot in the realization of effective knowledge and skills to the students of Adamawa State and the country at large.

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APPENDIX 1

BRIDE PRICE

Bride price is what is paid on a girl before she is legally married to a man. The payment of bride price is one of our marriage customs. It is recognized throughout Nigeria. The amount paid varies from one ethnic group to another. It may even differ greatly within the same ethnic group. For example, among the Fulani the bride price is more expensive in Mayo-Belwa, Division than in Yola. It is the man who pays the fixed bride price to the parents or relatives of the girl in the years gone by, some neighbouring tribes, Bata, Mumuye, Chamba, etc. used goats, cows and yams to pay their bride prices. In some parts of the North, some men have to help their parent’s in-law in farming as a part of the bride price. Nowadays, money constitutes the principal means of the payment of bride price. There are various cultural values attached to Bride price. To many Nigerians it is a symbol of marriage. It is the price that bestows a high regard on a girl. There is also a common belief that with a bride price a girl becomes a treasure of her husband who must treat her well. Some argue that a bride price replaces a part of the sum of money used to train the girl. Many factors determine the cost of a bride price paid on a girl. For example, it is certain that the parents of a lady graduate will demand a higher price, than that demanded by the other parents whose daughter has got a West African School Certificate. There has never been a general fixed bride price in the country. Some pay more than others. Here the parents play a great part even in the areas where the bride prices are considerably elevated; the men do not pay the entire amount at once, because there is a proverb which says that “one never finishes the payment of bride price on one’s wife”. However, the payment of bride price presents many problems to young men and girls who agree to marry in Nigeria. For example, where a bride price is considerably high, a young man has to work for many years in order to save enough for his marriage. This has often led to late marriages. Sometimes a young man has to borrow money in order to pay the bride price demanded by the parents of the girl. This has led many to bankruptcy. Once the girl accepts the marriage offer, the man sends his parents or guardians to formally seek the permission of the girl's parents in marriage. The Hausa's do not have so many formalities, steps in seeking the girl's hand in marriages varies among different groups.

Hausa's are mostly from the northern part of Nigeria and most of them are Muslims, Their marriage is done based on Islam, which is less expensive and less time consuming. When a man sees the girls he wants to marry, he must first seek permission from her parents. The family of the future bride will then conduct investigation on the man to confirm his religious believes, moral ethics and other issues related to his background He is allowed the girl if meets their expectations. (Physical contacts, romance and courtship before marriage are highly discouraged.) Seeking for a girl’s hand in marriage varies, there other ethnic groups having different modes of introduction. Nevertheless, the most common methods are, groom’s parents visiting the girl’s family with betrothal gifts, i.e cola nuts. Candies, in some cases bags of salt, during the visit which is an occasion on its own, the grooms make their intensions known thereby introducing the boy, his back ground and the dowry is made through bargain staring from the minimum of what Hausa, call "RUBU DINAR"(ONE KILOGRAM OF GOLD PIECE) to the highest amount the man can afford. Due to the ethnicity in Hausa land, the cultural wedding events vary but the most commonly used by them are KAMU: This is one of the historical events, in the Hausa wedding which dates back to the origin of the Hausa people. This signifies the cleansing of bride with henna, mixed with some herbs; scents and flowers of plants are applied to her body covering most part of her body for some minutes, which is later washed away with some mixture of flowers water. Which smooth the skin and makes the bride look fresh and attractive, another mixture is used to make the bride unique because of its designs. Wedding fatiha is the most significant in Hausa marriage; it is conducted at the bride’s house, or mosque. Where family and friend of the both sides gather at the location to witness the wedding vows this is done by the representatives of the bride and groom presided over by an IMAM and witnessed by invited guests, prayers are offered to the newly wedded couple and celebrations continues. After the wedding fatiha, the bride is accompanied to her house by the groom’s family, her friends and family. Then much later the groom with his friends will also be with her friends for the complete part of the occasion.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS

i) What do you think will be the topic of this story apart from ‘BRIDE PRICE’? ii) Who used domestic animals and food stuffs as bride price? iii) What other means do some pay their price apart from the above? iv) What other variables are considered as criteria for a bride price today? v) What are the effects of high bride price and why do some does not pay it at once? vi) In two sentences one for each, summarize the theme of the author. vii) What is the first step to be taken when a man is going to seeks for a girl’s hand in marriage among the Hausas? viii) What action is taken by the bride’s parent when a man seeks for their daughter’s hand in marriage? ix) According to the passage, what is "RUBU DINAR" x) Who are the Hausas, according to the passage?

Source: Understanding Use of English for Schools and Colleges. By Baba Jimeta Usman and Abubakar Tukur Liman. 2015 (p.g. 98) Published by Adapoly Ventures Printing Press. Yola, Nigeria.

APPENDIX II

Rating Scale of Reading Proficiency and Comprehension

This questionnaire is designed for research purposes only. It intends to investigate Reading proficiency and comprehension: A Comparative case study of some selected departments in Adamawa state polytechnic, Yola. The first section is the respondent’s profile the second is a ‘rating scale for assessing reading proficiency and comprehension’.

Please, tick the right options Section A: Socio-Demographic data

1. Gender Male Female 2. Age: 16-19years 20-25 years 26years and above 3. Educational qualification: SSCE CERTIFICATE DIPLOMA 4. Course of study…………………………………………………………………- 5. Year of study………………2016 ………………………2017

SECTION B: APPENDIX III RATING SCALE FOR ASSESSING READING PROFICIENCY AND COMPREHENSION Research questions 1: What is the level of proficiency among the controlled and experimental group? Items The level of the students’ Excellent Very Good Fair Poor knowledge of lexis and Good structure. The level of students’ Excellent Very Good Fair Poor ability to manipulate both Good receptive and productive skills The level of mother tongue Excellent Very Good Fair Poor interference surfaces as Good their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning. Elements of appropriate Excellent Very Good Fair Poor reading strategies for Good comprehension by students Regression during reading Excellent Very Good Fair Poor by student. Good

Research question 2: What are the effects of reading proficiency on the comprehension of student in Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola? Items Discovering the theme of Excellent Very Good Fair Poor the author. Good Ability to Speed read and Excellent Very Good Fair Poor comprehend Good Give meaning to new words Excellent Very Good Fair Poor and expressions Good Readers’ ability to use their Excellent Very Good Fair Poor prior knowledge to make Good prediction about the text. Students’ ability to Excellent Very Good Fair Poo r summarize what has been Good read.

Research question 3: Establishment of reading proficiency on comprehension Items Ability to actively involved Excellent Very Good Fair Poor with the text and Good understand what has been read. Ability to interpret strange Excellent Very Good Fair Poor words Good Improvement of students’ Excellent Very Good Fair Poor comprehension through Good instruction of reading strategies. i.e. prediction, making connections, visualizing etc. Ability to activate their Excellent Very Good Fair Poor prior knowledge and Good connect the ideas in the text to their own experience Ability to give meaning of Excellent Very Good Fair Poor the underlined words as Good used in the passage

APPENDIX IV

Ability to activate Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Cumulative their prior Percentage knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience Very 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 good

APPENDIX V Pre-Test Analysis for Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) and Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) DELE DBAM s/n ITEM EXCL V.GD GD FAIR POO EXCL V.GD GD FAIR POO R R 1 The level of --- 1 17 34 5 --- 20 35 2 --- students’ knowledge of lexis and structure. 2 The level of --- 4 15 28 9 --- 1 20 31 5 students’ ability to manipulate both receptive and productive skills. 3 The level of --- 1 24 22 10 --- 18 26 13 --- mother tongue interferenc e surfaces as their grammatic al weaknesses interfere with meaning. 4 Elements of --- 2 15 31 9 --- 1 17 23 16 appropriat e reading strategies for comprehen sion by students. 5 Regression --- 2 25 17 13 --- 1 14 26 16 during reading by students. 6 Discovering --- 1 16 30 10 --- 2 16 30 9 the theme

of the author. 7 Ability to --- 1 17 28 11 ------18 24 15 speed read and comprehen d. 8 Give --- 2 10 30 15 --- 2 13 30 12 meaning to new words and expressions . 9 Reader’s --- 2 19 28 8 --- 1 16 28 12 ability to use their prior knowledge to make prediction about the text. 10 Students’ --- 1 15 34 7 --- 3 14 26 14 ability to summarize what has been read. 11 Ability to --- 17 29 10 1 --- 3 17 22 15 actively involved with the text and understand what has been read. 12 Ability to --- 16 34 7 ------2 19 26 10 interpret strange words. 13 Improveme --- 16 34 7 ------2 14 26 15 nt of students’ comprehen sion through instruction

of reading strategies ie connection, visualizing e t c. 14 Ability to --- 19 27 11 ------4 18 26 9 activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience. 15 Ability to --- 12 34 8 3 --- 4 20 23 10 give meaning to the underlined words as used in the passage.

APPENDIX VI Post-Test for Diploma in English Language Education (DELE) and Diploma in Business Administration and Management (DBAM) DELE DBAM S/n Item Exclln V.GD GD FAIR POOR Exclln V.GD GD FAIR POOR 1 The level of --- 8 27 21 1 1 22 25 9 --- students’ knowledge of lexis and structure. 2 The level of --- 18 27 12 ------24 29 4 --- students’ ability to manipulate both receptive and productive skills. 3 The level of --- 14 38 5 --- 5 20 23 9 --- mother tongue interference surfaces as their grammatical weaknesses interfere with meaning. 4 Elements of --- 16 38 8 --- 3 20 25 9 --- appropriate reading strategies for comprehension by students. 5 Regression --- 15 33 9 --- 3 19 26 9 --- during reading by students. 6 Discovering --- 18 33 6 --- 3 19 24 11 the theme of the author. 7 Ability to --- 12 35 10 --- 3 21 27 6 --- speed read and comprehend. 8 Give meaning 6 16 22 13 --- 6 16 22 13 --- to new words and expressions. 9 Reader’s --- 16 36 5 ------23 31 3 ---

ability to use their prior knowledge to make prediction about the text. 10 Students’ --- 11 32 13 1 3 14 27 10 1 ability to summarize what has been read. 11 Ability to --- 17 36 4 --- 2 19 26 10 --- actively involved with the text and understand what has been read. 12 Ability to --- 17 29 10 1 2 19 28 8 --- interpret strange words. 13 Improvement --- 16 34 7 ------18 33 6 --- of students’ comprehension through instruction of reading strategies ie connection, visualizing e t c. 14 Ability to --- 19 27 11 --- 2 15 30 10 --- activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas in the text to their own experience.

15 Ability to give --- 12 34 8 3 --- 14 25 8 --- meaning to the underlined words as used in the passage.