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Ministry Focus Paper Approval Sheet
This ministry focus paper entitled
A DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR THE SALVATION COLLEGE FOR OFFICER TRAINING
Written by
BRIAN M. SAUNDERS
and submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Ministry
has been accepted by the Faculty of Fuller Theological Seminary
upon the recommendation of the undersigned readers:
______Kurt Fredrickson
oDate Received: November 30, 2012
A DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR THE SALVATION ARMY COLLEGE FOR OFFICER TRAINING
A MINISTRY FOCUS PAPER SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY FULLER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF MINISTRY
BY
BRIAN M. SAUNDERS NOVEMBER 2012
ABSTRACT
A Distance Education Program for The Salvation Army College for Officer Training Brian M. Saunders Doctor of Ministry School of Theology, Fuller Theological Seminary 2012
The goal of this paper is to develop a distance education program for The Salvation Army’s USA Western Territory. The Salvation Army’s current clergy education program, a two-year residential college located in Southern California, is somewhat limited in that it excludes those who may not be able to relocate to Los Angeles. To address this deficiency, this project seeks to develop a new model of education, providing a flexible, non-residential training experience for Salvation Army officers. This paper contains three major sections. Part One will provide an overview of Salvation Army history, theology, and ministry, giving particular attention to changes and trends in recent decades which have given rise to increasing responsibilities for Salvation Army officers in an increasingly complex ministry. This section will also examine the Army’s clergy education program, including its limitations. Finally, this section will explore the opportunities offered by adding a distance learning component. Part Two will explore the theological and biblical foundations of clergy education as well as the opportunities for education beyond the classroom. Beginning with an examination of pertinent source material from Scripture, theology, and academia, this section will establish the need for, and opportunities of, a clergy education program that engages the student in multiple ways. This section will then review Salvation Army theology and ministry in relation to its education program and comparing it to those of other denominations. Finally, attention will be given to scriptural and historical foundations of clergy education as well as modern trends and opportunities. Part Three will present the project proposal itself, beginning with the implications and goals gleaned from the biblical, ecclesiastical, and historical studies. This section will detail the tasks to be performed in preparation for the program, outline needed resources and assessment tools, and set a timeline for implementation.
Theological Mentor: Kurt Fredrickson, PhD
Words: 297
To the cadets at the Salvation Army College for Officer Training: may God continue to reveal to them their pastoral identities and equip them for service and mission
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to my colleagues at the College for Officer Training for their invaluable contributions to this project. Their input and counsel have informed and shaped this paper, and have made possible the distance learning opportunity now available to The Salvation Army in the U.S.A.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
PART ONE: MINISTRY CONTEXT
Chapter 1. THE HISTORY, MINISTRY, AND STRUCTURE OF THE 8 SALVATION ARMY
Chapter 2. THE SALVATION ARMY’S TRAINING AND EDUCATION 45 PROGRAM
PART TWO: THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 3. LITERATURE REVIEW 70
Chapter 4. THE ECLESIOLOGY OF THE SALVATION ARMY 95
Chapter 5. THEOLOGY OF HOLISTIC EDUCATION FOR HOLISTIC 120 MINISTRY
PART THREE: MINISTRY STRATEGY
Chapter 6. MINISTRY GOALS AND STRATEGY 137
Chapter 7. IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS AND EVALUATION 161
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 172
APPENDIXES 178
BIBLIOGRAPHY 187
v INTRODUCTION
“Some men’s ambition is art. Some men’s ambition is fame. Some men’s ambition is gold. My ambition is the souls of men,” said William Booth, founder of The
Salvation Army, upon an audience with King Edward VII in June of 1904.1 Indeed, these simple words are a fair summary of Booth’s life and purpose. They also may be used to sum up the mission and ministry of the movement he founded. From its beginnings in the 1860s as a tiny mission in the slums of east London, to its modern, multi-faceted international ministry, The Salvation Army has been about salvation: saving souls and sharing God’s love.
The Salvation Army has come a long way since its early days of street preaching and soup kitchens. Back then, ministry was simple: stand on a street corner and preach.2
The mission was also basic: a cup of soup and a cot for the night. Now The Salvation
Army operates a dizzying array of social service programs and includes thousands of thriving congregations around the globe.3
Along with the advancement of ministry came the advancement of ministry education. At first, converts were simply handed a uniform and given a job. Eventually,
“training garrisons” were established, and candidates for ministry were given a rudimentary education in Bible study, preaching, and ministry. During the Army’s early
1 Cyril Barns, Words of William Booth (St. Albans, England: The Campfield Press, 1975), 72.
2 Robert Sandall, The History of The Salvation Army (New York: The Salvation Army, 1947), 53.
3 Jayne, Roberts, ed., The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2012 (London: Salvation Books, 2012), 29.
1 years, training lasted just a few weeks. Later it was expanded to three and then nine months.4
Over the next fourteen decades, Salvation Army officer education and training has been expanded, systematized, formalized, and professionalized.5 1n 1960, the training period was increased to two years.6 As the demands of ministry have grown, so have the expectations of education. While it differs slightly from country to country, in its modern form Salvation Army officer training generally consists of two years of full-time, formal education coupled with on-site apprenticeship.7 Although the methods and pedagogy have changed and evolved over the years, the basic premise of the Salvation Army training program has not. Upon graduation, the cadets are ordained as ministers and commissioned as “officers” in The Salvation Army. Then they are immediately assigned a posting as a “Corps Officer” (pastor) of a Salvation Army Corps (church).
The Salvation Army currently operates Training Colleges all around the world. In most countries there is only one college. Some countries share a college between them.
In the United States there are four colleges: one each in New York, Atlanta, Chicago, and the Los Angeles area (Rancho Palos Verdes). Candidates for Salvation Army officership therefore take up residence at the nearest Training College in order to participate in the training program.
4 Raymond Dexter, “Officer Training in The Salvation Army: An Institutional Analysis” (EdD diss., Stanford University, 1962), 16.
5 Ibid., 24.
6 Ibid., 16.
7 Ibid., 27.
2 This model has been accepted practice for many years, but it is not available or necessary in all cases. For some candidates, elderly parents or children with special needs restrict their ability to relocate. Others are already involved in vital Salvation Army ministries which would suffer with even the temporary loss of leadership. Still others have come to The Salvation Army from other denominations with advanced degrees and years of experience in ministry and have no need to go through the full two years of classes and training. As a result, many promising candidates are lost to this ministry.
According to Major John Brackenbury, Territorial Candidates Secretary for The
Salvation Army’s USA Western Territory, approximately eight potential officers are turned away each year due to circumstances similar to those described above.8
The Salvation Army in the western United States is in dire need of new officers.
According to recent data, over the past ten years, while the number of Army facilities in the Western Territory has increased 62 percent, the number of active officers has decreased by an average of 2.8 percent per year.9 This means that more officers are retiring or resigning than are graduating. In order to fill the posts that are vacated each year, the Training College needs to graduate a minimum of 32.2 new officers per year.
Over the past ten years the average has been 22.6 officers. This leaves the Army in a net personnel deficit. Without increasing the number of graduating officers, The Salvation
Army cannot grow and expand in the western United States.
8 John Brackenbury, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, May 2, 2012.
9 Figures determined using data from: Cheryl Brown, Director of Officer Records, The Salvation Army USA Western Territorial Headquarters, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, May 21, 2010; Duncan Sutton, 2011-2012 Fact Book: The Salvation Army College for Officer Training (Rancho Palos Verdes, CA: The Salvation Army, 20110), 11; and Trevor Howes, ed., The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2011 (London: Salvation Books, 2011), 286.
3 One avenue of increasing the number of graduating officers is to expand the training model beyond the campus. The Army can benefit from a non-residential training program that would enable candidates to complete the academic requirements of training while remaining in their local communities. It could also provide an avenue of training that could be tailored specifically to the needs of individual officer-candidates. This would enable a larger pool of candidates to fulfill the education and training requirements, resulting in an increased officer corps. This in turn will enable The
Salvation Army to continue to expand with new ministries and into new communities.
My personal interest in this topic began when I was assigned as the “Director of
Continuing Education” at The Salvation Army’s USA Western Territorial Headquarters ten years ago. My responsibilities included coordinating the Army’s mandated continuing education program for officers and advising Salvation Army personnel on education opportunities. I also provided oversight for a small leadership training facility in the Marshall Islands. This school was designed to provide a measure of education and training for Salvation Army ministry leaders in The Marshall Islands so they would not have to relocate to the United States for two years of training. Two years later, we were assigned to the island of Guam, where we also began working on a training program for ministry leaders in Micronesia. Four leaders later I was transferred again, this time to the
Army’s College for Officer Training in Rancho Palos Verdes, California, where I am currently the Assistant Training Principal (Dean of Students) and instructor. I have been intimately involved in clergy education for almost half of my career. Each of these experiences has impressed upon me the need to develop the Army’s clergy education program to include opportunities for those who cannot come to the College. There are
4 natural leaders in many parts of the world that only need minimal theological education.
Others do well in the ministry leadership positions they are already in, but need training in Salvation Army policy and procedures. I have become convinced that Salvation Army clergy education needs to be more about the learner than the program, and that the most basic education need is simply the candidate’s own spiritual development.
As an officer in The Salvation Army, I understand that my assignments and postings are dictated by the needs of the organization. As a minister, I have a deeper sense of God’s calling and will for my life. As a Christian, I trust that God places me where he needs me, and gives me a purpose and passion for doing His will. It is no coincidence that much of my career has been either in clergy education, or in places that need educated clergy. God has given me both a passion for and experience in shaping ministry leaders for the future. After two years in my present assignment at the College, I see ever more clearly the need for the Army to expand its education program and to move outside the boundaries of the campus in Rancho Palos Verdes.
This final project proposes and outlines a new clergy distance education program for The Salvation Army’s USA Western Territory. The program consists of correspondence and online classes as well as field experience. It is designed to be customized to meet the educational and experiential needs of individual officer- candidates. Most important, it is designed to allow the officer-candidate to remain in his or her local ministry context and not have to relocate to Southern California for the duration of the training experience. The project is intended as a viable proposal to be submitted to Army leadership as a recommendation for full development. If the program is developed to its fullest potential, The Salvation Army could see dozens of formerly
5 hesitant candidates step forward for ministry each year, thus increasing the officer ranks and enlarging the operations and ministry of the Army.
This final project includes three major sections. The first part provides an overview of the ministry context. It examines the history and structure of The Salvation
Army and explores its theology and ministry with particular attention given to the ever- increasing demands on officers and the implications for clergy education. It then focuses on the education and training program for Salvation Army officer-candidates, focusing on the Army’s USA Western Territory and its College for Officer’s Training at Crestmont in
Rancho Palos Verdes, California. Finally, this first section discusses the limitations of the training program and explores distance learning programs both outside and within The
Salvation Army.
Part Two reviews the theological and biblical foundations of clergy education.
Beginning with an examination of pertinent materials from Scripture, theology, and academia, this section discusses the need for clergy education that engages the student in multiple ways. This section also reviews Salvation Army theology, discussing the strengths and weaknesses of its belief structure as it relates to clergy education. Drawing on examples from other faith traditions as well as academia and Scripture, this section concludes with an ecclesiology for education for The Salvation Army.
The final section presents the project proposal itself. First, these chapters discuss the implications and goals gleaned from the biblical, ecclesiological, and historical studies. Those implications are then translated into overall goals for the project. Next, this section reviews the content of the proposed clergy education program in detail, including plans for delivery systems and outlines of specific courses. Finally, the logistics
6 of resources and personnel as well as a timeline for a pilot program are outlined with the goal of achieving full-scale implementation by the fall of 2014.
7
PART ONE
MINISTRY CONTEXT
CHAPTER 1
THE HISTORY, MINISTRY, AND STRUCTURE OF THE SALVATION ARMY
A study of The Salvation Army’s clergy education program rightfully starts with an examination of the Army itself. Thus, this paper begins with an introduction to The
Salvation Army’s history, mission, and ministry. First, this chapter examines the Army’s history and theology, revealing an organization that is deeply concerned with both spiritual and physical needs of the people it serves. Next, this chapter explores the
Army’s ministries and programs in order to demonstrate the wide variety of tasks and responsibilities that Salvation Army personnel are expected to handle. Finally, this chapter surveys some of the current trends in the Army’s organizational model in order to highlight the increasing complexity of a Salvation Army officer’s duties.
Introduction to The Salvation Army
At its core, The Salvation Army carries a dual purpose: evangelism and social service. It offers a holistic ministry – serving both spiritual and physical needs. In order to see how these two missions co-exist in the Army, it is essential to explore the early days of the Army, focusing on the influences and circumstances that forged this dual ministry.
9 Historical Development
This section reviews the origins and early years of The Salvation Army and its founders, William and Catherine Booth, and serves as a foundation to a later examination of the Army’s theology, polity, and clergy education program. In particular, this section details the personal histories and experiences of William and Catherine Booth, focusing on the influences and experiences that shaped the Army as it developed and made it into what it is today.
William Booth was born in Nottingham, England in 1829. His father, Samuel
Booth, was an entrepreneur, but apparently not a very successful one. In his writings later in life, Booth referred to his father as “a Grab, a Get. He had been born in poverty.
He determined to grow rich; and he did. He grew very rich, because he lived without
God.”1 Business ventures came and went; fortunes rose and fell. By the time Booth was in his early teens, the family was all but impoverished. At thirteen, he was removed from school and apprenticed as a pawnbroker’s assistant. Booth’s mother Mary ran a small household goods shop in an effort to help make ends meet. She was a melancholy figure, often brooding and sullen. Historian Roger Green writes, “William did not remember his mother as particularly helpful in his younger days either with his schoolwork or in matters pertaining to religion.”2 He did, however, recall her as patient and self- sacrificing: “I had a good mother,” he wrote in the Army’s All the World magazine in
1 Harold Begbie, The Life of General William Booth, Vol. 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920), 23.
2 Roger Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth: Founder of The Salvation Army (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005), 8.
10 1893.3 When he was fourteen, his father died, leaving Booth the primary breadwinner in his family of five.
Undoubtedly this uncertain upbringing affected Booth’s worldview and eventual theology. His family’s precarious financial position, as well as the paucity he witnessed at the pawnbroker’s shop brought him face to face with the realities of poverty and need.
Booth’s biographer, Harold Begbie, writes, “He grew to know that suffering and sorrow, deprivation and shame . . . drag their net in a wide sea of human misery.”4
Booth’s early religious experiences also played a role in his later theology and ministry. While not overly religious, Booth’s mother Mary insisted that he and his three sisters attend the local Anglican Church. Eventually, Booth was attracted to the
Methodists, and began attending the local Wesleyan chapel. At age fifteen he gave his heart to the Lord and immediately immersed himself in his faith. He and a friend held street meetings and invited converts to church. He attended revivals and was captivated by the fiery exhortations from the pulpit. By the time he was twenty, he was a licensed preacher with the Wesleyans. From that time on, his life’s ambition was nothing more or less than salvation for the people. Another Booth historian, Norman Murdoch, writes,
“Booth was consumed with the idea of winning souls though mass meetings, house-to- house visitation, and personal witness.”5
Two years later Booth moved to London to find work, eventually giving up the pawnbroker’s trade altogether and finding a role as a full-time preacher at a Wesleyan
3 William Booth, “My Mother,” All the World Magazine, August 1893, 1.
4 Begbie, The Life of General William Booth, 41.
5 Norman Murdock, Origins of The Salvation Army (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1994), 9.
11 chapel in Walworth. Speaking one day at another Wesleyan church, William apparently impressed a certain young lady enough that she asked to meet him. Her name was
Catherine Mumford.
Catherine Mumford was born in Ashbourne, England in 1829 – the same year as her future husband, William Booth. John Mumford, Catherine’s father, was a lay preacher and an “avowed total abstainer,” writes Green.6 Over the course of Mumford’s early life, however, her father became increasingly antagonistic toward religion, eventually giving up his voluntary ministry and falling into alcoholism. Of her father, the eighteen-year-old Mumford wrote in her diary, “I sometimes get into an agony of feeling while praying for my dear father. O my Lord, answer prayer and bring him back to
Thyself!”7 Mumford’s mother was “an intensely religious woman,” committed to temperance.8 She educated her two children at home for fear they would be corrupted by outside influences. Mumford herself was a sickly child and spent much of her childhood years indoors. She was an avid reader, devouring Scripture, theology, and history. She followed her mother’s teachings closely, including becoming the secretary of a youth temperance movement at age twelve.
When Mumford was fifteen, the family moved to London, where mother and daughter immediately became active in the local Wesleyan church. She was “well and
6 Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 38.
7 Roger Green, Catherine Booth: A Biography of the Cofounder of The Salvation Army (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1996), 21.
8 Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 39.
12 savingly converted” when she was sixteen.9 Her involvement and activities in the church continued to increase as her convictions grew: temperance, holiness, and the right of women to preach. Eight years later, at age twenty-two, she met and fell in love with a tall, fiery young preacher, William Booth.
William and Catherine’s early experiences and influences can clearly be seen in the workings of The Salvation Army. William’s passion for revival and evangelism, as well as his understanding of poverty and need, resulted in the Army’s dual mission of spiritual and social salvation. Catherine’s knowledge of Scripture and theology has carried over into the Army’s doctrines, and her deep convictions regarding the negative effects of alcoholism has influenced the Army’s drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs.
William and Catherine were married in 1855. Together they explored numerous ministry opportunities, finally settling on leading a Methodist New Connexion10 congregation. Interestingly, on several occasions when William was taken ill, Catherine stepped in to deliver the sermon, which was a very uncommon occurrence in that day.
William found ministry in a single church constricting. He was an evangelist at heart, and longed for the revivals of his earlier ministry. Green reports, “He felt stifled by the local pastorate, and wanted an appointment that would allow him to be an itinerant evangelist.”11 In 1861 he resigned, and the Booths, with their four children, moved into
Catherine’s parents’ house in London. From this base they took on numerous extended
9 W. T. Stead, Mrs. Booth of The Salvation Army (London: James Nisbet and Co., 1900), 168.
10 The spelling of the name “Methodist New Connexion” is correct as it is a proper name as used in Victorian English in 1855.
11 Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 83.
13 revival campaigns around the south of England, usually together, but sometimes separately. In 1865, with four of their eventual eight children, they moved into their own house in London. William’s campaigns increasingly took him into the slums of East
London, while Catherine preached more on the more affluent West End. In July of that year, William commenced an evangelistic campaign that would set the course of their future ministry.
Later that same year, William accepted an invitation from a group called the “East
London Special Services Committee.” They erected a tent in a burial ground in the working-class neighborhood of Whitechapel, one of the most deprived and depraved parts of the city. Green writes, “The climate bred prostitution, drunkenness and crimes of all measure and description.”12 This is exactly where William felt God had called him.
Another Booth historian, George Scott Railton, writes that Booth had said, “When I saw those masses of poor people, so many of them evidently without God or hope in the world . . . I walked back to our West End home and said to my wife, ‘O Kate, I have found my destiny.’”13
William and the Special Services Committee began holding revival meetings indoors and out, renting premises when possible, but found that they attracted most converts on the streets. Green writes, “The preaching was done more in open air services than indoor after the fashion of John Wesley for the practical reason that those services
12 Green, Catherine Booth, 154.
13 George Scott Railton, The Authoritative Life of General William Booth, Founder of The Salvation Army (New York: Reliance Trading Company, 1912), 56.
14 were more attractive to people who would not darken the door of church or chapel.”14
They labored in the most destitute parts of the city, seeing as their mission the conversion of the masses and their calling to the poor and marginalized. At first the plan was simple: get people saved and send them to the churches. However, they soon discovered this would not work. Historian Robert Sandall quotes Booth as saying, “First, they would not go when sent. Second, they were not wanted. Third, we wanted some of them at least ourselves to help us in the business of saving others.”15
The ministry continued to grow, and as it did it went through several name changes. By 1868, it was “The Christian Mission,” with thirteen “preaching stations” spread across London.16 No longer did Booth seek to send converts to other churches; they were needed for the growing ministry. While there were no formal social work programs, mission leaders recognized the opportunity to meet the very evident needs in their communities. The April 1870 edition of The Christian Mission Magazine records,
“While the chief object and aim of the Christian Mission is to bring sinners to Jesus, we feel it a duty and a privilege to minister to the bodily wants of the necessitous.”17
As William’s ministry was growing, so was Catherine’s. While fully involved in her husband’s affairs, and while looking after their now eight children, Catherine continued to be a popular speaker, especially on the wealthier west side of London. Her
14 Roger Green, War on Two Fronts: The Redemptive Theology of William Booth (Atlanta: The Salvation Army Supplies, 1989), 18.
15 Sandall, The History of The Salvation Army, 66.
16 Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 110.
17 Jane Short, The Christian Mission Magazine, April 1870, quoted in Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 111.
15 reputation grew, as did her convictions. In 1859 she published a pamphlet titled, Female
Teaching, which was renamed and republished in 1870 as Women’s Right to Preach the
Gospel. She asked, “Why should a woman be confined exclusively to the kitchen or the distaff, any more than a man to the field and workshop?”18
In 1878 the movement’s name changed yet again, this time for good. Sometime in May, William and his son Bramwell, who was by now William’s assistant, were debating the phrase, “The Christian Mission is a voluntary army” for an article in the
Mission’s magazine. At some point, the word “salvation” was substituted for
“voluntary.” The phrase became popular, and within months came into general use. By
October 1878 all references to “Christian Mission” had disappeared, to be replaced by
“Salvation Army.” The motif caught on quickly. Booth, as the leader, was already being called “General Superintendent” in the Methodist fashion. Now, it became simply
“General.” Uniforms followed, and terminology developed along military lines.
Churches became “corps,” members were “soldiers,” and ministry leaders were given ranks as “officers.” “The Salvation Army” was born.
The military motif agreed with Booth and followers. Booth was at his best when he was in charge, and he adapted quickly to being the General. The Army grew quickly.
Within a year of the name change the number of “preaching stations” (now called
“corps”) rose from twenty-nine to eighty-one. Full-time evangelists, now “officers,” increased from thirty-one to 127. An average of 27,280 people attended the various
18 Catherine Booth, Woman’s Right to Preach the Gospel (New York: Salvation Army Supplies Printing and Publishing Department, 1975; originally published in 1859), 5.
16 Salvation Army Sunday services weekly.19 Booth soon set his sights overseas. In 1880, the Army “opened fire” in the United States and Australia.20 Other nations quickly followed and the Army spread around the world.
At the same time, the social ministries for which The Salvation Army has become so famous began to emerge. For years, Booth had remained committed to a single mission for his Army: getting people saved. Although the Army’s ministry was almost exclusively aimed at the poor and working class, he had no real plans to offer social services. He wrote, “We are a salvation people — this is our specialty — getting saved, and keeping saved, and then getting somebody else saved.”21 In the Army’s literature of the day there is almost no reference to relief work of any kind. However, without
Booth’s express knowledge, social services were indeed commencing. Officers and soldiers took it upon themselves to minister to the physical needs of their congregations as well as the spiritual. In Melbourne, Australia, a half-way home for released prisoners was opened in 1883. In 1884 a rescue home for prostitutes was opened in Whitechapel,
London. Programs for alcoholics, day care centers for factory workers, homeless shelters, and feeding stations cropped up in London and around the world.
In 1890, Booth finally formalized the Army’s social work ministry by establishing the Social Reform Wing. Booth himself quickly caught up with his subordinates, embracing this new mission, and finding theological support for it. The Army was not to be about spiritual redemption only, but social redemption as well. Green explains, “In his
19 Roy Hattersley, Blood and Fire (London: Little Brown and Company, 1999), 239.
20 Roberts, The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2012, 16.
21 William Booth, “Our New Name,” The Salvationist, January 1879, 1-3.
17 later theology of redemption, salvation was not only individual, personal and spiritual.
Salvation was also social and physical.”22 In the January 1889 edition of the All the
World magazine, Booth wrote,
I saw poor women and children compelled to live in hovels of the most wretched squalor and filth, from which light and air were all but excluded. I saw the people dying prematurely of disease from the want of food and attention. I knew that thousands of young women were being sacrificed to the gratification of the lusts of men who bought and sold them, body and soul, for the most paltry prices.23
Booth had been working in these conditions for years. He was determined to help these people but convinced that the best help he could offer was spiritual. Now he saw that God offered physical salvation as well. In an 1890 article he wrote, “Now I shouted,
‘I have found the remedy indeed.’ Now I saw that this was the work that Jesus had come to accomplish — that he was manifested to dispossess all these fiends of evil for the souls of men, to destroy the work of the devil in the present time, and to set up in the soul the kingdom of heaven instead.”24 Years of living alongside the working poor, as well as his own impoverished upbringing, had instilled within him a deep understanding of poverty as well as a desire to alleviate it. Booth committed his Army to this new, second mission:
But with this discovery, there also came another, which has been growing and growing in clearness and intensity from that hour to this; which was that I had two gospels of deliverance to preach – one for each world, or rather, one gospel which applied alike to both. I saw that when the Bible said, “He that believeth shall be saved,” it meant not only saved from the miseries of the future world, but from the miseries of this also.”25
22 Green, War on Two Fronts, 86.
23 William Booth, “Salvation for Both Worlds,” All the World Magazine, January 1890, 2.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
18 In 1891, Booth published his seminal work on social ministry. In Darkest
England and the Way Out put forth not only the theology behind relief work, but also a plan of action. Booth presented what he called the “Cab Horse Charter,” contending that if society could feed and house the lowly working horse, it was obligated to do at least the same for men and women. “Our horses,” he wrote, “are better treated than our laborers.”26 He documented the numbers of what he called the “submerged tenth” — those living beneath the poverty line — and set out an entire system for helping them escape poverty and despair. All the while, he reminded his officers that, while this “war on two fronts” continued, the primary objective was always spiritual salvation:
But while you strive to deliver them from their temporal distresses, and endeavor to rescue them from the causes that have led to their unfortunate condition, you must seek, above all, to turn their miseries to good account by making them help the salvation of their souls and their deliverance from the wrath to come. It will be a very small reward for all your toils if, after bringing them into condition of well-being here, they perish hereafter.27
The Salvation Army thus became a church with a dual ministry: spiritual redemption and social relief. Perhaps it is better stated as being a church with a holistic view of ministry: to serve the whole person—body, mind, and soul. As a church, it seeks the salvation of souls and the discipleship of believers. As a social services agency, it seeks to improve the lot of the hopeless and helpless, wherever they are found.
Catherine Booth died in 1891. Her death devastated William, but he pressed on.
The Army continued to develop and grow. Articles of Faith were adopted, and the
26 William Booth, In Darkest England and the Way Out (London: Funk and Wagnalls, 1890), 282.
27 William Booth, “To My Officers: A Letter from the General on his Eightieth Birthday,” as quoted in Green, War on Two Fronts, 95.
19 organization formally recognized and registered with the government by Deed Poll.28
Booth’s popularity increased. He traveled the world, seeing his Army “open fire” farther and farther afield. He exhorted his officers to live lives of modesty and temperance and holiness and above all, to rescue the sinner. William died in 1912, leaving a worldwide
Army spanning fifty countries. One of his last public addresses was in London’s Royal
Albert Hall: “While women weep, as they do now, I'll fight; while little children go hungry, as they do now, I'll fight; while men go to prison, in and out, in and out, as they do now, I'll fight; while there is a drunkard left, while there is a poor lost girl upon the streets, while there remains one dark soul without the light of God, I'll fight—I'll fight to the very end!”29
To his final days, Booth was committed to the dual ministry of The Salvation
Army. His dedication to this double-sided mission can still be seen in the Army of today.
The modern-day Salvation Army was established through the early influences and experiences of William and Catherine Booth. The Army’s network of drug and alcohol abuse treatment centers can be traced back to Catherine’s first-hand experience with the negative effects of alcoholism. The Army’s dedication to the poor and marginalized of society undoubtedly began with William’s early life in a struggling family and his work as a pawnbroker’s assistant. The Army’s focus on evangelism and holiness wells from
William’s conversion in a Wesleyan chapel and his appreciation for the revival methods of his day.
28 Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 118.
29 J. Evan Smith, Booth the Beloved (London, Oxford University Press, 1949), 123-24.
20 Mission and Ministry
In addition to its historical development, an examination of The Salvation Army’s programs, theology, and structure is helpful in this discussion of its clergy education program. Current trends and recent changes in Army policy and procedures are also instructive. Salvation Army officers handle a multitude of tasks and responsibilities. The following section explores the Army of today, beginning with a broad picture of
Salvationist ministry and focusing down to the specifics that affect the daily life of an
Army officer.
The Salvation Army is now at work in 124 countries around the world.30 Its mission continues to be the same as it was in William Booth’s day, although the methods and means have evolved and progressed over the decades. The Army’s operational plan has always been to enter a community, ascertain the local needs, and seek to address them, while at the same time offering the spiritual support of a church body. This has resulted in a myriad of programs and institutions as varied as the communities in which they are located. In the Caribbean the Army operates schools for children who are blind and factories where adults without sight can find employment. In the African nations, the
Army runs hospitals and clinics, including some specifically designed for HIV patients.
In Chile and other countries in South America, there are Salvation Army elementary and high schools. In North America the Army is most known for its homeless shelters and drug and alcohol addiction treatment programs. The Salvation Army continues to offer the basics: shelter, food, and clothing, but also runs many highly specialized and targeted
30 Roberts, The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2012, 27.
21 programs. Current international statistical data demonstrates the array of Salvation Army programming and ministries (see table 1).
Table 1. International Statistics, 2011
“Corps” (churches) 15,765 Residential (shelters, hostels, orphanages, elderly homes, homes for disabled, maternity homes, 1,636 street children shelters, etc.) Day Care (general child care, elderly, handicapped, 1,579 street youth, etc.) Addiction Dependency / Recovery Institutions 315 Hospitals (general, maternity, HIV, specialist, clinics, 310 mobile units, etc.) Education Institutions (primary, secondary, high, college, vocational, blind, disabled) 2,888 Mobile Disaster Services Units 2.363 Community Youth Programs 2,760 Summer Camps 228 Thrift Stores 1,123 Officers (ordained ministers) 17,070 Employees 109,518 Members 1,698,073
Source: Jayne, Roberts, ed., The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2012 (London: Salvation Books, 2012), 29-30.
The “corps,” or church congregation, is the basic unit of Salvation Army operations. Other ministries and programs in communities are usually commenced through the local corps. While the Army has embraced its dual mission of evangelism and service, it continues to base its operations around its churches.
The Army runs shelters of many descriptions around the world. The most basic is the simple overnight emergency shelter, where those without homes or those in crisis can find a place to sleep. Other shelters cater to specific target populations: single mothers with children, homeless children, or long-term shelter care.
22 Residential programs also make up a significant portion of Salvation Army operations. As noted above, in the United States, the Army runs numerous drug and alcohol treatment programs which usually involve residential treatment lasting six months or longer. In some communities, the Army operates safe-haven shelters for battered women, offering a secure environment for women and children experiencing family crises or abuse. Orphanages, boarding schools, and residences for handicapped children and adults are also operated in various parts of the world.
In many communities, The Salvation Army operates thrift stores. These shops serve several purposes. They provide a modest income for the Army in the local community and offer goods at low cost, benefitting those on tight budgets. The stores are often part of the local drug and alcohol treatment program, offering work therapy or employment to individuals involved in or having graduated from the program.
In addition, the Army coordinates dozens of community development projects each year, from micro-loans in the Democratic Republic of Congo to clean water initiatives in India.31 In recent years, The Salvation Army’s emergency disaster relief teams have provided physical, emotional, and spiritual support in man-made and natural disasters big and small: from the 9/11 attacks in New York to the earthquake in Haiti, to the 2004 tsunami in Japan, or a house fire in Los Angeles. The Army runs Bible studies in prisons, worship services in nursing homes, and even a little-known missing persons bureau. In 2011, it is estimated that The Salvation Army assisted a total of 10,705,882 people around the world.32
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
23 The Salvation Army is more than statistics. It is people dedicated to the needs of others regardless of race, nationality, religion, or resources. Robert Street, zonal
Commissioner for the Americas and Caribbean, states, “The Army was not brought into existence for the benefit of its own members. It exists to embrace, help and serve others.”33 The Army’s official international mission statement declares, “The Salvation
Army, an international movement, is an evangelical part of the universal Christian
Church. Its message is based on the Bible. Its ministry is motivated by the love of God.
Its mission is to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ and to meet human needs in his name without discrimination.”34 The principles found within the statement are instructive in explaining the mission and ministry of today’s Salvation Army. First, it calls itself a
“movement,” as opposed to a denomination. This is significant in that leadership has sought to promote the Army as more than a church, more than a collection of congregations. While it includes traditional congregations, most of which carry on activities identical to those of other churches, it conveys a different connotation by not declaring itself simply a church. It is, however, careful to include itself in the universal
Christian Church. The Army is evangelical in nature, promoting salvation, holiness, and love for one’s neighbor. The statement clearly identifies the Army’s foundation in
Scripture as well as the basis for its existence: God’s directive to spread the Good News of Jesus Christ. Its primary mission is to evangelize: to preach the Gospel. The final phrase demonstrates the importance that Salvationists put on social ministry: “to meet human need in his name.” This “dual ministry,” as noted above, is at the heart of what
33 Ibid., 3.
34 Ibid., i.
24 the Salvation Army is. Like wings on a bird, the two missions work in tandem, and one is not productive without the other. Social services are offered as a means to satisfy physical needs. Congregations provide spiritual support for Christians and non-
Christians alike. Worship, service, and holiness are all part of the same package.
The “corps” is the central expression of Salvation Army ministry. It is a church with a congregation. It conducts worship services, Bible studies, small groups, and all the other programs and activities of a church. Like most churches, Salvation Army corps in the United States participate in missions, and usually have some sort of pantry or clothing closet to assist those who stop by seeking assistance. Most corps also have some form of social program attached. Many offer a full Social Services Office, providing food, clothing, and rent and utilities assistance, among other services. Others operate food banks, shelters, or job placement services. While many of these programs are not run directly by the local corps, every effort is made to offer a spiritual element whenever possible.
Over the years, a number of slogans have been used to describe the Army:
“Christianity with its sleeves rolled up”; “heart to God, hand to man”; “sharing is caring”;
“soup, soap and salvation”; and, running currently in the United States, “Doing the most good.”35 Perhaps one of the best summations of the Army’s mission and ministry is credited to John Gowans, the Army’s General and international leader from 1999 to
2002. Gowans stated that The Salvation Army exists to “save souls, grow saints, and
35 Bob Doctor, “Slogans and Phrases,” New Frontier, vol. 25, no. 2 (December 11, 2007), http://www.usw.salvationarmy.org/usw/www_newfrontierpub.nsf/15814db8a702449f88256e3f007b7ddd/a 3740c00fc470c7c882573e00071e041?OpenDocument (accessed June 19, 2012).
25 serve suffering humanity.”36 The current international leader, General Linda Bond, looks to the future: “I see a God-raised, Spirit-filled Army of the 21st Century, convinced of its calling, moving forward together into the world of the hurting, broken, lonely, dispossessed and lost, reaching them in love by all means with the transforming message of Jesus, bringing freedom, hope and life.”37 General Bond’s comments are indicative of
The Army of yesterday, today, and tomorrow. The Army continues to expand its holistic mission: identifying needs and finding ways to help—be it physical or spiritual.
The programs and ministries of The Salvation Army have evolved and developed since Booth’s days. Ministry has expanded exponentially over the decades, increasing both in scope and size. It is evident, therefore that careful consideration must be given to
Salvationist clergy education. While individual Salvation Army officers are not responsible for the entire scope of operations, they need a working knowledge of many different kinds of programs and ministries. Education must correspond to mission.
Theology and Beliefs
The Salvation Army’s theology developed alongside its history and mission.
While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide an exhaustive examination of
Salvation Army beliefs, it is important to provide an overview of its doctrinal statements, as they are directly related to clergy education. The Army’s penchant for service to humanity comes directly from its dedication for service to God. Its ministry is based on its theology, and its social programs are seen as the natural result of Christ’s command to
36 John Gowans, “Save Souls, Grow Saints, Serve Suffering Humanity,” Ringwood Corps website, http://salvos.org.au/ringwood/podcasts/save-souls-grow-saints-and-serve-suffering-humanity-3-december- 1999/ (accessed June 17, 2012).
37 Ibid., 1.
26 “love your neighbor” (Matthew 19:19).38 The main tenets of Salvation Army that apply most directly to its ministry and therefore its clergy education will be discussed in Part
Two of this paper; however, it is appropriate to provide an overview at this point.
The Salvation Army is firmly within the Wesleyan-Arminianism tradition.
Founded by a former Methodist minister, it is no surprise that its doctrines reflect that heritage. The Army’s eleven Articles of Faith can be traced easily back through the doctrines of The Methodist New Connexion in which Booth got his start, to John
Wesley’s teachings a century before. Booth listed seven doctrines for the Christian
Mission in 1870. In 1870 three more were added, and an eleventh in 1876. Since then, the doctrines have remained as follows:
1. We believe that the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments were given by inspiration of God, and that they only constitute the Divine rule of Christian faith and practice. 2. We believe that there is only one God, who is infinitely perfect, the Creator, Preserver, and Governor of all things, and who is the only proper object of religious worship. 3. We believe that there are three persons in the Godhead-the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, undivided in essence and co-equal in power and glory. 4. We believe that in the person of Jesus Christ the Divine and human natures are united, so that He is truly and properly God and truly and properly man. 5. We believe that our first parents were created in a state of innocency, but by their disobedience they lost their purity and happiness, and that in consequence of their fall all men have become sinners, totally depraved, and as such are justly exposed to the wrath of God. 6. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ has by His suffering and death made an atonement for the whole world so that whosoever will may be saved. 7. We believe that repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, and regeneration by the Holy Spirit, are necessary to salvation. 8. We believe that we are justified by grace through faith in our Lord Jesus Christ and that he that believeth hath the witness in himself.
38 All Scripture is quoted from the New International Version, unless otherwise noted.
27 9. We believe that continuance in a state of salvation depends upon continued obedient faith in Christ. 10. We believe that it is the privilege of all believers to be wholly sanctified, and that their whole spirit and soul and body may be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. 11. We believe in the immortality of the soul; in the resurrection of the body; in the general judgment at the end of the world; in the eternal happiness of the righteous; and in the endless punishment of the wicked.39
The first doctrine states that the Bible is the foundational text for “Christian faith and practice.” The Salvation Army believes the Bible is the inspired Word of God. The next three doctrines examine the triune God: eternal, sovereign and co-equal. Doctrine number five addresses the issue of original sin, describing the fallen nature of humanity.
The sixth doctrine addresses atonement, and offers the remedy to our depravity in the person and sacrifice of Christ. Doctrines numbers seven, eight and nine trace the process and expectations of salvation: repentance, regeneration and continued faith. The tenth doctrine is the Army’s holiness statement, contending that God calls all believers into a sanctified life. The final doctrine is the Army’s statement of eschatology: eternal life beyond the grave and judgment for all of humanity.
The Salvation Army holds to the beliefs that the human race is fallen and that sinners, of their own efforts, cannot make themselves worthy of salvation. It contends that God’s grace is prevenient and that atonement is unlimited and available to all through the sacrifice of Christ. Sinners are saved and justified by God’s grace, through their faith, and must come to salvation through repentance and acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and savior. Believers who continue to live within their faith and hold to the precepts of Scripture are assured of their eternal salvation, and every Christian is called
39 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine (London: Salvation Books, 2010), xv.
28 on to live a holy life, pleasing to God. As noted above, a more thorough examination of pertinent Salvation Army theological tenants will be provided in Part Two.
Organization and Structure of The Salvation Army
Peter Drucker, one of the nation’s foremost authorities on leadership and management, once called The Salvation Army “the most effective organization in
America.”40 Drucker saw in the Army a lean bureaucracy and a focused mission—the kinds of principles he saw at work at some of the best-run companies in the country. The means of that efficiency and focus are a combination of its military structure and faith- based motivation. When the Christian Mission took on its new identity as The Salvation
Army, a quasi-military structure was formed. While the organization and its structure have grown more complicated and professional, the concept is still the same: one leader, one vision, one mission.
Military Structure
The military structure continues to be a hallmark of the Army today. Clergy are referred to as “officers,” and members are “soldiers.” The uniform, although it has evolved over the last 150 years and is adapted in different climates around the world, is an integral part of the Army’s identity. The Army’s national publication in the United
States is called The War Cry, and Salvationists do not “pass away”; rather, they are
40 Robert Watson, The Most Effective Organization in the U.S.: Leadership Secrets of The Salvation Army (New York: Crown Business, 2001), 2.
29 The Salvation Army is headquartered in London. It has a single international leader holding the rank of General. The General is elected by a council of senior officers and usually holds office for five years. International Headquarters is responsible for the worldwide operations of The Salvation Army. The Salvation Army divides the world into geographic “zones:” Europe, South Asia, South Pacific and East Asia, Africa, and the Americas and Caribbean. Each of these zones is divided into geographic “territories,” overseen by a Territorial Commander. Some territories include several countries, others a single country. Some larger or more populous countries are split into two or more territories. The Americas and Caribbean zone, for instance, contains the territories of
Brazil, Canada and Bermuda, the Caribbean, Latin America North, Mexico, South
America East, South America West, USA Central, USA Eastern, USA Southern, and
USA Western. Each territory is further divided into “divisions,” again, each with its own
“Divisional Commander.” In The USA West territory, there are ten divisions: Alaska,
Hawaiian and Pacific Islands, Northwest, Cascade (Oregon and Idaho), Golden State
(northern California), Del Oro (central California) Southern California, Sierra Del Mar
(San Diego and southeastern California), Intermountain (Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada), and Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico). Territorial headquarters for the USA Western
Territory is in Long Beach, California, and the divisional headquarters are located in cities within each division.
The Salvation Army’s USA Western Territory is comprised of the thirteen western states, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, and Guam. There are 630 active
30 officers and 8,575 employees running 262 Corps and 259 institutions.41 It is the largest geographic territory in the world, encompassing eleven time zones stretching from
Colorado to Guam. Its annual budget is in excess of $800 million.42
The divisional headquarters (hereafter, DHQs) oversee all Army operations within that geographic division. Corps, social service programs, fund-raising, public relations, and other programs are all coordinated through DHQ. Each Salvation Army institution or facility (unit) is responsible for its own funding, although DHQs coordinate larger fundraising and public relations efforts.
Salvation Army programs are managed locally, but policies and procedures are coordinated through divisional or territorial headquarters. If a local corps wants to open a shelter or start an after-school program, it seeks approval through Divisional
Headquarters. If a division wants to start Army operations in a new city, it applies to
Territorial Headquarters. Public relations, employee policies, financial records, and program standards are coordinated through headquarters. This ensures that programs, facilities, and finances are operated according to the same standard, with the Army’s overall mission carried through all operations.
One of the hallmarks of Salvation Army structure and ecclesiology is the ordination of women.43 In the case of married couples, this means that both the husband and the wife can be ordained ministers. In fact, in most territories, it is required that if an officer chooses to get married, he or she must marry another officer. This has
41 Roberts, The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2012, 286.
42 David Hudson, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, May 1, 2012.
43 Alan Satterlee, Turning Points: How The Salvation Army Found a Different Path (Alexandria, VA: Crest Books, 2004), 5.
31 implications for education as well as postings in that officer couples must be assigned together.
The Salvation Army’s procedure for posting its officers is also somewhat unique.
Similar to that of the United States military, The Salvation Army assigns its officers to posts (“appointments”) according to the needs of the organization. Local congregations have little input into who their pastor (“Corps Officer”) is going to be. Appointments can last anywhere from one to fifteen years, but generally average three to four years. Officer transfers occur each year on a single day—all officers being re-assigned relocate to their new appointments on the same day. Since the “quarters,” furnishings, and cars all belong to The Salvation Army, the departing officer simply leaves in the morning, and the incoming officer arrives that evening.
The military structure of The Salvation Army offers a number of advantages.
“The Salvation Army’s clear chain of command is one of its strengths,” says Alan
Satterlee in Turning Points: How The Salvation Army Found a Different Path. Satterlee writes, “It is easily understood at the corps level and at headquarters. [It] is also helpful in providing clarity of purpose and direction, as the individual in the Army benefits from the wider experience of many rather than relying on his or her own limited knowledge.”44
The command hierarchy means there is less bureaucracy; less bureaucracy means decisions can be made more quickly. Proposals go up the command chain, decisions can be made, and the proposal acted upon. The command structure means there are only four levels of leadership: Corps Officer, Divisional Commander, Territorial Commander, and
General. The “lowest” rung on the ladder is only three steps removed from the highest.
44 Ibid., 21.
32 The structure also allows for autocratic leadership. While committees and councils may work by vote or consensus, the “Commander” at each level—corps, division, territory, and international—has full authority and responsibility. A corps officer does not have to seek approval for normal local operations; he or she has authority to take appropriate action as long as it adheres to the written policies and procedures.
Local corps have “corps councils” and “advisory boards,” but these are advisory in nature and do not carry authority. The local corps officer is granted a considerable amount of power and responsibility. This has significant implications for the Army’s education program in that officers must be trained in leadership and management skills in addition to pastoral and clerical responsibilities.
Current Trends in Salvation Army Policy and Structure
Like most modern organizations, The Salvation Army continues to grow and evolve. Procedures are revised, policies are updated, and new regulations are written on an on-going basis. This section examines some of the current trends and developments in the Army that have direct implications for its education program.
Increasing Professionalized and Bureaucratic Structure
As the world grows more complex, so does The Salvation Army. As the Army strives for efficiency and expertise in its many avenues of ministry, details matter more and more. In a way, The Salvation Army is a victim of its own success. The autocratic, military-style structure remains in place and is certainly beneficial, but it is by no means simple or without bureaucracy altogether. At each level, there are numerous boards and councils. While each “commander” has final authority, most policy or program decisions
33 are brought before a committee. The manuals for policies and procedures grow exponentially each year. The official “Policy and Procedures” Manual for the USA
Western Territory contains 675 sections totaling 2,253 pages, and contains guidelines for everything from procedures for building multi-million dollar community centers to how much an officer can spend on a cell phone.45
With over 28,900 institutions and facilities worldwide, The Salvation Army is much more complicated than it was in the days of William Booth.46 Programs are no longer simple or basic. In the 1870s, a shelter may have been simply a dorm with thin mattresses on narrow frames. Now many Army shelters include an array of services and programs ranging anywhere from computer literacy classes to cooking schools.47 The
Army’s drug addiction and alcoholic treatment programs are run by highly trained and licensed professionals. Social workers have master’s degrees. Finance departments are run by persons holding MBAs. Schools, hospitals, and counseling services all rely on professionals and experts.
While this progress is both good and necessary, it does create some tension.
Salvation Army officers are becoming less and less connected to Army programs. Rather than being overseen by officers, many Army programs are managed by employees.
These employees are professionals and experts in their fields, but there is a potential disconnect with the central tenets of the Army itself. As an equal opportunity employer,
The Salvation Army cannot restrict its hiring practices to Christians or Salvationists, nor
45 Don McDougald, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, May 28, 2012.
46 Roberts, The Salvation Army Yearbook: 2012, 29-30.
47 Ibid.
34 would it want to do so. It needs expertise and education found beyond the Church.
However, without the ordained ministers in close proximity or providing oversight, programs are in danger of losing their connection with the spiritual motivation behind the endeavor. “Heart to God; Hand to Man” is not just a slogan. It is meant to describe the purpose and principle behind each instance of social assistance. Social services are what the Army does as a result of its members’ relationships with God. As noted above, helping the marginalized in society is a response to the Greatest Commandment, to “love your neighbor as yourself.” (Matthew 19:19). When programs are managed by the ordained officers, or even by Corps volunteers, there is a greater opportunity to connect these two “wings” of the Army’s mission. When that Christian presence is absent, the program, while still valid and purposeful, has lost something of the Army’s intent.
The Army is becoming more complicated, more complex, and more professional.
It therefore needs people with training, expertise, and education to run the highly specialized and focused programs of today. The implications for the Army’s clergy education program are clear: officers must be training in management and leadership.
They must be knowledgeable in fields far beyond traditional ministry, and must be able to balance the clinical and professional expertise with pastoral care and spiritual support.
Diversification of Ministries and Congregations
The Salvation Army’s USA Western Territory is typical of many Army commands. As it plants churches and sets up social services in diverse communities and cultures across the western States and throughout the Pacific, it has become more and more diverse. In Southern California, for instance, The Salvation Army operates churches
35 in English, Spanish, Portuguese, Korean, Hmong, Laotian, Cantonese, Filipino, and
Mandarin. There are corps in neighborhoods as diverse as Pasadena and Compton. Most corps use contemporary praise and worship bands for worship services, while others have
Salvation-Army traditional brass bands. Some are located in residential neighborhoods; others are in urban settings or even within Salvation Army institutions. Some congregations number in the hundreds, while others are just a score or so.
Social service operations also have also expanded and diversified. The old “three hots and a cot” (referring to the basic offerings at a shelter) is long gone. As noted above, the Army now runs highly professional and specialized programs. Some are run directly by corps officers who are also responsible for their congregations, while others are wholly separate. In Portland, Oregon, the Army operates a home for abused women, secretly located and carefully guarded. On the islands of Guam and Chuuk and in
Honolulu, The Salvation Army runs the two ends of an immigration-assistance program in order to help the thousands of Micronesians who flock to the United States each year.
Classes are taught on topics such as paying rent and managing a budget. Staff members assist immigrants with obtaining drivers licenses and enrolling their children in school.
In San Diego, the Army’s Door of Hope is a six-acre housing complex for pregnant and parenting teen mothers. Residents can finish their high school education onsite, while also attending classes on parenting and life skills. Over the past ten years The Salvation
Army has opened five new “Kroc Community Centers,” thanks to a record-breaking $1.5 billion donation from Ray Kroc and Joan Kroc, the founders of the McDonald’s empire.
These centers offer world-class aquatic parks, fitness centers, day cares, theaters, art studios, recording studios, banquet facilities, and more.
36 Professionalism
The Army’s increasingly diverse and specialized programs demand highly skilled and professional management. The Army has moved away from simple, volunteer-run programs to more complex operations that require skilled leadership. As noted above, a master’s of social work degree is now standard for many Salvation Army leadership positions. Business administrators at headquarters and institutions, responsible for budgets and portfolios worth millions of dollars, are often required to have MBA degrees and years of experience.
The typical Salvation Army officer may not be adequately educated, trained, or experienced to operate the finances of a multi-million dollar Kroc Center or to adequately treat an addict with severe mental and emotional insecurities. It is therefore imperative that the Army recognize the need to attract educated professionals to its ranks, and to train and equip its leaders adequately for the complicated tasks before them. While the current two-year residential program may be sufficient for basic Salvation Army leadership, additional education may be needed to meet the necessary standards.
Technology and Centralization
Another trend in recent years is the reliance on technology. As programs become more complex, policies more legal-minded, and finances more complicated, The
Salvation Army has relied more and more on technology. Finances, policies, statistics, and communications have been centralized at headquarters. Clients and donors are registered in databases for future reference. With one click of the mouse, the corps officer can view the budget and allocate resources. Communication with headquarters is
37 instant. A family who has received a food box on Monday in Oxnard is red-flagged when they come into the food bank in Riverside the next day. The Salvation Army’s
Western Territorial Headquarters has recently launched its own Web TV station: “Sav’n
TV,” launching the Army into a new kind of street-corner ministry. This takes expertise and finances. The use of technology has vastly improved Salvation Army services, but it comes with a price: higher expectations. The average Salvation Army officer needs to understand and adapt to the ever-changing world of technology even as he or she tries to focus on the ministry at hand.
The benefit of this move toward technology and centralization is that the local corps officer is often relieved of some of the more mundane tasks of management. The officer does not have to spend long hours compiling statistical reports for headquarters, or searching hardcopy records for donor files. Finances such as payroll are outsourced to headquarters, leaving the officer free to spend more time in pastoral duties and responsibilities.
All of these trends—diversification, professionalism, and technological advances—are positive steps for the Army. This does, however, put pressure on the officer. Salvation Army officers need to be better trained, more experienced, and more fully educated than ever before. This, in turn, affects officer recruitment and training.
The Multi-faceted Work of a Salvation Army Officer
Today’s Salvation Army officer is responsible for a multitude of duties and numerous programs. While some postings, like youth ministry, finances, alcoholic and drug addict rehabilitation services are specialized, most Salvation Army officers are
38 generalists. According to The Salvation Army’s Orders and Regulations for Corps
Officers, “The corps officer is responsible to God and his Salvation Army leaders —as represented by his divisional commander—for everyone and everything in his corps.”48
The typical corps officer is far more than just the pastor of the local congregation. The officer is also the social services manager, the business administrator, the public relations director, the fundraiser, and more. The life of the officer is varied and busy. As an old saying goes, the officer must always be “ready to preach, pray or pass away.”
The Officer as Minister
Orders and Regulations for Corps Officers also states, “The corps officer's chief work is to tell unsaved people in his [or her] district the news of salvation, and to train his
[or her] soldiers to bring people to Jesus.”49 First and foremost, The Salvation Army officer is a minister. Ordained following studies at the College for Officer Training,
Salvation Army officers are fully ordained and licensed to conduct weddings and perform all other functions typical of a pastor. This is the heart of what an officer is and does.
While activities and programs at corps vary according to the needs, traditions, and desires of the individual congregations, a typical corps is very much like any other small church.
On Sundays there is Sunday school and at least one worship service. Sunday afternoons often include programs and visitation at nursing homes or care facilities. During the week, the corps will offer a variety of activities and programs. Bible study, prayer meetings, clubs, fellowship groups, music programs, rehearsals, and support groups take
48 The Salvation Army, Orders and Regulations for Corps Officers (London, Salvation Army Supplies, 1975).
49 Ibid.
39 up most evenings. Most corps offer after-school programs for children and teen ministry activities for older kids. Many corps offer scouting programs or music instruction or both. In a typical corps, the husband and wife run most programs themselves. The officers often plan, lead, and speak at each of these activities on a weekly basis.
In addition to the programs, the corps officer is responsible for pastoral care and counseling. Visitation, whether at the local coffee shop or at the home, remains an important pastoral tool. Pastoral care is an integral part of ministry. Salvation Army congregations often are comprised of low and medium-income families, so counseling often revolves around financial and family concerns. Often cares and concerns come unbidden, so the officers must adapt their schedules to meet these pastoral needs as they arise.
The most public activity for most ministers is the Sunday worship service. In most corps, the corps officer plans, leads, and speaks at each service. A husband and wife team may share the pulpit, but preparing a sermon, whether it is once a week or once every two weeks, is both time-consuming and intellectually challenging. Proper preparation for Bible studies and small group meetings are also vital to a growing and thriving ministry.
The Officer as Social Services Manager
Another central role a corps officer plays is that of social services manager.
Virtually every Salvation Army corps includes some form of assistance program. Some may offer only the basics: groceries, vouchers for clothing at a Salvation Army thrift store, or grants to help with utility bills. Others may include anything from job
40 placement assistance, free hot meals, affordable preschools, or full-scale shelters. Most corps employ at least one full-time social worker to operate the programs, but the corps officer remains the responsible party.
The officer must have a working understanding of community services, family finances, government programs, and the ability to work with companies and businesses to develop partnerships that will be beneficial to clients. The officer must be able to secure resources, prepare documentation, and, in some cases, discern real need from a scam. It is all in a day’s work.
The Officer as Business Manager
The corps officer is fully responsible for all operations within his or her jurisdiction. Human resources, property, budgeting, revenue, and expenses are all part of the job. These responsibilities are typical for a business manager or chief operating officer, and are part of the everyday duties of a typical Salvation Army officer.
The average corps budget in the USA Western Territory is $675,000.50 The
Corps Officer is responsible for all income and expense at the Corps. Income comes primarily from donations, but most corps also operate fee-based programs such as day care or thrift stores. The officer is responsible to create a budget each year, planning for both income and expenses. As such, the officer needs to be proficient in financial management.
50 Tom Melott, interview by author, May 29, 2012.
41 Corps in the USA Western territory have an average of thirteen full-time employees.51 Some corps, particularly those with multiple locations and social service programs, have fifty or more staff members. The Salvation Army in Las Vegas, Nevada, for instance, has 260 employees. The officer supervises the staff, maintaining a professional, efficient work environment. Corps officers, then, need to also be knowledgeable in human resources.
The Officer as Public Relations Director
The Salvation Army is one of America’s favorite charities and most recognizable brands.52 It depends on the public to support its many social programs. As such, its reputation is vital. The corps officer acts as the public relations director for The
Salvation Army within the community. The officer is the spokesperson for all media contacts and represents The Salvation Army at any local functions. The Army is seen as an expert in areas pertaining to homelessness, alcoholic and drug addiction treatment, poverty, and other topics, and so is often contacted by government or other agencies for advice or opinion. The officer represents The Salvation Army at service clubs, city council meetings, public forums, and other community events. At all occasions, the officer is required to be knowledgeable and articulate.
51 Ibid.
52 The Salvation Army, “America’s Top Charities,” http:www.marketingcharts. com/topics/branding/top-100 -nonprofit-band-ymca-salvation-army-rank-high-9591/cone-tope-10- nonprofit-brands-power-100-listjpj/ (accessed May 1, 2012).
42 The Officer as Fundraiser
The annual budget for The Salvation Army in the United States is approximately
$3.75 billion. Almost 50 percent of its income ($1.81 billion) comes from private donations.53 The Salvation functions by the generosity of the public. Territorial and divisional headquarters have professional fundraisers on staff, but at the corps level it is often the responsibility of the corps officers their local team. The local corps officer is responsible to raise the funds needed to run the programs in the community. The officer is responsible for making contacts, writing grants, supervising the direct mailings, and all other aspects of fundraising. As such, it is imperative that Salvation Army officers understand the principles and practices of fundraising. Fund-raising takes many forms including direct mail, grant requests, media spots, and of course, the ever-present red kettles at Christmas. As a fundraiser, the officer carefully monitors donor records, looking for trends and preferences. Careful research and analytical skills are critical.
Also important are people skills: the ability to communicate the mission of the Army with individuals, committees, boards and service clubs.
The annual Red Kettle Christmas program is a good example of basic fundraising.
Running from mid-November through Christmas Eve, this popular program consumes the officers’ time and energy. The corps officer seeks approval of local retail establishments to place the kettles in front of their stores. Arrangements are then made for the counting of the funds and the depositing of several thousands of dollars each day.
The officer also supervises dozens of part-time temporary employees and volunteers to
53 Forbes.com, “The Salvation Army,” http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/14/CH0144.html (accessed May 3, 2012).
43 man the kettles. In many locations, these kettles are in operation up to ten hours a day, with volunteers counting the funds late into the evening. The next day, they do it all over again.
Conclusions
The structure of The Salvation Army, the trends affecting its programs and policies, and the multiple duties of the Salvation Army officer all point toward the need for officers to be highly trained and educated. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and affect the spiritual, emotional, and economic health of members of the community as well as the health and reputation of the Army itself. Chapter 2 will review The Salvation
Army’s training program, examining its strengths and weaknesses in light of the responsibilities and expectations noted above.
44
CHAPTER 2
THE SALVATION ARMY’S TRAINING AND EDUCATION PROGRAM
This chapter will review The Salvation Army’s training program, examining its purpose and role in the Army as a whole. It briefly explores the history of officer training, and it examines the Army’s international and national officer training regulations. This chapter also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the current training program in light of the responsibilities and demands of its officers, and it explores the concept of distance learning as an opportunity for The Salvation Army.
History and Purpose of Officer Training
The Salvation Army’s first organized officer training program was established in
1880 under the leadership of twenty-year-old Emma Booth, daughter of the Army’s founders.1 The training was rudimentary: Bible and doctrine, as well as basic counseling and pastoral skills.2 The length of the training period varied based on the needs of the individual, but the average duration was four to six weeks.3 It was also highly flexible:
1 Green, The Life and Ministry of William Booth, 208.
2 Ibid.
3 Dexter, “Officer Training in The Salvation Army,” 13.
45 cadets were accepted into the program at any time of the year, and were “commissioned” as officers individually whenever the staff felt they were “satisfactorily fit” for ministry.4
It was also practical in nature. According to one early source, “The cadets, instead of being pent up within four walls and crammed intellectually until their zeal and spirituality had been largely crushed, were pushed into active service. The lessons and lectures of the morning were followed by slum visitation and War Cry [the Army’s periodical] selling in the afternoon, and this again by salvation or holiness meetings every night.”5
It is interesting to note that even in its earliest days, Salvation Army clergy education included both academic and practical application. Cadets did not just receive academic instruction; their lessons were put into practice each evening as they led worship services and participated in street ministry. This has been a hallmark of Army officer education ever since, and remains an important factor in the current training program. The variable length of the training program is also significant. The Army’s initial training program was tailored to the needs of the individual officer-candidate. This flexible schedule allowed more officer-candidates to progress through the program swiftly and to get out to the “front lines” as quickly as possible. It was also efficient in terms of time and resources, which were not wasted on unnecessary elements or lessons.
Cadets only took the lessons they needed, and were graduated as soon as their instructors thought they were ready.
Emma Booth and her brother Herbert detailed the six major aims of the first
“training homes”:
4 Ibid., 8.
5 Frederick deLatour Booth-Tucker, The Life of Catherine Booth (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1892), 302.
46 1. Training of the heart (prayer, exhortation and counseling aimed at the spiritual well-being of the cadets). 2. Training of the head (the three “Rs,” history, geography, composition and general information). 3. Instruction in Salvation Army doctrines, methods and disciplines. 4. The teaching of ways to appeal to the consciences of the hearers. 5. How to inspire hope in the hopeless; how to present the Gospel of salvation. 6. How to instruct and utilize the converts made by the above methods in the extension of the “war.”6
It is instructive to note that this early record evidences a holistic training regimen.
It includes academic studies and Salvation Army-specific lessons as well as instructions in pastoral care and evangelism. From the start, Army training schools were not to be simply academic institutions, but real “training” schools tailored to the ministry and mission of the Army. It is also highly significant that the first aim was not the ministry at all, but the spiritual lives of the cadets themselves.
In 1886 the training program was regimented to some extent. Instead of arriving and graduating individually, a standard term of six months was initiated. The first three months were spent in “barracks training” at the school, and the remaining three months were spent at local corps in “field training.” The training program became more balanced: the first half focused on academics, while the second half had the cadets fully engaged in ministry. Herbert Booth, who was now overseeing the training program along with his sister Emma, commented, “You must train your officers by more fighting as well as by teaching.”7
The training program continued to evolve as the Army’s ministry expanded. The name “training college” was adopted—a term associated with teacher training institutions
6 Emma Booth and Herbert Booth, Called Out (London: Congress Depot, 1887), 37-39.
7 Ibid., 61.
47 common in England at the time.8 Academic courses began to be added. Salvationist historian Raymond Dexter, in his dissertation, “Officer Training in The Salvation Army:
An Institutional Analysis,” explains, “Gradually the inadequacies of the system began to be felt. More was being demanded of officers on the field, hence the need for better training.”9 In 1904 the length of training was extended to nine months. The “field training” activities were reduced and integrated into the weekly schedule at the college, and classes were added according to the needs of the organization. Although curtailed, practical ministry remained a key component: cadets went out in the community one afternoon and evening a week as well as on weekends, assisting local corps in various activities and programs.10
When the Salvation Army arrived in the United States in 1880, its training program came with it. In 1920 the country was divided into four geographic “territories,” and each territory was given responsibility for its own college.11 Training was still basic:
“classes focused on Bible, doctrine and discipline.”12 Social work classes were added to the curriculum by 1945. In 1960 the four training colleges in the United States, along
8 Dexter, “Officer Training in The Salvation Army,” 13.
9 Ibid., 15.
10 Ibid., 16.
11 Raymond Peacock, “Drumbeats and Tides: The Salvation Army Crestmont College: A Better Model for Preparing Leaders in the Emerging Age” (DMin diss., George Fox Evangelical Seminary, 2004), 15.
12 Ibid.
48 with those in other nations, adopted a two-year training program, with off-campus field training once again becoming part of the curriculum.13
The purpose of the Army’s clergy education program is to prepare officer- candidates for ministry. According to The Salvation Army’s Orders and Regulations for the Training of Salvation Army Officers, “The supreme aim of training shall be to develop officers of such Blood and Fire [a Salvation Army motto representing the blood of Christ and the fire of the Holy Spirit] that they will be enabled to sustain and advance the purposes of The Salvation Army.”14 The current Orders and Regulations for the
Training of Salvation Army Officers, most recently revised in 2005, states the following core principles for Salvation Army training programs:
1. The priority of officer training and its unique role, carried out in a dedicated Salvation Army training facility. 2. The primacy of spiritual growth and Salvationist identification over a predominantly academic approach to the training of officers. 3. The preference for residential training as opposed to non-residential training, and an understanding that individually tailored training can be either. 4. The primacy of providing adequate, equal opportunity for the training of all cadets.15
Of particular note is the importance placed on spiritual growth over academics
(which the second statement in the Orders and Regulations for the Training of Salvation
Army Officers confirms). The Army’s stance is that character counts over knowledge.
Major Tim Foley, current Principal of the College for Officer Training for the USA
Western Territory, states, “What a soldier of the Salvation Army wants of their officer is
13 Dexter, “Officer Training in The Salvation Army,” 16.
14 The Salvation Army, Orders and Regulations for the Training of Salvation Army Officers, rev. April 4, 2005, manual online on an internal Salvation Army website, (accessed August 18, 2012). This manual applies to all Salvation Army officers, in the U.S. and abroad.
15 Ibid.
49 not a high grade point average but [someone who] has a deep connection with God on a higher level. Strengthening the mind is important in the work of the modern day
Salvation Army officer but the continuation of the development of the soul is vital.”16
The Salvation Army has always been committed to a clergy education program that is more than mere academics. It is development of the heart as well as the head. It is more about the soul than the grade. A minister needs to have a firm relationship with
God, a deep knowledge of Scripture, and understanding of theology. It is instructive to note that throughout its history, the Army has maintained its principle of holistic training for holistic ministry. From the earliest ad hoc training efforts to its modern, highly structured colleges, the Army has stressed the need to balance academic education with practical implementation. Many lessons are best learned by doing.
International Training Standards
The balance of academics and implementation is at the heart of the Army’s training system worldwide. The next section of this paper reviews the Army’s modern clergy education program, beginning with its international and national training standards and then examining its present-day training colleges. According to the Salvation Army’s
Orders and Regulations for the Training of Salvation Army Officers, the goals of the
Army’s training programs are as follows:
(a) To provide a disciplined Christian environment designed to foster personal growth and maturity, self-discipline, and acceptance of authority. (b) To provide a program intended to promote the spiritual development of cadets. (c) To provide for the evaluation of the development in cadets of basic leadership characteristics, self-motivation, positive self-esteem and a clear sense of identity as Salvation Army officers.
16 Major Timothy Foley, Training Principal, The Salvation Army College for Officer Training, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 22, 2012.
50 (d) To provide teaching in scriptural truth and academic instruction in accordance with a basic curriculum approved for international use, with a view to bringing cadets to an acceptable level of academic achievement, providing a foundation of understanding and tools for learning. (e) To provide practical experience in order to develop the skills necessary for effective work as Salvation Army officers.17
The order of these international goals is significant. It begins with “personal growth” (a) and “spiritual development” (b). It is not until the fourth point that academics or curriculum is mentioned. Practical experience, or “field training,” is listed last. Again, one can see the primacy of character and spiritual growth over matters of academics or skills. The evidence from the current international directives matches that of the historical documents: The Salvation Army’s priority for clergy education is spiritual maturity. Academic instruction is balanced with practical application, offering a holistic training experience. “Every effort should be made to develop that personal fervent faith in God which forms the basis of Salvation Army ministry,18 state the international regulations.
The Orders and Regulations for the Training of Salvation Army Officers document includes a section on distance learning, and it is appropriate to review it at this juncture. The regulations make it clear that this is not the preferred method of training, but it is acceptable when appropriate. The document states, “The system of officer training as set out in these Orders and Regulations is to be regarded as the standard system for territories and as the norm for most Salvationists who wish to train to become
17 The Salvation Army, Orders and Regulations for the Training of Salvation Army Officers, 1:1.
18 Ibid.
51 officers.”19 Alternate forms of training are permitted, but they must be submitted to
International Headquarters in London for approval.
The “Flex Training” subsection begins with the following notation: “The flexible option is designed to provide opportunity for officer training for those whose special circumstances and needs are not adequately provided for by the standard system.”20 Thus the international regulations allow for the type of program proposed in this ministry focus paper. The option for flex training is given in order that officer-candidates with “special circumstances,” which preclude them from participating in the standard two-year residential program, may still be trained as officers. While the proposed distance learning program will face tight scrutiny and endure a long approval process, the fact that the concept itself is allowed for by policy gives great impetus for its eventual adoption.
United States National Training Standards
While each territory has responsibility for its own training program, the four
American territories have developed a “National Standard” that guides all four American training colleges. The current National Standard, last revised in 2008, lists academic expectations that each of the four schools are expected to adhere to as a minimum. For instance, cadets are required to take a minimum of thirteen quarter credit hours of Bible, twelve credit hours of doctrine, five credit hours of pastoral care, three credit hours of social work, thirteen credit hours of public ministry, and twelve hours of administration.
19 Ibid., 1:3.
20 Ibid.
52 Additional seminars and lectures add another eight credit hours. Field Training is also required although no specific number of hours is stipulated.21
The National Standard is used as a means of ensuring that all Salvation Army officers in the United States are trained in a similar fashion and to the same degree. They keep the colleges accountable to each other and ensure that officers across the country are equipped and trained in a similar fashion. This quality-control measure ensures that an officer can be assigned a position anywhere in the country. Most important, it ensures that all officers understand and agree with Salvation Army doctrine and theology. Any proposed distance education program will need to conform to these standards.
Current Training Programs in the United States
Each of the four American training colleges adheres to theses minimum academic requirements, but each one has significant autonomy concerning the details of the training program. Each of the colleges includes a robust field training program consisting of two six-week internships at local corps during the Christmas season, and one eight- week internship during the summer. Cadets with school-aged children are given assignments near the college so they can continue to reside there, while cadets without children are sent farther afield. In addition, cadets are required to participate in the
Sunday ministries at local corps near the colleges every other weekend.
21 The Western Territory College for Officer Training uses an amended quarter credit system, in which one credit hour equals twelve hours of in-class instruction.
53 Training Colleges for the Eastern, Southern, and Central Territories
The Salvation Army’s USA Eastern Territorial Training School is located in
Sufern, New York, just outside of New York City. Current enrollment is ninety-seven cadets.22 The School for Officer Training is accredited by the New York State Board of
Regents as a degree-granting institution and is authorized to confer the Associate in
Applied Science degree.23 According to the Eastern Territory’s 2012-2013 catalog, cadets are required to acquire a total of ninety-four quarter credits to graduate.24 The
Southern Territory’s School for Officer Training is located on the campus of Evangeline
Booth College in Atlanta, Georgia, and has a current enrollment of eighty-seven cadets.
The school is not accredited, but does meet the Army’s National Training Standards. In the Central Territory the Training College is situated in downtown Chicago and has an enrollment of seventy-nine cadets. In general, candidates for each school come from the host territory, and graduating officers are usually sent to posts within that territory.
Western Territory: College for Officer Training at Crestmont
The Western Territory’s College for Officer Training is located at the Army’s
Crestmont campus in Rancho Palos Verdes, just south of Los Angeles. It is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) as a degree-granting institution. Graduates are awarded an Associate of Arts degree in ministry upon
22 The Salvation Army, “Students,” The Salvation Army Easter Territory School for Officer Training, http://www.use.salvationarmy.org/use/www_use_sfot.nsf/ (accessed August 12, 1012).
23 The Salvation Army, “Academics: Accreditation,” The Salvation Army Easter Territory School for Officer Training, http://www.use.salvationarmy.org/use/www_use_sfot.nsf/ (accessed August 12, 1012).
24 The Salvation Army, Eastern Territory USA School for Officer Training: 2012-2013 Catalog (Suffern, NY: The Salvation Army, 2012), 21.
54 successful completion of the coursework.25 Current enrollment stands at 125, making it the largest training college in the world.26 Like the Eastern Territory’s college, the
Western Territory’s academic requirements are more stringent than the national standards. Ninety-three quarter units are required to graduate with the associates of arts in ministry degree.27 Accreditation plays a key role in academics at the college. Major
(Dr.) Brian Jones, Director of Curriculum, states, “We are committed to academic excellence. WASC keeps us accountable, and keeps the standards high and uniform.”28
In accordance with Salvation Army policy and tradition, the Western Territory
College seeks a balance between spiritual formation, academics, and practical application. Classes are generally held Monday through Thursday mornings. Spiritual formation activities, including chapels and small group meetings, are held in the early afternoon. During the late afternoon and evenings, the college operates the full complement of normal church weekday activities including after-school programs, Bible studies, women’s and men’s groups, music instruction, and scouting programs. Fridays generally include seminars and other campus-wide activities. Sundays are divided between “In-Sundays” and “Out-Sundays.” As the names imply, on “In-Sundays” the college holds its own worship services, and on “Out-Sundays” the cadets go to local
Salvation Army churches to participate in ministry programs. The cadets participate in
25 The Salvation Army, College for Officer Training at Crestmont 2012-2013 Catalog (Rancho Palos Verdes, CA: The Salvation Army, 2012), 11.
26 Foley interview, August 12, 2012.
27 The Salvation Army, College for Officer Training at Crestmont 2012-2013 Catalog, 43.
28 Major Dr. Brian Jones, Director of Curriculum, College for Officer Training, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 8, 2012.
55 two major evangelistic activities each year, visiting corps around the Western United
States, conducting services and participating in social programs for a week at a time. As per the National Standard, Christmas seasons and summers are spent in internships at corps around the Territory.
The college’s spiritual formation program is at the heart of both the schedule and the principles of the Army. Chapel services are in the middle of the day, and personal time with God is stressed at every opportunity. Classes begin and end with prayer, and
Bible studies and prayer meetings are common occurrences.29 “The college keeps us busy with schoolwork, field training, and various ministry opportunities, but we make it a priority to spend time on things we value the most, our relationship with God and our relationship with our families,” says Cadet Joy Groenleer, president of the graduating class of 2013.30
Limitations of the Training Program
The Salvation Army’s training program has now been in place for 132 years. It has proved highly effective in producing dedicated, qualified officers for ministry within the ranks of the Army. The balance between education, experience, and spiritual maturity has proved beneficial, creating well-rounded officers ready for the multi-faceted ministry of the Army. The immersion experience of full-time education and on-campus living has turned out officers with comprehensive understanding of the Army’s mission and passion for the Army’s ministry. With all that in mind, there remain limitations to
29 Major Gwendolyn Jones, Director of Spiritual Education; Salvation Army College for Officer Training, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 2, 2012.
30 Cadet Joy Groenleer, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 28, 2012.
56 this method of training. This pedagogy, set in place over a century ago, is expensive, inflexible, and has not experienced any significant developments since the advent of the two-year training minimum set in 1960. In particular, it automatically disqualifies those who cannot attend the full-time residential school. This section discusses some of these limitations.
Limitations of Residential Training
While the combination of spiritual development, academic education, and field experience available at the training college seems ideal, there are some notable limitations to a residential-only program. The program is very expensive on a per-cadet ratio, it limits field training, and it is inflexible to the point of hindering potential candidates from applying. These limitations do not necessarily detract from the program as it currently stands, but they point to the advantages of expanding the training program beyond the Crestmont campus.
The college’s annual budget for fiscal 2011-2012 (October 1 through September
31) is $8,264,879.31 With 125 cadets in residence, the cost of training is approximately
$66,119 per cadet per year. Since the cadets do not have outside employment, all living costs, from food and clothing to dry cleaning and entertainment, must be absorbed in part by The Salvation Army. The College for Officer Training employees thirty-four staff members and twenty-seven officers are assigned in faculty and administration positions.
The Salvation Army invests heavily in both funding and personnel at the college. While these costs are seen as a necessary part of developing leaders, they constitute significant
31 Catherine Nolan, College for Officer Training 2011-2012 Annual Budget (Rancho Palos Verdes, CA: The Salvation Army, 2011), 1.
57 overhead costs for the Army. As a faith-based charity, The Salvation Army is always striving to find ways to reduce overhead costs in order to channel more funds directly into programs. If even a small percentage of the cadets were trained via distance education, it could reduce the annual expenditures significantly. In addition to reducing overhead costs such as staff and utilities, it would lower direct costs such as food. Non- residential cadets would continue to receive salary in their local ministry leadership positions, thus reducing the need for the Army to cover incidental expenditures as well.
Another drawback to the residential program is the limited amount of time allotted to field training. While every effort is made to maintain that balance between class work and practical application, the reality is that the vast majority of a cadet’s time is spent on academic pursuits. As noted above, field training activities are limited to two
Sundays a month and participation in a single weekday program per week. Even this schedule is limited: since the cadets participate in these ministry opportunities in groups, only one person at a time can preach, teach the Sunday school class, run the afterschool program, or lead the service. This means that each individual cadet’s actual hands-on ministry experience is minimal. While it is true that summers and Christmas seasons are spent fully engaged in day-to-day ministry work, the academic year is spent largely in the classroom. This is something of a disadvantage as the cadets do not get as much “hands on” experience as would be preferred. Cadet Joy Groenleer comments on her summer internship, “I learned so much this summer. Actually doing the work puts the classes in perspective.”32 While theory is important, nothing teaches like experience. While most
32 Groenleer interview, August 28, 2012.
58 cadets may need more theory and structure before participating in ministry leadership, many are ready to take on leadership roles, and would benefit from the more hands-on experience that a distance education program would offer.
The most significant limitation of the residential system is its inherent inflexibility. It is basically a “one size fits all” program. This inflexibility restricts the college in that it wastes time and effort on classes that may not be needed, and it discourages candidates who may not be able to move to Southern California. A distance education program could offer a more flexible alternative, adapting classes to individual needs and circumstances.
In the current program, all cadets take the same classes and are assigned similar ministry responsibilities regardless of previous experience or education. All cadets take the full slate of prescribed courses in the same order. Apart from the few electives on offer during the spring quarter, each cadet must take the same classes as everyone else and at the same time as everyone else. Due to the small size of the faculty and limited time frame of training, each class is only offered once during the course of the two years.
Since the schedule allows time for only required classes, the cadet must pass every class in order to graduate. If a cadet fails a class, he or she is required to repeat it as an independent study course the following quarter.
The college’s inflexible structure also results in cadets having to take unnecessary courses. Cadets who have already graduated from a seminary, or who have other advanced degrees, must take the same courses as those with little or no graduate education. Not only does this make teaching difficult, but it can be discouraging to both the advanced and the beginning student as the instructor tries to strike a balance between
59 the two extremes. The option of distance education courses for those who qualify would greatly reduce this concern.
Still other potential candidates already have ministry experience and may not need the training college program at all. Ministers from other denominations or
Salvationists who are already in ministry leadership roles may already be fully prepared to move directly into officership without having to take two years away from ministry to attend the training college. The inflexible training regime means that all cadets, regardless of experience, are required to take the same classes as those with little or no experience. A distance education program would alleviate this limitation by placing such individuals directly into leadership positions while taking only such classes as they need.
The current residential program is also limited in that it obliges residence at the training college in Southern California. As it stands, candidates who wish to become
Salvation Army officers must move to the campus. The reality; however, is that not all candidates can relocate to Southern California. Family or health issues may prohibit a potential candidate from moving to the training college. In some cases, it is the health of an aging parent or a child that hinders a move. In other cases child custody requirements may restrict a move. The proposed distance education program would alleviate this limitation by no longer restricting training to the college.
Target Population
This paper seeks to develop a new distance education program to remedy the limitations noted above. The proposed program targets individuals who are affected by the limitations, offering an alternative to the current training program. Candidates with
60 ministry experience, advanced degrees, and those who cannot relocate to Southern
California would all benefit from a nonresidential training option. On a broader level, the target audience for this paper is the leadership of The Salvation Army’s USA Western
Territory. If approved for implementation by senior leadership, this proposal would benefit the Army by increasing the efficiency of the training program while broadening the candidate base.
Candidates with Ministry Experience
Each year a significant percentage of the incoming class consists of candidates that are currently or were formerly in ministry leadership positions. For people with such experience, the full training college experience may simply be unnecessary. As more and more candidates come into Salvation Army ministry as a second career,33 this scenario becomes more and more likely. While they may benefit from the academic coursework, the spiritual formation and field training aspects of training appear to be superfluous. In each of these cases, a better alternative may have been to allow them to remain in their former ministry position while taking distance education classes in subjects deemed necessary.
Candidates with Advanced Degrees
Another segment of the target population for this program is candidates with advanced degrees. As of this writing, thirty-two of the 125 cadets enrolled at the training college have college or graduate school degrees. While the college allows for cadets to
33 Hudson interview, August 30, 2012.
61 be excused from specific classes by transferring credits from other colleges,34 cadets must still take the majority of classes regardless of a previous degree. This means that cadets may be taking unnecessary classes, taking time and resources that could be better used elsewhere. A distance education program would be beneficial to candidates who already hold degrees in that customized education programs could be developed for each candidate—targeting only the specific classes needed by each individual.
Candidates with Family Needs Precluding Relocation
In addition to candidates who may not need the full residential training experience, the target audience for this program includes individuals that may not be able to relocate to the Southern California campus. The legal ramifications of divorce or the support of elderly parents and special-needs children may prevent a potential candidate from being able to move to the training college. In any of these situations, a distance education option for training would alleviate the problem and benefit those involved.
In cases of divorce, ex-spouses often share custody of their children. If one spouse decides to become a Salvation Army officer, he or she must move to Southern
California to attend the college. This means that the other spouse would have to agree to move as well. Such a concession is highly unlikely. It is far more likely that the other spouse would not be willing to move, forcing the potential candidate to relinquish plans for officership. This scenario has already occurred: a divorced male officer who must reside in Seattle in order to retain joint custody of his children had plans to marry an officer-candidate. The couple would have had to wait until the bride-to-be finished
34 The Salvation Army, College for Officer Training 2011-2012 Catalog, 28.
62 training so she could move to Seattle to join him. If she had the option of a distance learning program, they could marry immediately, and she could finish her training while living in Seattle.
Another part of this target population is families with special-needs children.
Some families with special-needs children may feel that the close-quarters apartment complex and large campus may not be conducive to their child’s care. Others may be hesitant to change doctors or health care providers. One example is a case that occurred this year. Major Pamilla Brackenbury, Associate Secretary for Candidate Recruitment at
The Salvation Army’s Western Territorial Headquarters, stated that a couple in Arizona encountered this situation. The husband and wife were considering officership, but have decided against it because of the need to stay in Arizona to qualify for state funding for their special-needs child. Brackenbury explained, “They feel it is financially in their best interest to stay in Arizona. The state covers all medical expenses as well as educational needs and transportation needs.”35 There is no way to know how many other candidates may be in the same situation. “We just do not know how many potential candidates close the door before we have a chance of opening it,” says Major John Brackenbury, Secretary for Candidate Recruitment. “They may be assuming that they don’t have options and not even apply.”36
In a similar vein, candidates with elderly parents may not be able to move to the campus. Candidates may be caring for parents in their homes, or need to be near them
35 Pamilla Brackenbury, Associate Secretary for Candidate Recruitment, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 30, 2012.
36 John Brackenbury, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 30, 2012.
63 for health reasons or other concerns. Again, Major Pamilla Brackenbury confirms that this has happened on several occasions: “They have delayed entrance, waiting until a parent has passed away. Once the parent has passed, they feel freed up to move forward with their calling.”37 As the average age of cadets climbs,38 more of them are taking care of parents, and this scenario becomes more likely. The apartments at the college are not equipped for additional family members, and the schedule leaves little free time to take care of elderly parents who may need close attention. The candidate would have to choose between caring for parents and going to training college. A distance education option would solve this dilemma, allowing the candidate to enroll and participate in classes while living at home.
Distance Learning Opportunities
The history and purpose of The Salvation Army’s training program demonstrate the Army’s priorities of integrated and targeted education. The Salvation Army is practical in both philosophy and practice, always looking toward the end goal of sharing
God’s love with humanity. The training program evidences this same goal: to send spiritually mature and well-prepared officers into the field to take on ministry leadership positions within the ranks of The Salvation Army. The limitations of the training college and the opportunity to reach candidates unable to reside on campus bring to light the potential for adding distance learning to the program. This section provides a brief review of trends in distance education as they relate to opportunities for The Salvation
37 Pamilla Brackenbury interview, August 30, 2012.
38 Sutton, 2011-2012 Fact Book, 14.
64 Army and an examination of the Army’s distance learning program already in operation in Chicago, Illinois.
Distance learning is simply an education program in which the teacher and student are separated. Michael Moore, Professor of Education at the Graduate School at the Pennsylvania State University, and founder and editor of The American Journal of
Distance Education, writes, “Distance education consists of all arrangements for providing instruction through print or electronic communications media to persons engaged in planned learning in a place or time different from that of the instructor or instructors.”39 Distance learning is not new. According to Holmberg, Börje in The
Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education, it can be traced back at least as far as 1728 when a teacher in Boston used a currier to send and receive lessons from students.40 Written correspondence courses were the only means of distance education for over two hundred years, but with the twentieth century came technological advances that moved distance education into the digital age. First radio, then film and television and finally the internet have continually advanced distance education through the decades. The latest advancements in both software and hardware have made distance learning ever more accessible.
Several trends and innovations in recent years have made distance education even more attractive to schools such as the Army’s training colleges. First, distance learning as a whole is growing in popularity. “Online distance learning has become
39 Michael Moore, ed., Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990), xv.
40 Borje Holberg, The Evolution, Principles and Practice of Distance Education (Oldenburg, Germany: University of Oldenburg, 2005), 13.
65 commonplace,” write Rena Palloff and Keith Pratt in Building Online Learning
Communities: Effective Strategies for the Virtual Classroom. They continue, “The explosive growth of the internet has contributed to the increasing popularity of this type of learning, along with a desire to reach students at a distance, efforts to increase enrollments, and to provide a type of education that is in demand by students.” 41
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 20.4 percent of all college students were enrolled in at least one distance education class during the 2007-2008 academic year.42 Distance learning is becoming more accepted as a legitimate form of education. This legitimacy, in turn, encourages schools such as the College for Officer
Training to include distance education in campus pedagogy.
Another key factor in the Army’s potential use of distance education is the trend toward blended and hybrid classes in distance education. Palloff and Pratt explain,
The use of synchronous media and virtual classrooms has grown and is affecting how we view community. . . . In the last ten years, significant change has occurred in online learning. . . . Today we know that distanced learning takes several forms, including fully online courses, hybrid or blended courses that contain some fact-to-face contact time in combination with online delivery, and technology-enhances courses, which meet predominantly face-to-face but incorporate elements of technology into the course.43
This is especially good news for The Salvation Army, as it already embraces an education program with multiple delivery systems. The Army’s dual training philosophy of using both classroom education and field experience fits this paradigm well. Further,
41 Rena M Palloff and Keith Pratt, Building Online Communities: Effective Strategies for the Virtual Classroom (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007), xiv.
42 National Center for Educational Statistics, “Distance Education,” http: // nces.ed.gov/ fastfacts/ display.asp? id=80 (accessed August 16, 2012).
43 Palloff and Pratt, Building Online Communities, xv and 3.
66 this trend in online education also suggests that students prefer an element of hands-on participation in their education. Paloff and Prat write, “Many students are concrete-active learners, that is, they learn best from concrete experiences that engage their senses. Their best learning experiences begin with practice and end with theory.”44 As The Salvation
Army explores the possibilities of distance education, it is significant to note that it is moving in the same direction as the distance learning community itself.
Salvation Army Distance Learning Programs
The Salvation Army already operates a fledgling distance learning program at the
College for Officer Training in Chicago. The program includes seventeen online courses and eight that meet at the college as week-long intensives.45 The academic program takes three years to complete, and after seven years of “Auxiliary Captaincy,” the officer can be commissioned as a full Captain. “The program has worked well thus far,” says Major
Lucille Gates, Distance Learning Coordinator for the Central Territory. “We moved from primarily correspondence to online courses two years ago, and it appears to be running smoothly.”46 The program currently includes fourteen students, nine of whom will graduate this year.
The Central Territory is off to a good start. Incorporating distance learning into the on-going Auxiliary Captaincy program is a logical progression in the use of
44 Ibid., 5.
45 The Salvation Army Central Territory College for Officer Training, Distance Learning Core Classes (Chicago: The Salvation Army, 2011), 1.
46 Lucille Gates, Distance Learning Coordinator for The Salvation Army’s Central Territory USA, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 24, 2012.
67 technology and resources. The program remains somewhat inflexible as all Auxiliary
Captains are required to take the same courses regardless of education or experience, but it is a good move going forward. At seven years, it is also an exceedingly long process.
Still, as the Western Territory contemplates the use of distance education, it can be encouraged by the success of the Central Territory’s efforts.
68
PART TWO
THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Based upon the first two chapters, it is evident that The Salvation Army would benefit from a more flexible clergy education program that would enable cadets to participate in officer training without having to reside at the Training College in Southern
California. The Army’s history and development point toward an organization that is adaptable and pragmatic, addressing needs as they arise, and evolving as opportunities present themselves. The workload and responsibilities of an average Salvation Army officer evidence the need for a practical, broad-based training experience, exposing the cadet to as many aspects of officership as possible. As The Army’s international regulations allow for such a program, it would appear to be an opportune time to introduce a new distance education program.
This chapter examines a selection of literature that pertains to the ministry proposal at hand. The literature review considers the question of distance learning for
Salvation Army officer training from four perspectives: theology, clergy education,
Salvation Army officer training, and distance education. Each of these viewpoints
70 informs the proposal. Each paints part of the portrait contributing to the overall picture: nonresidential training for Salvation Army officers.
The starting point for this chapter is Salvation Army theology. The Salvation
Army Handbook of Doctrine is the Army’s official statement of faith, outlining its theology and beliefs. In particular, it notes the missional nature of the Army, concluding each chapter with a call to integrate faith with practice. Salvation Army theology follows closely the teachings of John Wesley and the Methodist Church, having been founded by staunch Methodists. Discovering Christian Holiness, by Diane Leclerc, examines the
Wesleyan doctrine of holiness, which, along with mission, is at the heart of Salvation
Army theology. After discussing those theological foundations, the literature review moves to the topic of educating ministers. Educating Clergy, by Charles Foster, Lisa
Dahill, Lawrence Golemon, and Barbara Wang offers a new approach to ministry education: focusing on balancing theory and practice in developing well-rounded, spiritually mature pastors. Linda Cannell’s Theological Education Matters offers both a look back at classical clergy education and a look forward into the modern issues and trends that affect minister training today. In 1962 Captain Raymond Dexter, a Salvation
Army officer and Army historian, submitted his dissertation to Stanford University on the topic of Salvation Army officer training. His paper, “Officer Training in the Salvation
Army: An Institutional Analysis,” examines the history of Salvation Army clergy education from an inside point of view. It explores in some detail the structure and expectations of the Training College, offering suggestions for redesign and implementation, paving the way for proposals such as the one contained in this paper.
Finally, this chapter examines distance education itself. The Virtual Student, by Rena
71 Palloff and Keith Pratt, and The New Online Teaching Guide, by Ken White, offer insight into the world of distance learning and online education. These volumes examine the purpose and practice of the virtual classroom, including the newest trends of combining online education with practical experience.
The Theology of The Salvation Army
The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, by The Salvation Army
The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine (hereafter, Handbook of Doctrine) is the Army’s official systematic theology. It includes the statement of each of Salvation
Army’s eleven articles of faith along with additional explanatory material. It includes the text of ancient creeds, including the Apostle’s Creed, the Nicene Creed, and the
Athanasian Creed, as well as the doctrines of the Methodist New Connexion (1838) and the Lausanne Covenant (1974). It is apparent that these are included as evidence that The
Salvation Army is connected to the larger Church, and that its theological statements are derived directly from accepted orthodox teachings. It also includes sections on church history and Salvation Army terminology, a glossary of theological terms, and a
Salvationist lectionary.
It is highly significant that each article of faith is accompanied by a statement of mission. At its heart, The Salvation Army is a Church of action. Convictions are conceived in faith, but are realized in activity. Doctrine comes alive when put into practice. The Salvation Army’s principle of faith in action can be seen at the heart of its theology: every principle is backed up with a call to mission. Each article of faith, from declaring the Bible as the guiding authority for Christian faith and practice, to an
72 understanding of the trinity and belief in eternal life, is accompanied by a corresponding application. Belief in a sovereign God for instance, dictates that we worship him. If we accept God’s forgiveness, we are called to forgive others. The Handbook of Doctrine, then, is more than a systematic theology book; it is a clarion call to service. It calls
Salvationists to put the articles of faith into practice: to worship God and to serve humanity. This practical approach to theology and the practical application of beliefs are hallmarks of The Salvation Army. They also inform Salvationist clergy education.
Pragmatic theology calls for practical education. If the doctrine book combines theory and practice, so should training.
The Handbook of Doctrine begins with the primacy of the Bible. “Our faith finds its definition and defense in Scripture,” it states.1 For the Salvationist, Scripture is the foundation of faith and action. Doctrine number one declares, “We believe that the scriptures of the Old and New Testaments were given by inspiration of God, and that they only constitute the divine rule of Christian faith and practice.”2 It continues, “Its authority supersedes all other claims and its teaching authenticates all other spiritual truths.”3 The Handbook of Doctrine includes a specific challenge to Salvation Army officers and those who teach them: “The Bible can only provide ‘the divine rule of faith and practice’ if it is known, studied, and interpreted in order to discern God’s leading.
1 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 1.
2 Ibid., xv.
3 Ibid., 7.
73 Therefore, appropriate means of biblical interpretation must be taught and modeled by leaders.”4
The Salvation Army affirms its understanding of the nature of God and the trinity.
God is unique and singular, the “Great Initiator, Preserver and Governor of all things.”5
God exists as three in one. The Handbook of Doctrine states, “He is three persons, always united in being, attitude and action.”6 God is personal. He is active in and present with his creation. He desires to be known and to be made known. Here, theology again turns to practice: “As it is in the nature of god to make himself known, it is the calling of Christians to share that revelation. It is this God who calls us to share in his mission.”7 The Handbook of Doctrine declares belief in a God who wants to be known, and calls on Salvationists to do their part in making him known.
The Salvation Army’s understanding of the incarnation and atonement through
Christ has a similar denominational and personal application. For the Army, evangelism is the Church’s response to God’s sacrifice. The Handbook of Doctrine states, “Our mission is to share in the mission of God, to tell the story of Jesus and the reconciliation he offers with compelling passion so that other people recognize within it the source of their own salvation.”8 For the individual Salvationist, the example and love of Christ compels the believer to share that love with others. The Handbook of Doctrine declares,
4 Ibid., 21.
5 Ibid., 26.
6 Ibid., 51.
7 Ibid., 36.
8 Ibid., 85.
74 “The true disciple seeks to follow Christ without reservation, to grow in his likeness and to participate in his mission.”9 The believer is called on to serve others, offering God’s love and compassion to a world in need. The Handbook of Doctrine states, “When we come alongside others for Christ’s sake we bring the powerful and loving presence of
Christ to the center of human need.”10
“Salvation,” asserts the Handbook of Doctrine, “is a holistic experience.”11 The chapters on repentance and regeneration demonstrate how the Army’s tenets on evangelism, personal purity, and love in action come together in mission. It continues,
“All our activities, practical, social and spiritual arise out of our basic conviction of the reality of the love of God and our desire to see all people brought into relationship with him.”12 While the handbook does not go so far as to suggest that the Army’s social efforts are for the sole purpose of evangelism, it does indicate that it is God’s love that compels the believer to share that love with others. For example, the text declares,
“When we exercise practical care or seek to bring about healing in families and communities we are sharing the gospel of Jesus Christ.”13 Further, the Army connects spiritual salvation with physical deliverance. While physical assistance does not equal spiritual redemption, God’s love is aimed at all spheres of human existence. The
Handbook of Doctrine states, “Our doctrine reminds us that salvation is holistic: the work
9 Ibid., 105.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid., 160.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid., 160-61.
75 of the Holy Spirit touches all areas of our life and personality, our physical, emotional and spiritual well-being.”14
The Salvation Army confirms its Methodist heritage in taking the Wesleyan-
Arminian view of salvation and assurance. The handbook states, “Assurance does not mean that our salvation is guaranteed to us against our free will.”15 Falling from grace is possible, and the Christian must guard against temptation. The handbook continues,
“The commitment of faith made at the point of salvation must be followed by a continual development of our trusting and obedient relationship with God.”16 The Salvation Army doctrine of holiness also follows John Wesley’s teachings. As this will be taken up in some detail in Chapter 4, a simple recounting of the article of faith will suffice here. The
Salvation Army believes that “it is the privilege of all believers to be wholly sanctified, and that their whole spirit and soul and body may be preserved blameless until the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.”17
The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine offers a clear and concise articulation of Salvation Army theology. It is systematic and easily accessible. It strives to connect the Army with the Universal Church, yet keep its own distinctives. Most important, it demonstrates the Army’s commitment to combining word and deed, theology and practice. Every article of faith is accompanied by a call to action. Each tenet includes application. Salvationism is an active faith, and Salvationists are an active people. The
14 Ibid., 160.
15 Ibid., 180.
16 Ibid., 189.
17 Ibid., xvii.
76 very nature of the book—concise, easy to read, pragmatic—lends itself to the Army’s penchant for action over theory.
Discovering Christian Holiness: The Heart of Wesleyan-Holiness Theology, by Diane LeClerc
Diane LeClerc’s book, Discovering Christian Holiness: The Heart of Wesleyan-
Holiness Theology, is an exploration of Wesleyan holiness theology. As a professor of historical theology at Northwest Nazarene University and past president of the Wesleyan
Theological Society, LeClerc brings an experienced and first-hand perspective to the doctrine of holiness. Discovering Christian Holiness examines the topic of holiness from biblical, historical, theological and practical viewpoints, offering a systematic and pastoral treatment of this topic. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to examine the book to its full extent, it is appropriate to review elements that can inform Salvation
Army theology in general and Army clergy education in particular. Of special consideration is LeClerc’s tenet that holiness is both internal and external, as well as personal and corporate. LeClerc demonstrates that John Wesley saw holiness as a personal gift and calling of God that is lived out in community. If holiness is about receiving a full measure of God’s love, it is also about sharing that love with humanity.
“Practical holiness,” she explains, “is the ultimate goal of a Wesleyan interpretation of scripture.”18
LeClerc begins with an examination of holiness in the Old Testament. Her contention is that God’s character is best described as love, and it is that love that
18 Diane LeClerc, Discovering Christian Holiness: The Heart of Wesleyan-Holiness Theology (Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press, 2010), 48.
77 characterizes his relationship with and expectations of humanity. She writes, “It is love that most exactly defines God’s holiness and modifies God’s transcendent and immanent relationship with the World.”19 God’s character is not defined by sovereignty or justice, but of love for his creation. LeClerc states, “It is out of love that God calls humanity to enact its original design.”20 It is out of love that God imparts his own holy character on humanity, enabling his children to follow his will. She continues, “The holiness of God enables obedience and righteousness in those whom God claims.”21
“Holiness implies purity of heart,” states LeClerc. “This purity is an inner quality with outward expression.”22 Holiness, then, is more than a relationship with God; it is demonstrated in our relationship with others. LeClerc defines holiness as described in the
New Testament as “holistic,”23 and “both and individual and corporate calling.”24
“Holiness is not some abstraction; it is lived out through the grace of God,” asserts
LeClerc.25 Paul’s writings are demonstrative. LeClerc points to 1 Thessalonians 5:23-24 for support: “May God himself, the God of peace, sanctify you through and through.
May your whole spirit, soul and body be kept blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus
Christ. The one who calls you is faithful and he will do it.” This verse indicates several
19 Ibid., 153.
20 Ibid., 58.
21 Ibid., 62.
22 Ibid., 64.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid., 72.
78 key points. First, it reminds the reader that holiness, or sanctification, is an action of
God. It is God who imparts holiness, not humanity that earns it. Second, it includes the whole self: spirit, soul, and body. For LeClerc, as for Wesley, this implies that holiness includes one’s actions. She writes, “We are sanctified throughout our whole being.
There is no part of us that God’s sanctifying work does not touch.”26 LeClerc sees an even more explicit illustration in the writings of James, as she states, “The book of James is important in its portrayal of this embodied holiness in very practical ways.”27 One example of such practicality is found in James 1:27, which states, “Religion that God our
Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself from being polluted by the world.”
LeClerc uses these Scriptures to segue into a discussion of Wesley’s theology.
She contends that Wesley saw God’s holiness as defined by a holistic love. LeClerc writes, “Wesley maintained that love for God and neighbor is descriptive and normative of the Christian life.”28 Describing Wesley’s position she states, “Inward transformation, if real and sustained, necessarily led to what Wesley would call ‘acts of mercy’ performed out of genuine Godly love.”29 This is holiness love in action.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid., 73.
28 Ibid., 106.
29 Ibid., 230.
79 Educating Ministers
Salvation Army theology, following its Wesleyan foundations, aims for a practical approach to both faith and ministry. Its education program follows a similar path of balancing classroom education and practical experience. As this review now turns to an examination of literature concerning the education of ministers, it explores the broader issues involved in clergy education and how they affect the training programs for
The Salvation Army.
Educating Clergy: Teaching Practices and Pastoral Imagination, by Charles Foster, Lisa Dahill, Lawrence Golemon, and Barbara Tolentino
Educating Clergy: Teaching Practices and Pastoral Imagination, by Charles
Foster, Lisa Dahill, Lawrence Golemon, and Barbara Tolentino, is one of several volumes produced by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The book is part of a series of Carnegie studies that investigates how different professions prepare candidates for work in different professional occupations. Using research, classroom observation, case studies, and interviews, the authors aim to define the foundational goals of clergy education, and to identify the means of cultivating an educational program that truly prepares clergy for the task ahead. The authors ask simply, “How do seminary educators foster among their students a pastoral, priestly, or rabbinic imagination that integrates knowledge and skill, moral integrity, and religious commitment in the roles, relationships, and responsibilities that will be assuming in clergy practice?”30
30 Charles Foster, Lisa Dahill, Lawrence Golemon, and Barbara Tolentino, Educating Clergy: Teaching Practices and Pastoral Imagination (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006), 13.
80 Foster, Dahill, Golemon, and Tolentino recognize that the role of clergy is unique among professions, and that clergy education must go beyond simply equipping candidates with specific knowledge and skills. They write, “Clergy education involves more than teaching students a particular way of thinking; it requires that those ways of thinking be linked constructively with ways of being and doing.”31 Clergy educators are tasked not just with teaching subjects, but instilling within the students a set of beliefs and mindset.
The authors continue, “The world of clergy is complex and multifaceted. It involves multiple roles and responsibilities attentive to diverse human needs across the age span.”32 To that end, Foster and his colleagues see holistic education as critical.
They write, “Clergy educators thus approach teaching by considering each individual’s growth as both a person and as a religious leader.”33 The authors suggest that this holistic education be based not so much in religious studies, but in the religious faith of the students. They offer that clergy education is about “awaking the students to the presence of God . . . seeing and making sense of things from the perspective of the wholly other.”34
With that perspective, a clergy student can begin the task of religious leadership.
Educating Clergy notes that ministerial training also involves developing professional practices—most often through field education.35 The authors observe that
31 Ibid., 22.
32 Ibid., 68.
33 Ibid., 25.
34 Ibid., 103.
35 Ibid., 296.
81 there is a tension within the balance between academics and practical training. They assert, “Academic guilds expect evidence that seminaries contribute to the advancement of knowledge; sites of professional practice, like a congregation, expect evidence that the seminaries’ graduates have knowledge they can use.”36 Foster and his colleagues see field education as the bridge between the classroom and the congregation, and as an integral component of ministerial training. They state, “Field education develops the professional, vocational and pastoral roles as well as Christian character and lifestyle.”37
For the authors, field education brings together the three realms of clergy education: academics, practices, and character.
Educating Clergy offers an examination of the rigors of and expectations for ministry training. It is significant to note how closely The Salvation Army’s training program aligns with the key aspects of clergy education noted in the book. Clergy education includes both heart and head: faith and academics. It seeks to develop the whole person for a complicated, deeply personal profession. The authors contend that clergy education is best carried out as a combination of classroom and field training. The
Army’s current residential program offers similar emphases and the proposed distance education program would do so to an even greater degree.
Theological Education Matters: Leadership Education for the Church, by Linda Cannell
Linda Cannell’s book, Theological Education Matters: Leadership Education for the Church, is a highly accessible work on the threats to, and the failures of, the modern
36 Ibid., 296-97.
37 Ibid., 314.
82 clergy education system. Cannell states her premise succinctly: “The church has not consistently been well served by the schools and school-like institutions to which it has delegated the responsibility to prepare its own leaders.”38 Cannell asks hard questions and searches both historical records and contemporary seminaries for answers. She contends that modern theological education is threatened by the rise and power of institutionalism within the seminary, an over-reliance on academic theology, the emergence of professional training for ministers and an unfulfilled understanding of the need for minsters to know God. She addresses each of these concerns in order, tracing the history and development of the issue, and offering principles to guide seminaries and churches back to what she considers a more satisfactory pedagogy. Her overarching premise is that clergy education should not be limited to seminary classrooms, but should be holistic and lifelong in nature. A number of Cannell’s principles are instructive for
The Salvation Army and its clergy education program, including her call for a balanced pedagogy, a greater focus on spirituality, and the understanding that education is not limited to time spent in formal education.
Many seminaries, writes Cannell, are finding the old models outdated. “What is the point of a seminary education that requires more time than people are willing to give, more money that people are able to pay, more disconnection from family and career than people are willing to tolerate, and that seems to be less than effective in equipping women and men for leadership and ministry?”39 Education, she contends, needs to be more than academics. She writes, “Theological education is ineffectual if all that is
38 Linda Cannell, Theological Education Matters (Newburgh, IN: Edcot Press, 2006), 11.
39 Ibid., 19.
83 produced is knowledge of a set of propositions, polished skills or a well-stocked mind.”40
Instead, Cannell looks for a broader mode of learning: “What if we envisioned theological education as a synergy of several elements: the church, the academy, nontraditional learning, participating organizations in society and individual’s vocational experience and so on?”41 The picture Cannell creates is one of a continual learning praxis, not bound by a particular institution or ministry experience, but incorporating all of life’s experiences into learning opportunities. While most seminaries have some form of field education, they are often limited to individual projects or semesters. Cannell is envisioning something more robust—full apprenticeship and inculcation into ministry praxis and ethos. This approach is similar to the goals of this proposed distance learning model: full immersion into ministry leadership while taking formal classes and participating in spiritual development.
Cannell is concerned that seminaries are graduating students with more professional skills than spiritual maturity. She understands that a minister is also a business manager, but she contends that seminaries have their priorities in the wrong order. She writes, “As necessary as it is to have someone in a congregation who can assist with organizational matters, the more urgent need is for leaders who are able to assist congregations to understand and live out their identity as the people of God in the world.”42 She adds, “We make the mistake of equating organizational charisma with
40 Ibid., 43.
41 Ibid., 32.
42 Ibid., 260.
84 spiritual leadership.”43 Instead, the Church needs ministers with a “disposition of the soul toward God”—leaders who “understand and foster the desire to know God.”44
Cannell sees a holistic learning paradigm as a lifelong process, integrating all modes of education into the developmental process. “Practices,” she writes, “are learned by participation in a community.”45 Further, practices are learned over time. Cannell advocates looking at education as a lifelong endeavor, and sees some positive trends in this respect: “A shift is occurring: where institutional-instructional modes had been primary, there is a movement toward lifelong learning communities in multiple modes.”46
Lifelong learning roots the lessons in daily life, reinforcing them and creating a deeper commitment, both to the theory and the practice.
Cannell’s concept of clergy education is more spiritual in nature, more varied in pedagogy, and more embedded in daily life over the long term. This parallels The
Salvation Army’s vision of officer training. The priority is the officer’s spiritual well- being, followed by pastoral skills and professional abilities.
Salvation Army Officer Training
“Officer Training in the Salvation Army: An Institutional Analysis,” by Major Raymond Dexter
Major Raymond Dexter’s 1962 dissertation, “Officer Training in the Salvation
Army: An Institutional Analysis,” offers a unique insight into clergy education in The
43 Ibid., 261.
44 Ibid., 88.
45 Ibid., 291.
46 Ibid., 279.
85 Salvation Army. Although somewhat dated, it does provide a surprisingly contemporary critique of the Training College program and even forecasts some of the changes to the program that have occurred over the last fifty years. As an officer on the faculty of the
Salvation Army’s School for Officer Training in San Francisco, Major Dexter provides an insider’s view of officer training.
Dexter begins with a review of the history and purpose of the Army’s training program. As these topics have been discussed earlier (see Chapter 2), there is no need to revisit them in detail here. Most pertinent to this study are Dexter’s several critiques of the Training College, and how some have been addressed while others remain at issue.
Dexter contends that the education program needs continual analysis lest it become institutionalized and an end unto itself; similar to Cannell’s concerns about institutionalism noted above. Dexter is also worried that the Army’s resources are not being adequately used for training, and offers recommendations toward efficiency in the use of both property and personnel. Finally, Dexter sees deficiencies in the organizational structure of the Training College and advocates for changes to the leadership structure.
Dexter is critical of the Army’s use of personnel resources at the Training
College. He notes that “no one ever appointed to these roles [officers appointed to the
Training College as instructors] has ever had a professional training or experience.”47
According to his research, up until the time of his writing no officer with qualifications or formal education in teaching had been assigned to the College. More significantly, he
47 Ibid., 191.
86 seems to imply that officers on the faculty may not always have the character needed for such a heavy responsibility. He writes, “Expediency often dictates that capable field officers cannot be spared to serve on the training staff. The best designed course syllabus cannot be effective without adequate teaching staff. The most brilliantly conceived field training program loses its effectiveness if the field training or brigade officers lack the vision or the personality to put it into practice.”48 His inference is especially telling. He uses the phrase, “capable field officers cannot be spared to serve on the training staff,” as if the Army considers a posting to the training college of lesser importance than another posting. Dexter would be pleased to know that The Salvation Army now requires officers who teach core courses at the Training College to hold a master’s degree or higher in the field of study.
Interestingly, Dexter is concerned that the extension of training from one to two years, which came into existence a year before his writing, would result in an undue prioritization of academics over field training. He writes, “Little doubt exists that the general attitude of the Army toward the new two-year training sessions has been oriented in the direction of skills and knowledge.”49 Dexter would prefer to see the college broaden its horizons, and focus more on the character and spiritual development of the cadet. He contends that the Army must re-assert the purpose of training and ministry, training the heart at least as much as the head. He states, “Only as the school makes a value-centered approach to the training of officers shall it be able to fulfill the stated
48 Ibid., 175.
49 Ibid., 53.
87 purpose of providing ‘blood and fire’ officers.”50 In order to accomplish this, Dexter sees a need for more non-academic learning models. He advocates additional field education experiences where officers learn while doing. “The Salvation Army,” he writes, “badly needs to cultivate an appreciation for informal education.51 This comment foreshadows
Cannell’s preference for a holistic clergy education program that is focused outside the institution.
Dexter’s comments can inform the concept of distance education for the Army today. While he undoubtedly could not have conceived of an online learning community, he certainly envisioned a more purpose-driven, participation-filled training experience. A distance education program would surely make him proud.
Distance Education
The New Online Teaching Guide, by Ken White
The New Online Teaching Guide, by Ken White, is a helpful manual on online education. It is a revision of the 2000 original volume, The Online Teaching Guide, and it offers an introductory course on the principles and best practices of online classrooms.
Each of the chapters, several of which are written by colleagues of White, offers guidance and recommendations for online teachers on a variety of topics. White’s basic premise is that online learning is a social experience. He writes, “Online education is an inherently relational and human process, not reducible to sending and receiving electronic messages.” He adds, “It is not only an irresistible mechanism for learning, but a way of
50 Ibid., 54.
51 Ibid., 76.
88 relating to other human beings as well.”52 Just as in a classroom, online courses are about communication and building relationship. As such, they require an “interpersonal approach.”53 White contends that the starting point for any teacher new to online teaching is to understand interpersonal relationships. The instructor needs to recognize that his or her students are unique, and have different ways of communicating. White suggests that the online instructor, or facilitator as he prefers to call them, should seek to establish a supportive emotional climate using friendly tones, effective conflict management, and consistent feedback. He asserts, “It is the quality of relationships that is crucial.”54
Arlene Hiss authors the fourth chapter in the book, which focuses on overcoming barriers in the online class. Online education can be perceived as being impersonal and detached. Hiss suggests that the facilitator maintain visibility by posting frequently and by providing regular and timely feedback. She states, “Effective online instructors not only write to class meetings regularly, they provide frequent and consistent feedback to the class as well as individual students.”55
Patricia Addesso, another contributor, addresses the topic of group facilitation.
The facilitator, she explains, must manage the online conversation, ensuring that no one dominates the discussion and that no one gets left out. The facilitator is responsible to set
52 Ibid., vi.
53 Ibid., vii.
54 Ibid., 10.
55 Ibid., 47.
89 the tone, clarify the purpose, and manage the dynamics of the group discussion.56 To keep things both friendly and interpersonal, she recommends always using names when addressing or referring to students, watching for inappropriate posts, and providing appropriate direction to “noncontributers, monopolizers, distractors and know-it-alls.”57
Contributors Al Badger and Ken White recommend using “active learning” to keep the students engaged. Active learning involves numerous techniques, including whole-class discussion, brainstorming, quizzes, debates, information scavenger hunts, virtual field trips, and more.58
The Virtual Student: A Profile and Guide to Working with Online Learners, by Rena Palloff and Keith Pratt
Rena Palloff and Keith Pratt take the online teacher in a different direction in The
Virtual Student: A Profile and Guide to Working with Online Learners. Instead of looking at online education from the point of view of instructors, Palloff and Pratt examine online learning from the perspective of the student. Their focus is on the qualifications, needs and expectations of the learner. Palloff and Pratt suggest that the virtual student needs to be open, flexible, honest, carry a sense of humor, and be willing to work in collaboration with others. They state, “An important characteristic for the virtual student to possess in order to be successful in an online course is openness about personal details of his or her life, work and other educational experiences.”59 Such
56 Ibid., 101-02.
57 Ibid., 107.
58 Ibid., 112.
59 Ibid., 19.
90 openness promotes interpersonal relationships and community within the group. The online student must also be flexible: “Going with the flow in an online course, not being rattled when things go wrong and even facing the minor crises with humor help to keep the sense of community going.”60 Palloff and Pratt see collaborative work as especially important. They write, “It is a process that helps students achieve deeper levels of knowledge generation through the creation of shared goals, shared exploration and a shared process of meaning-making.”61 The instructor, say Palloff and Pratt, can assist the virtual student in these areas by being clear on expectations, modeling good participation and managing discussions with care.
Variations in learning styles are also a key characteristic of online learners. Since students are attracted to online education for a variety of reasons, the facilitator must take into account the fact that different people have different learning styles. The authors explain: “If an instructor uses multiple approaches to the material being presented in the entire online course along with the various types of assignments, the learning styles of all students will be engaged in the learning process.”62 Rather than present each module in a variety of ways, Palloff and Pratt suggest using various methods of presentation and engagement throughout the course.63 For instance, the facilitator might use text documents that would appeal to the visual-verbal learners who like to read information.
The facilitator could include graphs and charts for the sake of the visual-nonverbal
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid., 23.
62 Ibid., 29.
63 Ibid., 37-38.
91 students who prefer graphics and visual representations. For the auditory-verbal learners, who learn best via audible information, the instructor might consider offering audio files and participating in teleconferences. The logistical-mathematical learner relies on reasoning and logic, and is best served with case studies and problem-based questions.
Finally, the interpersonal-relational learner, who works best as part of a group, can be given group or team assignments.
Palloff and Pratt also examine the role that gender, culture, lifestyle, geography, literacy, and disability may play in online learning. They write, “Although it is seen as a great equalizer, the online environment does not meld all students into one type.”64 The diverse nature of the online classroom requires that the facilitator be sensitive and inclusive with content, multimedia, writing styles, web design, and the role of students and instructors. In some countries, for instance, it is unacceptable for a student to ask a teacher a question.65 The instructor must take such considerations into account. Palloff and Pratt remind the facilitator to ensure that content is politically correct, and that people of all genders feel equally included. For the student with language or reading challenges, they suggest offering off-line counseling and tutoring.
The Virtual Student offers unique insight into the needs and expectations of online students. Palloff and Pratt demonstrate that the key to online learning is the students themselves. Learning is truly about the learner, and online students are different from their in-class counterparts. The facilitator is responsible to create a learning environment that caters to the specific expectations of the virtual student while offering a genuine,
64 Ibid., 39.
65 Ibid., 40.
92 constructive educational experience. The Virtual Student is particularly helpful to this project as it can assist The Salvation Army in identifying qualified candidates for an online program and in setting up learner-based virtual communities.
Conclusions
This literature review represents a diverse examination of texts that inform the project being proposed. Each book provides foundational material as well as guidance for the proposal. The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine and LeClerc’s Discovering
Christian Holiness affirm the Army’s place in the Wesleyan Holiness community as well as its theology of practical, holistic ministry. The literature on ministry education, including Educating Clergy by Foster, Dahill, Goleman, and Wang and Theological
Education Matters by Cannell, confirms the concept that clergy education is more about character and spiritual maturity than academics, and that The Salvation Army’s prioritization of the person over classes is well placed. Also noted is the principle that clergy education is best conducted at least in part in praxis as opposed to in the classroom—a practice again confirmed by Salvation Army training programs. Dexter’s dissertation, “Officer Training in the Salvation Army,” demonstrates the history and purpose of the Army’s education system as well as its dedication to the balance between academics and practical application. Finally, the texts on distance education, The New
Online Teaching Guide, by White, and The Virtual Student, by Palloff and Pratt, offer general principles and specific guidance on setting up and running online classes which can be put into practice as The Salvation Army initiates its own online program. With this background information, this paper now turns to a study of the ecclesiology of The
93 Salvation Army, noting its distinctives and potential weaknesses. The next chapter also explores the theology and clergy education of other denominations in an attempt to glean insights and guidance for the Army’s new online education program.
94
CHAPTER 4
THE ECCLESIOLOGY OF THE SALVATION ARMY
“The Salvation Army, an international movement, is an evangelical part of the universal Christian Church,” asserts the Army’s international mission statement.1 The
Army declares itself a Church, but contends it is also something more—a movement, a mission. Some would call it a “parachurch” organization, or, in America, a “faith-based charitable institution.” Whatever the name, the Army’s purpose is clear, as stated in its mission statement: “Its message is based on the Bible. Its ministry is motivated by love for God. Its mission is to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ and met human need in his name without discrimination.”2 As noted above, the Army’s articles of faith can be traced to the creeds of the early Church, and most closely resemble those of its immediate predecessor, the Methodist Church. There are, however, several distinctives that set the
Army slightly apart. Quite apart from the uniforms or quasi-military language it uses, the
Army’s ecclesiology demonstrates its unique role in the Church. Its missional ministry,
1 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 266.
2 Ibid.
95 theology of holiness, and holistic view of salvation exhibit its ethos and its active, serving faith.
Missional Ministry
“For Salvationists, belief and action have always been intertwined,” declares The
Salvation Army’s Handbook of Doctrine.3 This is quintessential Salvation Army. The hallmark of Salvation Army theology and ministry has always been this combination of faith and application. For the Salvationist, faith cannot be merely personal or private; it is given in order to share. The Handbook of Doctrine states, “The mission of God’s holy people encompasses evangelism, service and social action.”4 God’s love is not simply to be accepted; it is to be demonstrated. The Church is not a sanctuary for the saints, but a staging ground for evangelism and service. Colonel Henry Gariepy, writing in Hallmarks of The Salvation Army, contends, “Jesus Christ calls us to servanthood, to the cross, to participation in what he is doing now in our world. The Salvation Army’s theology is a practical theology; it is not solitary, but social, not passive, but active.”5
This focus on mission is carried right through the Army’s theology and ministry.
Holiness, for instance, is defined in terms of mission. The Handbook of Doctrine states,
“Holiness leads to mission. It is the holy love of God, expressed in the heart and life of his people, pointing the world to Christ, inviting the world to saving grace, serving the
3 Ibid., xviii.
4 Ibid., 198.
5 Henry Gariepy and Stephen Court, eds., Hallmarks of The Salvation Army (Alexandria, VA: Crest Books, 2010), 161.
96 world with Christ’s compassion and attacking social evils.”6 To be holy, then, is to demonstrate God’s love in his world.
Mission can also be seen in the Army’s understanding of the work of the Holy
Spirit. The Handbook of Doctrine explains, “As mission is the very essence of
Salvationism, the connection between the Holy Spirit and mission and the Spirit’s empowerment for this must always be affirmed and lived out.”7 The Holy Spirit engages the believer for mission. The Salvationist is called on to listen for the Holy Spirit’s leading, and to rely on the Holy Spirit’s power for mission.
Evangelism is also a key factor in Salvation Army missiology. The Handbook of
Doctrine declares, “Our mission is to share in the mission of God: to tell the story of
Jesus and the reconciliation he offers with compelling passion so that other people recognize within it the source of their own salvation.”8 The Army was founded as a mission—a street ministry that sought to get people saved, and point them to a church.
That evangelical zeal is still alive today through new ventures, such as the Army’s new web-based television network, radio ministries, and other outreach programs.
Ecclesiology is also seen through the lens of mission. “In the congregation we discover and deploy our individual gifts for ministry and mission,” states the Handbook of Doctrine.9 The Salvation Army is a Church that faces outward, always striving to engage those outside the congregation. The handbook states, “The church gathers that it
6 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 198.
7 Ibid., 76.
8 Ibid., 85.
9 Ibid., 251.
97 may be sent out in mission.”10 In the language of an army, some of its ecclesiastical statements can be quite militant: “A sedentary band of satisfied soldiers will not result in mission effectiveness,” writes former National Commander Commissioner Israel Gaither in Hallmarks of The Salvation Army, edited by Henry Gariepy and Stephen Court.11
Gaither continues, “A mission Salvation Army is restless. A mission-focused Army confronts and never conforms.”12 Commissioner Robert Street, International Secretary for Europe, writes, “The Salvation Army was born to battle. This Army was designed to fight for people, to rescue them from poverty, misery, injustice and pain.”13 Clearly, mission is at the heart of The Salvation Army.
Holiness in Action
The Salvation Army defines holiness in terms of Christ-likeness. “It is becoming like Christ who is the true image of God,”14 states the Handbook of Doctrine. It is “the realization of the Christ life within us,”15 and “it is becoming like Christ who is the true image of God.”16 Holiness is a deepening relationship with God which in turn and in time results in more Christ-like behavior. The handbook states, “In holiness teaching one
10 Ibid., 252.
11 Israel Gaither, “Mission Must Matter,” in Gariepy and Court, Hallmarks of The Salvation Army, 2.
12 Ibid., 5.
13 Robert Street, Called to Be God’s People (London: The Salvation Army International Headquarters, 1999), 70.
14 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 192.
15 Ibid., 193.
16 Ibid., 192.
98 finds the very essentials of Salvationism, which are the intimate relationship between spirituality and service, the holy life and mission.”17
As with each of the other articles of faith, the Army’s holiness doctrine includes a call to engagement. “The holy life is expressed through a healing, life-giving and loving ministry,” declares the Handbook of Doctrine.18 Believers are called to be holy, becoming more Christ-like in thought, word, and deed. The handbook states, “During the experience of salvation the regenerating power of the Holy Spirit becomes a reality in the life of the believer, enabling us to move from the point of conversion and new life towards mature experience as a Christian.”19 The Salvationist, then, is called on not just to live a life personal holiness, but to share that life with others through evangelism and service. For the Salvation Army, holiness is another call to action: putting faith and theology into practice. Holiness is corporate as well as personal. It is expressed in loving others, in sharing God’s love in whatever manner is needed. The handbook states, “We are all called to live holy lives in the world and to see ourselves as set apart to be ministers or servants of the gospel.”20
Holistic Salvation
William Booth, the founder of The Salvation Army, was not intending to create a social services agency. As noted in Chapter 1, after years of ministry as a strictly
17 Ibid., 219.
18 Ibid., 198.
19 Ibid., 191.
20 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 252.
99 evangelical mission, he finally came to an understanding of salvation as not just spiritual, but for the whole person. He wrote,
Now I shouted, “I have found the remedy indeed.” Now I saw that this was the work that Jesus had come to accomplish—that he was manifested to dispossess all these fiends of evil for the souls of men, to destroy the work of the devil in the present time, and to set up in the soul the kingdom of heaven instead. I saw that when the Bible said, “He that believeth shall be saved,” it meant not only saved from the miseries of the future world, but from the miseries of this also.21
With that realization, the Army’s mission to holistic salvation was born. Salvation was a matter for the whole person. Salvation is not just spiritual, but physical as well.
Salvation from sin, but also salvation from poverty, vice, hopelessness, and despair became the theology and mission of the Army. The handbook states, “Our doctrine reminds us that salvation is holistic: the work of the Holy Spirit touches all areas of our life and personality, our physical, emotional and spiritual well-being.”22
Colonel Henry Gariepy discusses the implications of the Army’s holistic view of salvation: “It leads us to focus on the whole person rather than artificially dichotomizing him/her into a social and spiritual being. It recognizes the interdependence between all facets of the human condition—physical, emotional, intellectual, spiritual.”23 It is this theology of holistic salvation that informs Army ministry and mission. The handbook states, “All our activities, practical, social and spiritual, arise out of our basic conviction of the reality of the love of God and our desire to see all people brought into relationship
21 William Booth, “Salvation for Both Worlds,” All the World Magazine, January 1890, 2.
22 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 160.
23 Gariepy and Court, Hallmarks of The Salvation Army, 161.
100 with him.”24 Colonel Gariepy continues, “The cross of our Christian faith has two beams: the vertical beam of relationship to God, and the horizontal beam of relationship to others. The two intersect in our Christian faith to provide a holistic ministry, which has ever been a hallmark of The Salvation Army.”25
Missional ministry, practical holiness, and holistic salvation are indeed foundational distinctives of Salvation Army theology and practice. They are the heart of
Salvationist ethos and faith. The Army’s role in the Church as “Christianity with its sleeves rolled up” is a well-deserved moniker.
Potential Weaknesses of Salvation Army Theology
The Army’s theology has always been mission-focused. It is more concerned with evangelism and service than the nuances of academics or theology. As such, the
Army’s theology is purposely simple and concise. The official Salvation Army theology text, the Handbook of Doctrine, includes language that is directive and misssional rather than academic or abstract. This can be advantageous in that the theology is accessible and understandable to the average reader, and it keeps the Army focused on mission rather than theological debate. There are, however, some potential hazards in this strategy. The articles of faith, purposely leaving out details of explanation, leave room for potentially conflicting personal interpretation which may result in confusion and discord within Salvation Army congregations. While it is not the purpose of this paper or the intention of the author to denigrate The Salvation Army or its theology, these matters
24 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 160.
25 Gariepy and Court, Hallmarks of The Salvation Army, 161.
101 are worth exploring as they relate directly to the concerns for clergy education in The
Salvation Army.
The Salvation Army’s articles of faith are designed to be simple and easily understandable. Major Brian Jones, Director of Curriculum at the College for Officer
Training, states, “Our theology is more practical and directed towards the average
Salvationist who by and large is not as educated as in other denominations.”26 However, this simplicity also leaves room for personal opinion, which may in turn lead to confusion among both Army clergy and congregations. Leaving doctrinal statements as broad principles rather than spelling out the specifics of the theology can result in confusion and mixed messages for congregations and ministers alike.
For instance, while The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine states categorically that God is “creator, preserver and governor of all things,”27 it takes no stance on the debate between science and religion on the timing of creation. The
Handbook recognizes that the debate exists, but intentionally leaves the specifics to the discretion of the individual Salvationist. The purpose for this is admirable and understandable: “There is sometimes unnecessary conflict between Christians who adhere to different explanations as to the ‘how’ of creation,”28 says the Handbook.
The same argument can be made of the Army’s eschatology teachings. While the articles of faith clearly states, “We believe in the immortality of the soul, in the resurrection of the body, in the general judgment at the end of the world, in the eternal
26 Major (Dr.) Brian Jones, Director of Curriculum at The Salvation Army College for Officer Training, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 26, 2012.
27 The Salvation Army, The Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, xv.
28 Ibid., 40.
102 happiness of the righteous, and in the endless punishment of the wicked,”29 it makes no reference to the Army’s stance on millennialism. The handbook outlines each of the positions—a-millennialism, post-millennialism, pre-millennialism, and dispensationalism, but it leaves Salvation Army officers and members to determine which view they adhere to. While The Salvation Army wants to avoid getting bogged down in the deliberations, it does remind the reader to stay open to various interpretations.
Salvationists who are satisfied with a straightforward acceptance of Scripture as revealing all that one needs to know are cautioned to be open to scientific observations, while those who prefer a more scientific approach are reminded to “guard against failing to see God’s initiative, providence and purpose.”30
This is all quite positive and helpful, but it creates the possibility of just the kind of unhealthy debate that the Army is trying to avoid. In particular, it has the potential of creating confusion within congregations as various officers promote different interpretations of the doctrine. One officer may lean toward a scientific view of the creation story, while the next officer assigned to that corps may prefer a more traditional approach. Impressionable congregants are left not knowing which theory is acceptable.
If the doctrinal text was more explicit in its teachings, this kind of confusion could be more easily avoided.
This policy of using broad theological statements has implications for Salvation
Army clergy education. Jones writes, “The army has never had educational institutions
29 Ibid., xvi.
30 Ibid., 42.
103 that foster what we would consider to be deep scholarship.”31 The Salvation Army accepts candidates for training with little or no theological education. The two-year program, infused as it is with field training and practical experience, cannot hope to fully cover a detailed treatment of systematic theology. As a result, cadets at the training college receive only a basic education in Salvation Army doctrine, leaving officers with a somewhat shallow understanding of theology. This is an area that would benefit from further study. While the training college schedule and academic program are quite full, it is possible that additional, more in-depth theology classes could be added if deemed appropriate. An examination of the theology and education programs of other denominations will offer some guidance for The Salvation Army.
Ecclesiological Insights from Other Faith Traditions
As part of the universal Christian Church, The Salvation Army holds much in common with other Protestant denominations. This section reviews the theology and ecclesiology of the Church of the Nazarene and the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). It also examines the clergy education programs and principles of both denominations seeking insights and advice for The Salvation Army’s training program. The Church of the
Nazarene and the Presbyterian Church are both mainline Protestant denominations, well- respected and regarded in the United States and around the world. Although they are both Protestant and agree on most matters of theology, they differ on several key theological principles and have different priorities in their clergy education programs.
31 Jones interview, August 26, 2012.
104 This review of these diverse denominations and their education programs will provide counsel for the Army and the education program proposed in this paper.
The Church of the Nazarene: Balancing the Great Commissioning and the Greatest Commandment
The Church of the Nazarene is a holiness Church prioritizing world evangelism.
According to the Church of the Nazarene Manual 2009-2013, its mission is “to make
Christlike disciples in the nations.”32 It seeks to balance the Great Commission and the
Greatest Commandment. In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus commanded his followers to
“love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind,” and to “love your neighbor as yourself” (Matthew 22:37-39). Matthew also records Jesus’ last commandment, known as the Great Commission: “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations” (Matthew 28:19). These two passages inform the theology and praxis of the Nazarene Church: to fulfill God’s call to experience the fullness of
God’s love in holiness, and to obey the command to make disciples through worldwide evangelism and compassionate ministries. The Church of the Nazarene Manual states,
“The church fulfills its mission by making disciples through evangelism, education, showing compassion, working for justice, and bearing witness to the Kingdom of God.”33
“We are a holiness people,” declares the Church of the Nazarene website.34
“Because we are called by Scripture and drawn by grace to worship God and to love him
32 Dean Blevins et al., Church of the Nazarene Manual 2009-2013 (Kansas City, MO: Nazarene Publishing House, 2009), 5.
33 Ibid., 35.
34 The Church of the Nazarene, “The Church of the Nazarene Values,” http://nazarene.org/ ministries/administration/visitorcenter/values/display.html (accessed September 10, 2013).
105 with our whole heart, soul, mind, and strength, and our neighbors as ourselves, we commit ourselves fully and completely to God.”35 Holiness is at the heart of the
Nazarene Church. The denomination sees itself as heirs to John Wesley, called by God to continue Wesley’s teachings and to embody them in practice. The website states, “We are especially called to witness to the holiness of Christ’s church as embraced in the
Wesleyan-holiness tradition.”36
Along with a theology of holiness, the Nazarene Church embraces an ecclesiology of mission. The website states, “We are a sent people, responding to the call of Christ and empowered by the Holy Spirit to go into all the world.”37 It is here that the Nazarene
Church balances the Great Commission and the Great Commandment in mission. The website confirms,
As people who are consecrated to God, we share His love for the lost and His compassion for the poor and broken. The Great Commandment and the Great Commission move us to engage the world in evangelism, compassion and justice. . . . Both the Great Commission and the Greatest Commandment are central to the understanding of our mission. They are two expressions of a single mission, two dimensions of the gospel message.38
Like The Salvation Army, the Church of the Nazarene understands this to be a holistic commandment—that salvation and discipleship is for the whole person. The Church asserts, “It is our mission to be ministers of God’s love to people as whole persons—
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
106 body, soul and spirit.”39 It is significant as well that, like The Salvation Army, the
Nazarene Church accepts a particular mandate to minister to the poor. According to the
Church of the Nazarene 2009-2013 Manual, “The Christian’s responsibility to the poor is an essential aspect of the life of every believer who seeks a faith that works through love.”40 The manual continues, “We believe Christian holiness to be inseparable from ministry to the poor. . . . Holiness, far from distraction believers from the desperate economic needs of people in this world, motivates us to place our means in the service of alleviating such need.”41
The Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene are very much alike in this balance of holiness and holistic mission. For the Army, the call to minister to the marginalized is rooted in seeing each individual as a whole person: body, mind, and soul.
For the Nazarene Church, that same call to minister to the needy arises from God’s command to be holy, and to act personally and corporately through a full measure of
God’s love.
The Presbyterian Church: The Sovereignty of God
The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) traces its Protestant lineage through the
Reformed movement to the teachings of John Calvin. Most of its theology parallels that of The Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene, with the exception of the doctrines of predestination and assurance. The core beliefs of the Presbyterian Church
39 Ibid.
40 Dean Blevins et al., Church of the Nazarene Manual 2009-2013 (Kansas City, MO: Church of the Nazarene Headquarters, 2013), 47.
41 Ibid.
107 are rooted in reformed theology: the sovereignty of God, the authority of Scripture, justification of grace through faith, and the priesthood of all believers.42 Chief among these articles of faith are an understanding of God’s ultimate sovereignty, and a church polity that includes lay leaders as well as clergy. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) website states, “Presbyterians are distinctive in two major ways. They adhere to a pattern of religious thought known as reformed theology and a form of government that stresses the active, representational leadership of both ministers and church members.”43
Reformed theology is based in the concept that God is the ultimate and final authority.
The website continues, “Central to this [reformed] tradition is the affirmation of the majesty, holiness and providence of God who creates, sustains, rules and redeems the world in the freedom of sovereign righteousness and love.”44 The sovereign God has full control over all creation; humanity’s response is to glorify, worship, and obey.
Reformed theology prioritizes the priesthood of all believers. All Christians are responsible to carry forth the gospel in the regular course of life. Their actions and activities combine to make up the mission of the Church. According to the Constitution of the Presbyterian Church Book of Confessions,
The church disperses to serve God wherever its members are, at work or play, in private or in the life of society. Their prayer and Bible study are part of the church’s worship and theological reflection. Their witness is the church’s evangelism. Their daily action in the world is the church in mission to the world.
42 The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), “Presbyterian Theological Beliefs,” Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), http://www.presbyterianmission.org/ministries/101/ (accessed September 9, 2012).
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
108 The quality of their relation with other persons is the measure of the church’s fidelity.45
In the Presbyterian Church, governing authority is vested elected laypersons and clergy. According to the denomination’s national website, “The Presbyterian Church
(U.S.A.) is distinctly a confessional and connectional church, distinguished by the representation of elders—laymen and laywomen—into government.”46 The Constitution of the Presbyterian Church Book of Confessions states, “In recognition of special gifts of the Spirit and for the ordering of its life as a community, the church calls, trains, and authorizes certain members for leadership and oversight.”47 The denomination selects members for training as lay leaders or ordained clergy, including them at all levels of church governance and polity.
Clergy Education Insights from Other Faith Traditions
Both the Church of the Nazarene and the Presbyterian traditions have elements in common with The Salvation Army. All three accept the ancient creeds of the Church, and all three trace their protestant heritage back to the Reformation. Each confesses the ultimate sovereignty of God and authority of the Scriptures. They agree that salvation comes by grace through faith and not by any action or works. Yet all three have distinctive elements that set them apart, giving them different priorities and ministries.
Nazarenes focus on promoting holiness and see mission as the axis between love of God and love of neighbor. Presbyterian theology centers on God’s dominion and the mission
45 The Presbyterian Church, The Constitution of the Presbyterian Church (Louisville, KY: The Office of the General Assembly, 2004), 258.
46 The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), “Presbyterian Theological Beliefs.”
47 The Presbyterian Church, The Constitution of the Presbyterian Church, 258.
109 and ministry of all believers in and through the local church. Salvationists see mission as primary, focusing ministry on those in need. These distinctives carry implications for clergy education for each of these denominations. The following section examines the ministry preparation programs for both the Church of the Nazarene and the Presbyterian
Church (U.S.A.), seeking models that can inform The Salvation Army’s clergy education program going forward.
Clergy Education in the Church of the Nazarene
The Church of the Nazarene has a sophisticated and comprehensive system for the preparation of ministers, as well as a declared commitment to Christian education in general. According to the denomination’s international website, “We are committed to the pursuit of knowledge, the development of Christian character, and the equipping of leaders to accomplish our God-given calling of serving in the Church and in the world.”48
The denomination’s dedication to higher education can be seen in its network of fifty-five
Nazarene colleges, universities, and seminaries around the world. It is also consistent with the Nazarene’s overall dedication to mission and service, fitting into a broader commitment to Christian leadership. The denomination’s website states, “This commitment of Christian higher education and the formation of the whole person is critical for the development of Christian men and women for missional leadership in the church and in the world.”49
48 The Church of the Nazarene, “The Church of the Nazarene, Values,” http://nazarene.org/ ministries/administration/visitorcenter/values/display.html (accessed September 10, 2013).
49 Ibid.
110 The Church of the Nazarene has two manuals that provide detailed explanations of the Nazarene clergy education program and expectations for ordained ministers.
These are The International Sourcebook on Developmental Standards for Ordained
Ministers (hereafter, the Sourcebook) and the Handbook for Christian Ministers (the
Handbook). Every licensed minister of the Church of the Nazarene must complete a validated course of study under the supervision of the local District Ministerial Studies
Board. The course of study can be taken at a Nazarene college or university or an alternate form of education approved by the District. The Sourcebook lists the minimum educational standards expected for all Nazarene clergy candidates, and any course of study offered by a Nazarene college or other institution must adhere to the listed requirements. The minimum educational standards are equivalent to three years of full time college study. The Handbook lists eighty specific learning outcomes, or “Ability
Statements,” which all courses of study are expected to include. The Ability Statements grouped under four categories of expectations: content, competency, character, and context, and include biblical studies, hermeneutics, theology, church history, Nazarene church polity, finances and administration, pastoral care, counseling, evangelism,
Christian education, worship, and other related disciplines.50
In addition to this concrete subject matter, Nazarene minister candidates are expected to demonstrate personal character and spiritual maturity based on a three-point plan of “being,” “knowing,” and “doing.” The “being” expectations are particularly compelling:
50 The Church of the Nazarene, Handbook for Christian Ministries: Called to Ministry, A Journey of Service (Knoxville, KY: The Church of the Nazarene, 2005), 13.
111 For the minister “to be,” the desired outcomes are expressed in: 1. loving God with all the heart, soul, mind, and strength and the neighbor as oneself as expressed in Christian holiness; 2. spirituality with an abiding sense of God’s call; 3. existence as a person in relationship to the community of faith; 4. unquestioned integrity and honor; 5. compassion, patience and perseverance; 6. self-discipline and self-control; 7. humility, gentleness and sensitivity to others; 8. passion and courage; and 9. wisdom and discernment.51
These expectations are significant in that they are neither education- nor competency- based. They provide evidence that clergy education in the Nazarene Church is about more than education or competency, but also about character, spiritual maturity, and integrity; it is about who the minister is to “be,” not just what he or she has to know.
Ministry education is preparing the “whole person,” ensuring that ministers are not just well-educated, but well-rounded individuals.
A Nazarene clergy-candidate begins the process by choosing a school and an education delivery system. A candidate who is of college age and does not already have a college degree, for instance, may decide to attend a Nazarene college or university to obtain a bachelor’s degree. A candidate who already holds an applicable degree may opt to take non-degree courses. The ideal, according to the Handbook, is for a candidate to obtain a bachelor’s degree with a major in religion from a Nazarene college or university and a graduate degree from Nazarene Theological Seminary.52
51 Church of the Nazarene, International Sourcebook on Developmental Standards for Ordained Ministers (Knoxville, KY: Church of the Nazarene, 2005), 9.
52 Church of the Nazarene, Handbook for Christian Ministries, 9.
112 While both the Handbook and the Sourcebook suggest that the preferred path toward ordination is through a Nazarene college, other options are available. On the
Church of the Nazarene’s clergy website, the following statement is made regarding clergy education: “Ideally, instruction should be face to face group learning under the guidance of a qualified teacher. When the ideal is not possible, virtual community can be created through online formats or through supervised, independent learning.”53 For those over college age, who already have a degree, or whose responsibilities or life situations prohibit attending a Nazarene college, a distance education program can be substituted.
The website also states, “Internet technologies have greatly increased the opportunities to pursue academic degrees at our Nazarene colleges and universities.”54
In addition to a validated course of study, a candidate for ordination must complete three consecutive years of full-time ministry as a preaching pastor or four years as a part-time preaching pastor under the supervision of a licensed Nazarene minister.
Once a candidate has completed the prescribed course of study and ministry, he or she may apply for ordination. The District Board of Ministry reviews the candidate’s academic and personal file and determines fitness for ordination.
Clergy Education in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
The Presbyterian Church’s commitment to the “priesthood of all believers” is captured in the first sentence on the denomination’s “Becoming a Presbyterian minister”
53 Church of the Nazarene, “Clergy Education,” http://www.Nazarenepastor.org/ clergyeducation/default.html (accessed September 9, 2012).
54 Ibid.
113 webpage: “Presbyterians believe that all persons are called to ministry in their communities, however particular forms of leadership are needed for the work of the church.”55 The Church’s ministry preparation and education program is less specific than that of either The Salvation Army or the Church of the Nazarene. The process begins when an individual expresses a calling and makes an application to the church’s local session (that is, the governing board). With the approval of the board, the prospective candidate enters a two-year “inquiry period,” where the prospective candidate is exposed to ministry opportunities and the board examines his or her suitability for ministry. With the acceptable completion of the inquiry period, the individual is designated a
“candidate,” and a further period of intensive preparation begins under the auspices of the
Committee on Preparation for Ministry.
Typically, Presbyterian candidates for ordination have an undergraduate degree as well as a seminary degree. However, unlike The Salvation Army and the Church of the
Nazarene, which require their candidates to attend a denominational school, Presbyterian candidates may attend any accredited institution of higher education and seminary of their choice. Regardless of the major or degree, candidates must pass standards exams produced and overseen by the Committee on Preparation for Ministry. The exams test competency in areas such as Bible, theology, Presbyterian polity, worship, and the sacraments. Once the candidate passes these tests and submits a personal statement of
55 Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), “Becoming a Presbyterian Minister,” http://www.presbyterianmission.org/ministries/101/minister/ (accessed September 10, 2012).
114 faith, the Committee reviews the case in its entirety and makes a recommendation for or against ordination.56
Ecclesiology Informing Education
Dr. Kevin Mannoia, Chaplain and Professor of Ministry at Azusa Pacific
University and author of a number of books including The Integrity Factor: A Journey in
Leadership Formation, granted an extensive interview for this paper. According to Dr.
Mannoia, the greatest challenges that face traditional clergy education today are relevancy, integration, focus, and sustainability.57 According to Dr. Mannoia,
“Attempting to walk the ever present balance between classical theological education and a praxis that makes a difference in the mission of the church” is perhaps the greatest challenge for theological schools today. He continues, “Traditional theology/clergy education has tended to lean increasingly away from the practical and requires constant efforts to remain balanced.”58 Dr. Mannoia contends that the focus on clergy education should not actually be on either education or praxis. In actual fact, “the priority of theological/clergy education should be the formation of a pastoral identity.”59 Dr.
Mannoia has recognized a crucial element here. This is the true heart of ministry preparation: not necessarily the specific skills or knowledge needed for the job, but the character of self, the essence of the person. The pastoral identity is not so much taught as
56 Ibid.
57 Dr. Kevin Mannoia, Professor of Ministry, Azusa Pacific University, email message to the author, October 10, 2012.
58 Ibid.
59 Ibid.
115 it is recognized, encouraged, and then equipped. The role of education, then, is to equip the student “to allow authentic expression of that identity in furthering the mission of the church.”60
Dr. Mannoia agrees that there continues to be tension between academics and praxis. He suggests that the best pedagogy would be “an interactive partnership between the academy and the church; collaborative efforts between academic experts and pastoral mentors; an integrative curricular path; and a context for learning that is primarily led by the church with the academy in support.”61 Dr. Mannoia envisions an education system where the world is the classroom and the academy is the lab, where the primary education is in the field and the secondary is at the school. Again, Dr. Mannoia offers a key observation: learning is perhaps best done in praxis, where the student learns not only the skills of the trade, but can develop the character for the ministry. The key to clergy education is the integration of academics and praxis, and the cooperation of the Church and academy. In this The Salvation Army is fortunate in that it has its own academy, which all Salvation Army clergy is required to attend, and from which all graduates are assigned a responsibility within the Church. This creates a strong connection between the academy and the Church, requiring them to interact and inform one another.
A comparison of the Nazarene and Presbyterian methods of ministerial preparation is instructive for The Salvation Army. Two points in particular emerge from this comparative study: the relative benefits of education verses training, and the opportunity to use lessons learned to “build a better officer.” To be sure, education and
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
116 experience go hand in hand, but as can be seen from this basic review, the different denominations prioritize different experiences.
It is of particular note that both the Church of the Nazarene and the Presbyterian
Church (U.S.A.) require a higher standard of education than The Salvation Army. In the
Army system, the candidate need have only a high school diploma to apply, and the only degree earned from the Training College is an Associate of Arts degree in Ministry. For the other two denominations, a four-year college degree is expected and a graduate degree is preferred. While the Army’s associate of arts degree is fully transferrable and
Salvation Army Officers are required to continue their education past ordination, it is clear that Army ministers have less formal education than their Presbyterian or Nazarene counterparts. It may be noted that The Salvation Army has chosen this path purposely, focusing on mission rather than theology. “The qualifiers of character outweigh the previous diplomas that may have been accumulated,” says Major Tim Foley, Training
Principal. He continues, “It’s nice to have the education and experience but it also says something about our dependence of the work of God in a person’s life when they can come to us rough and raw and be transformed to a life of service.”62
The Army uses the term “training” on purpose—broadening the expectations from academics alone to a full spectrum of learning experiences. The Salvation Army sees academics as only a part of ministry preparation. While both the Church of the Nazarene and the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) acknowledge the same principle, they lean toward more education in addition to experience. That is to be expected based on their denominational prioritization of theology. It may be noted that, while the Salvation
62 Foley interview, August 22, 2012.
117 Army training program may not prioritize academics to the same degree, it does mandate full completion of the two-year program. While the training college course of study is only two years in length, it is an intense and focused training period. Of the two years
(actually twenty-two months), four are spent in apprenticeship, and eighteen are spent in the classroom. As cadets live in residence and have no outside jobs or responsibilities, the learning curve is steep and comprehensive. Major Brian Jones, Director of
Curriculum, states, “We expect officers to engage our continued education program after they are commissioned, but we are confident that they are sufficiently equipped and prepared for ministry through the training process.”63 Major Jones also notes that officer training is actually an eight-year continuum: candidates take an online preparatory course prior to training, then complete the two years at the training college, then are required to take five years of additional continuing education classes in the form of seminars or formal higher education.64
It is encouraging to note that all three denominations include a form of apprenticeship in their clergy education programs. Hands-on experience and field education are accepted practices and it is reassuring to know that the Army is engaging in this training opportunity. Both The Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene require candidates to attend denominational schools. This is appropriate since both denominations have specific and unique mandates for ministry and candidates are required to ingest a great deal of denomination-specific information. The Presbyterian
Church’s requirement of three years in active ministry before ordination is a learning
63 Jones interview, August 8, 2012.
64 Ibid.
118 point for the Army. The Salvation Army should consider whether or not its officers participate in sufficient pre-ordination ministry experience. While many Salvationist candidates are involved in lay leadership positions prior to training, it is not required.
Some officers are assigned as “Assistant Corps Officers” upon ordination, which is basically an apprenticeship while they wait for a full assignment. This too, however, is not the case for every officer. While it is impossible to gauge the precise amount of time that would be spent in apprenticeship, it is worth noting that the Army lags behind the other denominations in this regard.
As The Salvation Army considers how to “build a better officer,” it must ask whether a longer training period should be included, and whether officers would benefit from additional field training or academic classes. It is beyond the scope of this paper to answer these questions in full, but this cursory comparison does offer some guiding principles. The Salvation Army is certainly justified in using a combination of residential education and field apprenticeship. Due to its focus on mission and active ministry, a balance toward more ministry experience may be beneficial. While budget concerns and field personnel needs preclude a longer formal training period, both the pre-training classes and the continued education program could be intensified to offer additional support and development. Pertinent to this paper, it is possible that the online program could be used to enhance both of these programs.
119
CHAPTER 5
HOLISTIC EDUCATION FOR HOLISTIC MINISTRY
With a deeper understanding of the theology and mission of The Salvation Army, along with information gleaned from other denominations regarding clergy education, this study can move forward to explore the biblical foundations and models for clergy education. Thus far this paper has demonstrated that The Salvation Army’s mission and theology lend themselves to a pragmatic approach to clergy education. Its focus on holiness, holistic salvation, and practical application of ministry suggest that an education based more on praxis and spiritual maturity than academic classes is most appropriate for the Army. Learning that clergy education as a whole highly values field education and apprenticeship demonstrates that The Salvation Army is heading in the right direction.
This ministry focus paper now turns to a focus on biblical models of education.
The Bible includes many examples of teaching styles and forms, and much can be learned from even a cursory examination of the narratives. As this study has discussed, best practices in clergy education include an element of immersion and field education, a concept with which the biblical narratives agree. This chapter discusses a selection of scriptural foundations and models that pertain directly to The Salvation Army’s mode of
120 ministry and to the potential for a distance learning program. Scripture evidences holistic education for holistic ministry. The work of a minister is broad and wide-ranging, with myriad responsibilities and duties. The minister’s education must be equally comprehensive. Jesus, the consummate teacher, used a variety of teaching styles to communicate different messages. He taught humility and service by serving others, he demonstrated evangelism by participating with his disciples, and he communicated truths by simple stories. He taught by both word and deed, often teaching through what he did as much as what he said. Moses, Paul, and Timothy demonstrate the benefits of personalized education. Moses was educated though circumstances, learning as he transitioned through the stages of his life. Paul taught theology and ethics to millions through his public writings, and educated young Timothy through a personal correspondence course.
Jesus and His Disciples: Teaching through Word and Deed
Jesus Christ has long been acknowledged as a master teacher. Roy Zuck writes in
Teaching as Jesus Taught, “Read through the Gospels, and you quickly conclude that
Jesus was a dynamic, remarkably effective teacher. Never boring, always stimulating.
Never obtuse, always clear. Never pompous or distant, always personal and lovingly concerned. No wonder people who heard him teach often addressed him as ‘Teacher.’”1
Jesus was the incarnate Son of God, sent to claim victory over sin and death, but he was also a teacher—sent to teach lessons on godliness, forgiveness, and the Kingdom of
Heaven. His methods were engaging; his teachings challenging and life-changing.
1 Roy B. Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1995), 10.
121 Clement of Alexander, writing in the first century, states, “As teacher, he explains and reveals through instruction, but as an educator he is practical.”2 This is at the heart of the success of Jesus’ method. Apart from the fact that he was the Son of God and thus had intrinsic power and gravitas, he simply knew how to teach individuals. He understood the best format and style to use in any given learning opportunity. He was practical.
While he taught the masses lessons on salvation and the Kingdom of God, he taught his disciples about servanthood, leadership, and preparing for the future Church. He taught them how to serve by being an example of servanthood. He taught them about leadership by participating with them in ministry. He taught them about godliness through storytelling.
Teaching by Example: Helping Those in Need
In Matthew 28: 37-40 (cf. Mark 12:28-34), responding to a question from the
Pharisees, Jesus defined the greatest commandments: “‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’ This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’” In explaining this further, he told the parable of the good Samaritan who provided care and comfort to the injured Jewish man, concluding with, “Go and do likewise” (Luke 10:37).
Matthew 19:21 records Jesus’ counsel on obtaining eternal life: “If you want to be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven.” In Matthew 25 Jesus shares a picture of judgment day when the King will thank those who showed compassion on those in need: “For I was hungry and you gave me
2 Clement, The Instructor, 1.7.55, quoted in Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught, 17.
122 something to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me something to drink, I was a stranger and you invited me in, I needed clothes and you clothed me, I was sick and you looked after me, I was in prison and you came to visit me” (Matthew 25:35-46). In Luke, Jesus declared his mission, quoting Isaiah: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor” (Luke 4:18-19).
Clearly Jesus had an affinity for the poor and marginalized. He taught over and over that believers are to help people in need, to bring comfort to those in distress, and to love neighbors as themselves. Jesus did not just teach these precepts; he acted on them as well. Over and over again, the gospels record instances of Jesus helping others. The
Gospel of Mark alone includes at least fourteen narratives of Jesus taking care of people’s needs.3 Jesus met health needs when he healed blindness (Mark 8:22), leprosy (Mark
1:40-45), hemorrhaging (Mark 5:25-34), and paralysis (Mark 2:1-12). He met physical needs when he fed the five thousand (Mark 6:30-44), and again when he fed four thousand (Mark 8:1-13). He gave dignity back to the leper and the demon possessed, and provided the opportunity for gainful employment to the paralytic. Each of these actions provided a lesson for his disciples. As they watched him, they saw that he lived out his own teachings, providing an example for them to follow. Jesus taught his disciples through both word and deed.
3 This list is representative rather than exhaustive, but includes: demon possession (1:23-26 and 5:1-20), fever (1:30-34), leprosy (1:40-45), paralysis (2:1-12), a shriveled hand (3:1-6), fear of a storm (4:31-45), death of a child (5:35-43), hemorrhaging (5:25-34), food for five thousand people (6:30-44), deafness (7:31-37), food for four thousand people (8:1-13), blindness (8:22-26 and 10:46-52), and seizures (9:17-27).
123 Teaching by Participation: Ministry Practicum
Jesus not only taught by example, but by participation. He put the disciples to work, expecting them to follow his lead and learn as they worked together. Matthew
4:19-20 describes the calling of the first disciples: “‘Come, follow me,’ Jesus said, ‘and I will make you fishers of men. At once they left their nets and followed him.” The disciples spent the greater part of three years with Jesus, listening, learning, and working alongside him. They ate together, traveled together, and experienced both the highs and lows of ministry together.
After two years together, Jesus sent them out on their own. Mark writes, “Calling the Twelve to him, he sent them out two by two and gave them authority over evil spirits”
(Mark 6:7). Jesus’ instructions were indicative of true “field education”: “Take nothing for the journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in your belts. Wear sandals but not an extra tunic. Whenever you enter a house, stay there until you leave that town”
(Mark 6:8-10). The disciples were being taught faith, initiative, and self-reliance as they took on ministry responsibility.
Later that year, Jesus included them in ministry again, and this time, administered a test of sorts. With five thousand men plus women and children gathered on the shore of the Sea of Galilee to hear him, Jesus knew the crowds needed to eat. When the disciples came to Jesus suggesting he send them away to the nearby villages to get dinner, he responded, “You give them something to eat” (Mark 6:37). They had worked alongside
Jesus for over two years, and had spent time apart from him teaching and ministering on their own. Now was a chance for them to demonstrate their progress. Unfortunately, they showed a singular lack of creativity: “They said to him, ‘That would take eight
124 months of a man’s wages. Are we to go and spend that much on bread and give it to them to eat?’” Jesus included them in his solution, asking them to direct the people to sit down in groups, giving them the food to distribute, and having them collect the leftovers after everyone had eaten. Jesus taught his students by having them participate in the work at hand.
Teaching through Stories: Godliness
Jesus taught on numerous topics during his earthly ministry. Zuck counts fifty distinct discourses that Jesus delivered, covering topics from humility (Matthew 18:21-
35) and forgiveness (Mark 9:33-37) to prayer (Luke 11:1-15), worry (Luke 12:22-34), and the cost of discipleship (Luke 14:25-35).4 Robert Stein, writing in The Method and
Message of Jesus’ Teaching, suggests that Jesus taught on four main themes: the
Kingdom of God, the fatherhood of God, ethics of the Kingdom, and Christology.5 Jesus used different forms and styles of teaching depending on the occasion, audience, and content of his message. At times, he used hyperbole, such as his criticism of the scribes and Pharisees in Matthew 23:23-24: “Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! For you tithe mint, dill and cumin, and have neglected the weightier matters of the law: justice and mercy and faith. It is these you ought to have practiced without neglecting the others. You blind guides! You strain out a gnat but swallow a camel!” At other times, he used similes—comparisons between two unlike things in order to make a point. Luke
17:6 is a good example: “If you had faith the size of a mustard seed, you could say to this
4 Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught.
5 Robert H. Stein, The Message and Message of Jesus’ Teachings, rev. ed. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994), xiii-ix.
125 mulberry tree, ‘Be uprooted and planted in the sea,’ and it would obey you.” At still other times, he taught in the form of questions and answers. In Mark 8:27-28, the gospel writer records the words of Jesus: “‘Who do people say that I am?’ And they answered him, ‘John the Baptist; and others, Elijah; and still others, one of the prophets.’” Verse
31 states, “Then he began to teach them that the Son of Man must undergo great suffering, and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the scribes.”
Jesus is perhaps best known, however, for his teaching through parables. Stein writes, “This is the most characteristic element of his teaching, for not less than thirty- five percent of his teaching in the Synoptic Gospels is found in parabolic form.”6 Stein defines a parable as an analogy—a string of metaphors that suggests a comparison between the fictional character and an actual truth. He explains, “It may be brief or extended, but it is generally an analogy used in an illustrative way.”7 Zuck defines the word “parable” by using the Greek translation of its two root words: “para,” meaning
“beside,” and “ballein,” which means “to throw.” Zuck explains, “So a parable is a story that places one truth beside another to clarify or emphasize a point.”8 Zuck lists thirty- nine separate instances of Jesus teaching in parables in the Gospels.9
Jesus used parables to teach a number of lessons, from God’s sovereignty
(Matthew 20:1-16) to the kingdom of God (Matthew 13: 24-33) to compassion toward one’s neighbors (Luke 15:3-10). Many of his parables taught about character and ethics.
6 Ibid., 33.
7 Ibid., 34.
8 Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught, 307.
9 Ibid., 309-310.
126 Jesus used parables to teach both the crowds and his disciples. He taught about godliness and holiness: how to live a life for God and for others. He told the story of the wise and foolish builders to teach obedience. The person who listened to Christ’s words and put them into practice was like the wise builder, who built his house on rock. The person who did not heed Christ’s words was like the foolish builder who built his house on sand
(Matthew 7:24-27). Jesus taught about forgiveness through the story of the unmerciful servant who refused to forgive a debt owed to him, but expected leniency from the master he was indebted to (Matthew 18:23-35). He taught against the dangers of pride in telling the story of the Pharisee and tax collector’s prayers at the Temple. The Pharisee boasted and proclaimed his worth, while the tax collector came with humility (Luke 17:9-14).
The famous story of the Good Samaritan taught about compassion and against prejudice
(Luke 10:25-37). In Matthew 25:1-13 Jesus used a parable about ten virgins who did not properly prepare for a wedding to stress the need to be ready for the coming Kingdom.
He shared the parable of the talents to teach diligence and responsibility in even small duties (Matthew 25:14-30). Jesus taught a parable about a rich young man who decided to build bigger storage barns to hold his wealth, only to die that very night (Luke 12:14-
21). In this way, Jesus taught against greed and materialism. In each case, Jesus used stories to share and explain truths and expectations. Being a disciple meant obedience, humility, compassion, readiness, diligence, and contentment. The disciples learned much of their responsibilities and of Christ’s expectations through the stories Jesus told. Jesus understood the dynamics of his teaching ministry. The crowds heard his preaching on the
Kingdom of God and the need to repent and prepare. The disciples received teaching on the cost of discipleship and the expectations of ministry.
127 Leadership Formation in Scripture: A Case for Personalized Education
The Bible offers a number of lessons on the benefits of focused, personalized leadership development. Moses, Paul, and Timothy are examples of different ways of teaching and learning. In each case, the teaching was learner-based and tailored to the needs of the student. God himself prepared Moses for his leadership role through several different experiences, using different stages and people in his life to guide him toward effective leadership. Paul taught through his epistles, offering broad topics of theology and ethics, but also targeting his lessons to particular congregations with specific needs.
Paul then taught Timothy in a different manner, writing directly to him in what may considered an early form of a correspondence course. In each of these examples, personalized, learner-focused teaching benefited the learner.
Moses: Learning Leadership in Praxis
The hand of God was evident in preparing Moses for leadership long before he began any formal education. He was Hebrew by birth, but was raised in the Egyptian royal court. When the Pharaoh’s daughter found him in that papyrus basket on the Nile
River, it was Moses’ sister Marian who quickly offered to find a Hebrew woman to nurse the child. Thus Moses spent his earliest years in his own Hebrew family, no doubt being told of his Israelite heritage and the plight of his people. We do not know how long this period lasted; scholars suggest that the phrase “When the child grew older” in Exodus
2:10 could mean anything from boyhood to manhood.10 Moses certainly spent a number
10 Walter C. Kaiser, “Exodus,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 2, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 310.
128 of years under his Hebrew mother’s care, and those earliest years gave him an understanding of his people.
Moses entered the Pharaoh’s household as an adopted son. While the Bible gives few details regarding this period of his life, it can be assumed that he was brought up and educated as a member of the royal court. In Acts 7:22 the martyr Stephen testified of
Moses’ upbringing: “Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians and was powerful in speech and action.” Again, the Bible and other reference books give no indication of the specifics of his Egyptian education, but scholars speculate that he was versed in statecraft, leadership, and warfare among other topics.11 Moses’ early adult experiences taught him about leadership and gave him an understanding of the inner workings of Pharaoh’s court—knowledge that he would need in order to deal with
Pharaoh and then to lead his own people in the years ahead.
When Moses was forty years of age he was forced to flee Egypt after having killed an Egyptian. His education began again as this prince of Egypt spent the next forty years working as a shepherd in the high deserts of Midian in the Arabian Peninsula.
Here, Moses would have learned a great deal about taking care of flocks and herds, and how to survive in the wilderness. His education was not so much taught as learned. This was true on-the-job training—practical application and learning by doing.
Moses’ education took one more turn in the desert. Soon after the Israelites escaped Egypt, Moses’ father-in-law Jethro came to visit the encampment. After seeing
Moses try to manage the judicial duties of leadership on his own, Jethro suggested he
11 Theodore Epp, Moses, Vol. 1: God Prepares and Strengthens His Man (Lincoln, NE: Back to the Bible, 1975), 32.
129 appoint officials over the people in order to assist him in his responsibilities. Moses, who grew up with a single, sovereign ruler, and who then lived a patriarchal life in a family clan, was perhaps not familiar with representative leadership and delegation of authority, but quickly saw the wisdom of the suggestion and accepted Jethro’s advice.
Moses benefited from a highly personalized education. God placed him in the right places and with the right people at the right times in his life for him to learn all that he needed for his future responsibilities. He learned of his heritage and people in his parents’ home. He was taught leadership and authority at Pharaoh’s court. He learned how to survive in the desert by living there for forty years, and he learned management from a tribal leader in his own right. Moses learned by being and doing—a classic field education program. He learned through experience—as a child, as a prince, and as a shepherd. He learned from each experience, growing into the leader that God needed him to be.
Paul: Teaching Theology through Circulated Epistles
The Apostle Paul provides an example of a different kind of learner-focused teaching. As the author of sixteen of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament, Paul gave the Church much of its theology and mission. He taught on topics as wide-ranging as salvation, Christology, humility, and generosity. His epistles were originally letters sent to various fledgling churches to be read and circulated among the believers. Each letter was distinctive and addressed to a specific congregation. Paul taught matters of theology and Christ-like living through his letters, dealing with specific issues and concerns as he wrote.
130 The Letter to the Philippians serves as an example. Paul founded the church in
Philippi in A.D. 50, during his second missionary journey, and visited again in A.D. 55-
56 on his third missionary journey.12 It is obvious from his warm tone and his use of individuals’ names that he was familiar with the church and the congregation. He thanked God for them (1:3), prayed for them (1:4) and thanked them for their gifts (4:18).
Philippians contains several important lessons. Chapter one includes instructions on ethics and Christian living. Paul writes, “Whatever happens, conduct yourselves in a manner worthy of the gospel of Christ” (1:27). It is particularly interesting that he continues, “Then, whether I come and see you or only hear about you in absence, I will know that you stand firm in one spirit” (1:28). This sounds very much like a teacher checking up on a student’s progress.
Chapter two is a lesson on humility: “Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit, but in humility consider others better than your selves” (2:3). Like a good teacher, Paul then offered an illustration: “Your attitude should be the same as that of
Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped; but made himself nothing” (2:5-6). The illustration is also a lesson on the incarnation: tracing the history of the Christ, from divinity to humanity and back to divinity.
In chapter three Paul taught on holiness and perseverance. Using himself as an example, he writes, “Not that I have already obtained all this, or have already been made perfect, but I press on to take hold of that for which Christ Jesus took hold of me” (3:12).
12 Homer A Kent, “Philippians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 11, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), 96.
131 Chapter four includes Paul’s teaching on anxiety: “Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your requests to God”
(4:6).
Paul used this form of distance education to great advantage. The epistles could be read, saved, re-read, and circulated, allowing more and more people to benefit from their teachings. He taught broad theologies and gave particular instruction; he informed, exhorted, and challenged his students—the Church—all from many miles away.
Timothy: Learning via Correspondence Course
Paul took a slightly different approach with his young protégé, Timothy. The two letters to Timothy are not general epistles designed to be circulated amongst church members, but personal letters, addressed directly and solely to Timothy. The letters were written between A.D. 62 and A.D. 67, and 2 Timothy having been written from Paul’s prison cell in Rome as he awaited execution and may be Paul’s last recorded words.13
Paul wrote to Timothy in what was essentially a correspondence course in order to instruct him in ministry leadership. He filled the letters with instructions on ministry duties and guidance for leadership. He instructed Timothy on doctrine and discipline, tutoring him on selecting leaders, dealing with various people in the church, and charging him to give full effort to the duties ahead.
It is evident that Paul knew his pupil well, and tailored his remarks to meet
Timothy’s situation and need. He knew that Timothy was young, and might feel intimidated by older believers. He writes, “Do not let anyone look down on you because
13 Ralph Earle, “1, 2 Timothy” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 11, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), 343-344.
132 you are young, but set an example for the believers in speech, in life, in love, in faith and in purity” (1 Timothy 4:12). Paul understood that there were already false teachers permeating the young church, and urged Timothy to deal with it directly, “Stay there in
Ephesus so that you may command certain men not to teach false doctrines any longer”
(1 Timothy 3). He even gives him advice on how to deal with these heretics and encourages him in the effort: “If you point these things out to the brothers you will be a good minister of Christ Jesus” (1 Timothy 4:6).
The second letter to Timothy is even more personal. Paul pours out thoughts and advice, perhaps understanding that this would be his last contact with his young friend.14
In chapter four, Paul gives a grand and solemn exhortation to Timothy, instructing him on the foundations of his responsibilities: “In the presence of God and of Christ Jesus, who will judge the living and the dead, and in view of his appearing and kingdom, I give you this charge: Preach the Word; be prepared in season and out of season; correct, rebuke and encourage—with great patience and careful instruction” (2 Timothy 4:1-2). In these verses Paul encapsulates what clergy education is about. First, he notes the foundation and authority for ministry: God and Christ. Next, Paul reminds the reader of the motive and rationale for the Church: judgment day and the coming kingdom of God. Then he pronounces the most basic mission and responsibility of the minister: to preach the word of God—to share his revelation. Paul then challenges the minister with the reminder to be prepared at all times, and then lists specific ministry duties—correction and
14 Ibid., 344-345.
133 encouragement—along with specific guidance—patience and instruction. In essence
Paul is teaching Timothy how to be a minister.
Equipping Salvationist Leaders: Bible-Based Theology; Mission-Driven Education
Part Two of this paper has examined the theological foundations, literature support, ecclesiological roots, and biblical models for the proposed distance education program. The Salvation Army can learn much from the evidence above. The missional nature of Salvation Army theology and praxis are well-suited to any hands-on experience, be it ministry or education. The current literature on clergy education and distance learning indicates strong support for field education and learning on the job. The
Nazarene and Presbyterian traditions are both advocates of apprenticeship, providing further support for The Salvation Army’s program.
The biblical record provides evidence in support of holistic education. Jesus taught using a variety of techniques, depending on his listeners and the topic at hand. He taught the disciples by both formal and informal means: teaching through discourses, but also through example and participation. Moses’ preparation for ministry was completed over many years through multiple means, the lessons matching the circumstances, but all working together to prepare him for leadership. Paul taught through correspondence, communicating the broad themes theology to the churches by public epistles and imparting the details of ministry leadership to his protégé through personal letters.
The Salvation Army can certainly be encouraged that its theological and ministry focus on mission is within orthodox principle. It needs to continue to strive for a balance between academic knowledge and practical ministry skills, while always focusing on the
134 spiritual health and maturity of the cadet. The Salvation Army is a mission-based
Church. Its focus is on preaching the gospel in both word and deed. It is adaptable, flexible, and pragmatic, aiming to do whatever it takes to fulfill God’s calling. To preach the Word of God, to exhort and encourage: these are the heart of ministry and mission.
135
PART THREE
MINISTRY STRATEGY
CHAPTER 6
MINISTRY GOALS AND STRATEGY
This paper now moves to the ministry strategy itself. Chapter 6 develops a ministry plan for distance education based on the findings of the biblical principles above. Salvation Army officers face a daunting task and need to develop a wide range of ministry skills through multiple education platforms. Any education plan can be tailored to the particular needs of each officer candidate. In some cases that need may be to simply remain in their current ministry while learning the tools of the trade through on- the-job training and distant learning courses. This chapter discusses the goals of the program, and then outlines the strategy to present the distant learning program to
Salvation Army leadership. The chapter then presents the program itself, including the types of classes and educational materials that may be covered through the program.
Finally, this chapter reviews the people involved in both leadership and participation in the proposed program.
Distance Learning as the “Preferred Future”
The biblical, denominational, and academic records all suggest support for learner-focused, practical clergy education. The biblical narratives show models of
137 leadership preparation as varied as the individual, fitting circumstance and need with learning opportunities. The Salvation Army has demonstrated success in matching its mission-driven ministry with mission-focused education programs. Clergy education literature advocates on-the-job training and online learning as viable alternatives to the traditional classroom.
All of this evidence results in positive implications for The Salvation Army and the proposed distance education program. Since ministry is multi-faceted, so too must be the preparation for ministry. Since distance learning is indeed a viable means of clergy education, the envisioned and “preferred future” in this case is a distance learning option for cadets training to be Salvation Army officers.
Multi-faceted Ministry Education for Multi-faceted Ministry
As discussed in the preceding chapters, like all members of the clergy, Salvation
Army officers face myriad responsibilities and tasks in their role as ministers. Salvation
Army officers are pastors, social workers, fundraisers, public relations representatives, disaster services first-responders, and business administrators. With an average annual budget of $675,000,1 the officer of even the smallest corps has significant fiscal responsibilities. This has significant implications for Salvation Army clergy education.
In order to prepare for multi-faceted ministry, ministry education must also be multi- faceted. In practice, this means that professional training in ministry skills and responsibilities should be included alongside traditional academic classes such as theology and biblical studies. It is not enough for the minister-candidate to be educated
1 Melott interview, May 29, 2012. 138 in theory; practical application is needed as well. Lieutenant Allison Struck, a 2012 graduate from The Salvation Army’s College for Officer Training in Rancho Palos
Verdes, states, “I wish the college had taught me more about the practical side of ministry, like reading Salvation Army financial documents.”2 Lieutenant Doug Hanson, another recent graduate, comments along similar lines, “I needed more on church politics and leaderships of groups like boards and advisory committees.”3 Another recent graduate, Lieutenant Dawn Apaun, says, “I need to know more about creating budgets, fundraising and grant writing. This is a major need at the corps and I feel we did not learn this at the college.”4 In a survey conducted of the 2012 graduating class, only 51.9 percent of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, “The College gave an appropriate number of classes/hours or opportunities to the cadet for development of planning and organizational skills.5 In 2011 and 2010 that number was 75 percent and
71.4 percent respectively. The implication is that the College for Officer Training needs to provide more education on practical matters of ministry such as finances and business administration.
The training program could benefit from longer field training opportunities. With four of the twenty-two months of training spent in on-site ministry apprenticeships, the
Army is already providing significant hands-on experience for cadets. However, as the survey and interviews have demonstrated, more time would be useful. Cadet Struck
2 Lieutenant Allison Struck, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA. September 24, 2012.
3 Lieutenant Doug Hanson, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA. September 19, 2012.
4 Lieutenant Dawn Apuan, interview by author, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, September 2, 2012.
5 Duncan Sutton, Research Analyst at College for Officer Training, Rancho Palos Verdes, interview by author, September 19, 2012. 139 writes, “A longer field training experience would have been good . . . as long as it was a real learning experience.”6 Lieutenant Apuan agrees, “Staying on location from summer through Christmas would provide continuity and a better understanding of the entire
Christmas social services and fundraising programs.”7 Certainly more experience as an apprentice before taking on full responsibilities would be beneficial. As noted in Chapter
3, clergy education as a whole is moving in this direction. The inclusion of a holistic education in praxis as part of an overall ministry preparation program is seen as a better option than academics alone. Lieutenant Apaun’s suggestion of increasing the field assignment from four to six months, from June to December, is not necessarily new; it has been discussed informally for years. It has never been considered a viable option since many cadets have children in school, and transferring them to another school in the middle of the year, only to transfer back in June, is seen as too difficult on the children.
This is where a distance learning option would be advantageous. The cadet could take classes online, and stay in one city for an entire year or more, allowing the children to stay in school for the entire year. In essence, this would lengthen the overall training period from two to three years. The recommended course of action for The Salvation
Army, then, is to explore this option more fully to determine if longer field periods and a longer overall training program would in fact be viable.
The Salvation Army would also benefit from a field education program that was focused more on day-to-day operations rather than just programming. Currently, when cadets are assigned to a corps for field training, they are asked to lead specific programs
6 Struck interview, September 24, 2012.
7 Apuan interview, September 2, 2012. 140 and participate in particular activities. During the summer, for instance, most corps hold a Vacation Bible School program, and the cadet is often asked to coordinate it. During the Christmas season, the cadet is usually asked to oversee the Red Kettle fundraising program or the Adopt-A-Family or Angel Tree social programs. These are important endeavors in their own right, and certainly a part of what an officer does during these seasons, but they do not represent the full range of officer responsibilities. Lieutenant
Apuan’s comments are insightful: “The basic skills we focus on in training—reading
Scripture, planning programs, preaching—those things are such a tiny part of the overall picture of what officers do.”8 A cadet needs exposure to as wide a range of responsibilities as possible, from mundane tasks like mail procedures to more high- profile endeavors such as fundraising banquets. In order to do this, the cadet must not be relegated to a few specific programs. One solution would be for the cadet to “shadow” the corps officers, accompanying them throughout the day to experience the details of daily ministry. With this in mind, a recommended course of action for The Salvation
Army is to reconfigure the summer and Christmas field training programs away from specific programs in order to be more focused on day-to-day operations.
Distance Learning for Clergy Education
Chapters 3 and 4 demonstrated the viability of using distance learning and online education. The literature makes it clear that the virtual classroom is becoming more accepted as colleges and universities adapt classes and whole programs to web-based education. Online learning can be more economical and more convenient than
8 Ibid. 141 conventional education, making it an attractive option for older students, students with full-time jobs, and students who otherwise cannot attend traditional classrooms.
What is good for general education is also good for ministry preparation. As
Bible colleges and seminaries expand apprenticeship and on-the-job training programs, they are also adding online classes. Both the Church of the Nazarene and the
Presbyterian Church use online classes as part of their clergy education programs. The goal of clergy education is to prepare ministers for the responsibilities of ministry, and it is evident that the best way to do that includes a healthy dose of field education.
Coupling field education with online classes would benefit both the minister-candidate and the denomination. The denomination would gain from having the added assistant at the local church, and the candidate would profit from gaining direct experience while also learning in the virtual classroom. The recommendation, then, is for The Salvation Army to consider utilizing online education as part of the training program at the College for
Officer Training.
Preferred Future: Salvation Army Distance Education
The implications of this study thus far suggest that a distance education program option for Salvation Army officer candidates is both viable and beneficial. The
“preferred future” is to design a distance education program for The Salvation Army
Western Territory. Such a program is indeed viable. The Salvation Army is already using field education on a regular basis, and, as noted in Chapter 2, Army regulations allow for a distance education program if and when the need arises. The College for
Officer Training in Rancho Palos Verdes is ideally suited to offer a distance education
142 program since it is already an accredited college with the recourses and personnel to set up such a program.
A distance education option would also be beneficial. Ministry preparation needs to be multi-faceted, using both formal education and on-the-job training. An online classroom provides a practical compromise between theory and practice. The cadet can participate in virtual learning while remaining on location in ministry. The online classes could be tailored to meet the needs of the individual cadet, and cadets would take only the courses they need, allowing the cadet to spend additional time in ministry duties.
The ministry goal for this project, then, is to create a distance education component to enhance The Salvation Army’s officer training program in the United
States Western Territory. The proposed program would be offered as an option to those candidates who either cannot relocate to attend the residential program in Rancho Palos
Verdes, or who otherwise do not need the full two-year curriculum. The program would offer online and correspondence courses, and would be tailored to meet the needs of the learner. Each candidate for the program would be assessed, and personal education programs would be created based on the individual’s education, experience, and spiritual maturity. The cadet would be assigned to a ministry leadership role in his or her home city, and would take online classes according to a curriculum schedule set up by the training college. The program would also include scheduled on-campus activities, requiring the cadet to attend specific seminars and events on campus at various times throughout the year.
143 Strategy Goals
The strategy for this proposal is to present this paper as evidence of both the benefits and viability of such a program, to obtain approval to set up a pilot program, and then to proceed to full implementation. As the Army progresses toward implementation of the distance education program, a number of other goals will be attained as well. One goal is for Salvation Army officer-candidates to understand the complex responsibilities of ministry. Another is to demonstrate the complementary roles of the residential program and distance program, acknowledging their strengths and weaknesses and merging them to create a better overall ministry preparation program. The main goal is to create the program itself, providing a flexible education option for ministry training previously denied to some candidates, and offering Salvation Army-specific, learner- focused courses that will prepare officers for ministry in the Army. Finally, the numerical goal is to have 10 percent of all cadets in the Western Territory participate in some element of the distant learning program by the end of 2014.
Complexity of Salvation Army Officership
As discussed in Chapter 1, the work of a Salvation Army officer is complex. A
Salvation Army officer, like most ministers, is far more than just a pastor. The officer is responsible for the total operation of the corps, including business administration, social services, fundraising, public relations, and the congregation. The officer needs to be competent in pastoral care, counseling, and conflict resolution as well as financial management, human resources, and grant writing. Social services are a major component
144 of Salvation Army ministry, and the officer must be familiar with government and private programs, rules, and regulations.
Each of these elements takes training, experience, and knowledge and cannot be taught by any one education delivery system. A complex profession calls for a multi- faceted education. The classroom may be ideal for knowledge-based topics such as theology and hermeneutics, but apprenticeships are better suited to teach financial management and public relations. The distance education program will facilitate a better understanding of the complexities of officership since the cadet will be experiencing the day-to-day operations of the corps while completing online classes. That daily exposure to the details and routines of ministry is critical to a full comprehension of the duties and responsibilities of officership.
The Complementary Roles of Residential and Distance Education
Both residential and distance education have a role in Salvation Army officer training. Each delivery system has advantages and disadvantages, and the best way forward is to acknowledge the benefits and detriments of each and to use them to complement each other. By combining the two systems, the Army can offer the best options for training, increasing the candidate pool and providing a better educational experience for all.
Residential training has been the standard education program for The Salvation
Army since 1880 (as described Chapter 1). It is acknowledged as the best format for the majority of Salvation Army officer candidates in that it provides both an academic education as well as “total immersion” into Army ethos and culture. Officer-candidates
145 are immersed daily in Salvation Army procedures and protocols; responsibilities, conversations, and activities revolve around Army events. The residential program offers space and time apart from direct ministry, where cadets can grow in both knowledge and spiritual maturity, developing their spiritual lives as well as their ministry skills. It also provides an opportunity to build relationships and support networks that become important when officers are sent to minister on their own.
A distance learning program would greatly enhance the residential program without detracting from it. A series of online classes would provide sufficient coursework in academic disciplines while allowing for a different kind of “total immersion” experience. Working day to day at a corps, the cadet would still be fully engaged in Army protocols and operations. While the residential program is designed to allow for spiritual growth, such a component may not be as necessary for distance learners. Candidates for the distance learning program would be prescreened, and only those with sufficient spiritual maturity would be recommended for participation. Those that would better benefit from the support of the student body would be recommended for the residential program. The residential program may be ideal for developing networks and support systems, but it is not the only means of building relationships. Each corps has its own network of leaders, and Army officers attend a number of denominational events each year, providing ample opportunity for building relationships.
The need for distance education in The Salvation Army was discussed in Chapter
2. The residential program is inflexible and limited in size and budget. As a residential program, it denies access to candidates who cannot relocate to Southern California. Its set curriculum makes little allowance for those who already have ministry degrees or
146 experience. While the residential program is a good option for most candidates, the combination of residential and distance learning programs would enable the Army to reach more candidates and to offer a more fulfilling, learner-based ministry preparation program.
A Flexible, Learner-focused, and Salvation Army-specific Distance Education Program
The driving goal of this project is to build a distance education program for use by the College for Officer Training in the development of future Salvation Army officers.
Previous chapters have demonstrated that it is viable and that it would be beneficial; the next step is to implement it. Since the program will be utilized primarily by Salvationists who are already in ministry leadership positions, it will need to be flexible, learner- focused, and attentive to Salvation Army ministry specifics.
Any distance education program embarked upon would need to be flexible.
Distance education can enhance current curricula or offer entirely new programs, but it must be flexible to meet the needs of both the institution and the learner. The program as proposed would allow cadets to commence classes at any point during the year, rather than limiting participation to a traditional academic calendar. Since the classes would be designed around the learner, options would be available to take the class concurrent with the on-campus class, or at another time over the course of the cadet’s training period.
That flexibility would extend to the instructors as well. Instructors could stream classroom lecturers, record them for future playback, or use a combination of online, correspondence, and streaming classes. The course load would also be flexible. As candidates are screened, a determination can be made regarding which specific classes
147 and experiences they will need to fulfill the Army’s national training standards. An individualized curriculum would be developed for each cadet.
Another key goal of the distance education program is to ensure that it is learner- focused. As noted in the literature on clergy education and online education in Chapter 3, the best online education programs are designed around the needs and expectations of the student rather than the institution. The proposed program will be developed with the officer-candidate in mind. The target populations for this distance education program are candidates with previous ministry degrees or experience, or who cannot relocate to
Southern California. As such, the program will be designed to meet the specific needs of these populations.
As candidates go through the recruitment process, they are screened for education, experience, and spiritual maturity. Those with previous ministry degrees may be eligible for the distance education program since they already have the foundational knowledge and have completed the prerequisite classes deemed required by Salvation
Army national standards. Cadets in this situation would be excused from these core classes, but may be required to take other courses more directly related to Salvation
Army ministry, policies, and procedures. Cadets with previous ministry experience who are in the distance education program would be required to take the academic classes online, but would be excused from classes involving programs and procedures with which they are already familiar.
The classes themselves will also need to be learner-focused. As noted in the literature on distance education, a sense of community is critical to online classes, so the instructors will need to create a sense of belonging and inclusion. Class requirements
148 will have to be flexible based on the number of students enrolled; chat rooms work well when there are larger groups, but not if there are only one or two students in the class.
Classes will need to be offered according to the cadet’s schedule. As the participants will also be involved in ministry, the academic schedule will need to revolve around the church schedule. For instance, the Christmas season is extremely busy for Salvation
Army officers, so no classes will be scheduled in November and December.
A final key to the distance education program will be to include Salvation Army- specific courses. Since the purpose of the program is to provide only the education needed, the classes will be limited to courses that will prepare the officer-candidate for
Salvation Army ministry. Since the program is designed to be utilized in situations where the candidate is already in a leadership position, the classes will focus on aspects of Salvation Army ministry and leadership that pertain directly to the ministry at hand.
The surveys discussed in Chapter 5 reveal a common concern that training college did not prepare the new officer for the practicalities of ministry: budgets, public relations, and office management. The online classes would be able to focus on topics such as these, using the cadet’s real-time experiences as learning tools.
Numerical Goals
The final goal for the program is numerical. Specific numbers cannot be projected since approval for participation in the program can be given only by the
Territorial Commander. However, a general goal is to have 10 percent of cadets participate in some component of the distance education program by the end of 2014.
The Territorial Commander, with the recommendation of the Territorial Candidates
149 Council, will determine which candidates will be eligible for the distance education program and which will be required to attend the residential college. Major John
Brackenbury, Territorial Candidates Secretary, estimates that about 10 percent of recent candidates would potentially be eligible for distance learning. In an interview conducted on May 2, 2012, Major Brackenbury said, “Under the criteria of previous degrees, previous ministry experience, and inability to relocate to California, perhaps as many as
10 percent would qualify for distance education.”9 There is no way to determine if the
Territorial Commander or Candidates Council would approve every eligible candidate, but Major Brackenbury’s comments do provide a general figure for planning purposes.
According to Major Brackenbury, the estimated enrollment for the next several years is between fifty and sixty per year.10 If these numbers are accurate, five or six candidates would be eligible to participate in the program each year.
Strategy Content
This section outlines the strategy for the development and presentation of the proposal. First, it reviews the courses that can be transferred from the classroom to online education. Then it provides suggested criteria for accepting candidates into the program. This section then submits a strategy for presenting the proposal to Salvation
Army Western Territory leadership as well as to the Territory at large. Finally, sample materials of the program are discussed to provide examples of program guidelines and courses.
9 Brackenbury interview, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, May 2, 2012.
10 Ibid. 150 Credits Transferrable to Distance Education
One of the first tasks in setting up the distance education program is to determine which classes can be adapted to the online setting. Some activities, such as performing a funeral or leading a worship service, must be done in praxis, but most courses can be conducted online. In consultation with Major (Dr.) Brian Jones, Director of Curriculum at the College for Officer Training, a number of courses have been identified as being both necessary to meet the Army’s national standards and manageable as online classes
(see table 2). While this is not a comprehensive list of all classes needed for graduation, it will serve as a guideline for which courses should be adapted in the immediate future.
In addition, curricula will vary for each distance education cadet, based on his or her academic deficiencies.
151 Table 2: Courses Eligible for Online Classes
Biblical Studies • BI132 Old Testament Survey I: The Pentateuch • BI133 Old Testament Survey II: History and Poetry • BI134 Old Testament Survey III: The Prophets • BI 135 Biblical Exegesis • BI232 New Testament Survey I: Synoptic Gospels and Acts of the Apostles • BI233 New Testament Survey II: The Writings of Paul • BI234 New Testament Survey III: John and General Epistles Business and Management • BU095 Introduction to the Computer • BU154 Business Management I English and Communications • ENG101 College Writing • ENG190 Information Literacy and Research Skills Natural and Social Sciences • HIS265 History: 1865 – Present • PSY156 Introduction to Psychology • SOC200 Introduction to Sociology • PSY327 Conflict Resolution / Relationship Development • SCI204 Contemporary Health and Physiology Mission and Ministry • ENG167 Homiletics I* • ENG169 Homiletics II* • ENG171 Homiletics III* • ENG265 Homiletics IV* • ENG266 Homiletics V* • ENG267 Homiletics VI* • MI150 Introduction to Public Ministry* • MI158 Introduction to Christian Education* • MI176 Evangelism I* • MI277 Evangelism II* • MI298 Virtual Corps Training Theological Studies • EC141 Theology I • EC142 Theology II • EC143 Theology III * = to be taken in conjunction with apprenticeship to provide practical application
152 Jones states, “Almost all our courses can be adapted [to the online program], except those that rely solely on ministry practice.”11 Several training requirements, such as conducting worship services, leading children’s programming, and overseeing social work programs or Christmas activities will continue to be required to be completed in praxis. Other classes, such as Homiletics, Evangelism, and Public Ministries can be conducted online, but will need to be conducted in conjunction with a practical element since they also involve ministry skills.
Presentation to Leadership
The Salvation Army U.S.A. Western Territorial Cabinet is made up of the
Territorial Commander, Chief Secretary, and other ranking officers at Territorial. The
Cabinet meets weekly in board meetings to review policy and business matters. While the Territorial Commander has final authority on almost all decisions, it is accepted practice to present proposals like this to the Cabinet for recommendation. Therefore, with prior approval of the Training Principal and the Territorial Commander, this proposal will be presented to the Cabinet at the appropriate time (see Appendix A for proposal presentation slides).
Cabinet members will also be given samples of a cadet’s individualized training plan, curriculum plan, and field training plan (see Appendix B, C, and D). They will also be given Chapters 2 through 5 of this paper for background, and Chapters 6 and 7 for details of the program. Once the Territorial Commander and the Cabinet have approved the program, the same presentation can be given to the Territorial Executive Council,
11 Jones interview, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA, August 8, 2012. 153 which is made up of the Cabinet members as well as all the commanders from each of the ten divisions of the territory. The Territorial Executive Council meets twice a year and is used to review policy and procedural matters and discuss new priorities and programs.
This is the ideal setting to launch the distance learning program. The divisional commanders would then take the information back to their divisions and share the information with their officers and potential candidates.
Criteria and Process for Selection of Candidates
The criteria for selection to participate in the distance learning program will be based on the purpose of the program. Applicants for the distance learning program will go through the normal candidacy process, making known their desire to join the non- residential track. Once a candidate is approved for acceptance into the training program, the Candidates Council will make a recommendation to the Territorial Commander regarding which track is appropriate for the individual. Eligibility for the program will be based on the following minimum requirements: 1) minimum of twenty-five years of age; 2) Salvationist (member of the Salvation Army) for a minimum of three years; 3) prior ministry experience; 4) prior degree in ministry or related field; and 5) inability to relocate to the Southern California campus. A Prior Learning Assessment tool will be administered to each applicant to assist in documenting previous experience, education, and knowledge in the field of ministry. Table 3, which can be distributed as part of an information packet, delineates some of the differences between the residential and distance learning programs.
154 Table 3: Side by Side Comparison of the Residential Program and the Proposed Distance Program
Residential Program Distance Education
Description Training is completed in residence Training is competed in at The College for Officer Training. ministry context through a combination of apprenticeship and online learning.
Training Two year officer training will normally Each off-site cadet will be consist of three periods: required to complete an • 10 month residential assessment packet including • 2 month summer assignment the Prior Learning Assessment and Tool (PLAT), which gives the • 10 month residential Education Department an opportunity to assess prior Training includes the development of learning experience and spiritual life, character and the mind. education in order to evaluate Instruction is given in core subjects what area of instruction the including theology, Bible, doctrine, off-site cadet needs. Salvation Army studies, pastoral ministry, platform ministry, The off-site cadet training evangelism, church growth and cross- program will consist of: cultural ministry. • In-classroom seminars at CFOT • Distance Learning course work • Field Training Practicums • Spiritual Formation Component
Length of Officership is considered a calling Officership is considered a Commitment to full-time, lifetime ministry. Must calling to full-time, lifetime be able to serve 10 years after ministry. Must be able to commissioning before retirement. serve 10 years after commissioning before retirement.
Soldiership A Salvationist in good standing for at A Salvationist in good Requirements least one year prior to entry. standing for at least three years prior to entry.
Age Requirement At least 18 years of age. At least 25 years of age
Educational High school diploma or its Preferred: Bachelor’s Degree Requirements equivalent, plus two years of work in Ministry or related field experience or higher education. 155 Program Content: Overview of Program /Manual of Guidance
The distance education program will combine online classes, apprenticeships, on- campus seminars, and on-the-job training to complete the Salvation Army Officer
Training requirements. The program is designed to be completed in two years, concurrent with the residential program, allowing non-residential cadets to graduate along with their classmates in June. Upon successful completion of all program requirements, including all requirements of The Salvation Army National Standards for the Training of Officers, the cadet will be commissioned as an officer and ordained as a minister of The Salvation Army.
The distance education program will be administered by the College for Officer
Training under the direction of the Assistant Training Principal. The Assistant Training
Principal will coordinate each cadet’s program, and be the main point of contact with the training college. Cadets participating in the program will be assigned to a Salvation
Army Corps for the duration of their training program, and will be provided with housing and transportation. Non-residential cadets will normally be classified as employees of
The Salvation Army and will be compensated accordingly.
Components of the program will vary from cadet to cadet based on the education and experience of the individual. In general, it is assumed that the non-residential cadet will take a minimum of eight units per quarter. Non-residential cadets will be required to attend several seminars and special events on the campus each year, including but not limited to: the Public Welcome Service, the Emergency Disaster Services seminar, the
Pre-Marriage Counseling seminar, and a minimum of two on-campus Sunday services.
Each cadet will be issued an “Individualized Training Program” which will serve as a
156 manual of guidance and provide the general parameters of the cadet’s customized education plan. Each cadet will also be issued a Curriculum Plan and Field Training
Program. Samples of each of these forms, all of which will be included in the information packet, are included in Appendixes B, C, and D.
Program Content: Course Management and Delivery Systems
The distance education program will be managed by the office of the Assistant
Training Principal (hereafter, ATP), however the academic, field education, and spiritual formation components will each be administered by the appropriate College for Officer
Training faculty member (see the subhead, “Program Leadership Team,” later in this chapter for specific responsibilities). The ATP will act as liaison between the cadet and the training college. The ATP will also work with Divisional Headquarters on matters of finances and logistics.
The delivery system for the program will vary according to the course and ministry context. Courses will generally be online, but instructors may use tools such as streaming, webcam, conference calls, or correspondence. Cadets will be issued a notebook computer and The Salvation Army will cover all expenses related to Internet access at the cadet’s home and office.
Program Content: Catalogue of Classes
Certain courses have been identified for adaptation to the online curricula. Table
2 listed several of these, and course descriptions of a representative sample are given in
Appendix E. Each online class will be based on the corresponding course on campus and will be taught be the same instructor, so a separate catalogue of classes will not be
157 necessary. When feasible, the online class will be conducted concurrently with the classroom version, but this may or not be possible for individual non-residential cadets.
Please note that the list in Appendix E is not comprehensive, but a sample of courses to be offered.
Target Population, Leadership, and the Pilot Program
The final section of this chapter focuses on the people who will be involved in the distance education program. It reviews both the target population for the program as well as the leadership team and organizational structure. Finally, it discusses plans to commence a pilot project for the program before full implementation.
Candidates
The target candidate for the distance learning program is a Salvationist who has been a member of The Salvation Army for at least three years. Ideally, the candidate would have five years of ministry leadership experience and/or a previous degree in ministry or a related field. According to the policy planned for the program, the candidate would need to be at least twenty-five years of age, but be able to give a minimum of ten years of active service before retirement. The candidate may or not already be in a ministry position with The Salvation Army. If so, the candidate would be left in place, and the distance learning program would be built around the candidate’s current ministry responsibilities. If the candidate is not already employed by The
Salvation Army, a suitable posting would be arranged.
158 Program Leadership Team
The distance education program will be a department of the College for Officer
Training, and will thus be under the auspices of the Training Principal. The program will be directed by the ATP. Each component of the program will be coordinated by the appropriate College for Officer Training staff officer. The Director of Curriculum will supervise the academic coursework, assigning specific instructors for the various classes.
The Director of Field Training will coordinate the field education component, documenting the cadet’s experiences through various Salvation Army programs and events. In addition, a committee will be formed to oversee the development and operation of the program. The committee will consist of the above-mentioned officers as well as the Director of Personnel, the Director of Institutional Advancement, and the
Training Principal.
Pilot Project
Once the program has concept approval from the Territorial Commander and
Territorial Cabinet, a pilot program will be launched. While it is impossible to predict how many candidates will apply and be approved to participate, it is expected that a group of three to five will be accepted for this trial run. Once the candidates have been approved, their levels of education and experience will be assessed and suitable academic and field training programs will be developed. The programs will be tailored to meet each cadet’s individual education and experience needs, basically filling in the gaps and ensuring that their training covers any areas with which they are not already familiar.
159 Full-scale Implementation
The pilot project will run for a full academic year, ensuring the viability and continuity of the program. This will also give the ATP and other program leaders and opportunity to work out the details of the program and address any problems that arise during the pilot phase. Once the program is ready, the ATP will notify the Candidates
Secretary at Territorial Headquarters, who will then notify the Divisional Commanders that the program is in operation. The Candidates Secretary will be responsible to identify potential participants, and recommend them for the distance education program.
160
CHAPTER 7
IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
This chapter describes the implementation and assessment plan for creating a distance education program for The Salvation Army U.S.A Western Territory. Beginning with a development stage, then advancing to the pilot program stage, and finally moving into full implementation, it is estimated that the distanced education program can be fully operational in time for the 2014-2015 academic year. This chapter also outlines the project evaluation plans and tools. As the pilot program completes its cycle, assessment tools will be developed to guide interviews with each participant: student, teachers, and committee members. Once the results are analyzed, adjustments will be made in preparation for the full-scale launch of the program.
Pilot Project Summary
Upon approval from the Territorial Commander and the Territorial Cabinet, the
ATP will inform the Territorial Candidates Secretary, who will then inform the
Divisional Commanders around the territory. In cooperation with the Divisional
Commanders, the Candidates Secretary will begin an active search for potential participants in the pilot program. Assuming approval comes as early as spring 2013, the
161 aim will be to commence the pilot program within the 2013-2014 academic year. It is anticipated that the pilot program will include three to five individuals. Since The
Salvation Army allows for married couples to be ordained together, it is anticipated that at least two of these candidates will be a couple. As noted above, once the candidates are approved, they will be screened for education, experience, and spiritual maturity, and an appropriate apprenticeship and distance education program will be developed. They will then be enrolled in the college and inducted as cadets. The length of the program will depend on the individual’s needs, but it is anticipated that it should take no longer than the two years of the residential program. Upon completion of their individualized programs, the cadets will graduate, be commissioned as Salvation Army officers, and be ordained as ministers.
In the meantime, the program itself will continue to be developed. After ten months, a request will be made to implement the program on a full scale, with an aim to commence full operations during the 2014-2015 academic year. The projected timeline is presented in table 4.
162 Table 4: Timeline of Program Initiation
Timeline Activity Person Responsible Development Phase November • Request approval to make • Assistant Training 2012- presentation to Territorial Principal January 2013 Commander and Territorial Cabinet • Preparation of presentation materials for submission to Territorial • Assistant Training Headquarters Principal o Sample Individualized Training Program • Assistant Training o Sample Field Training Principal Curriculum o Sample Academic • Director of Field Curriculum Training o Manual of Guidance o Candidate Selection Criteria • Director of Curriculum o Catalogue of Classes • Assistant Training o Budget Principal • Assistant Training Principal • Director of Curriculum • Finance Officer February • Presentation to Territorial • Assistant Training 2013 Commander and Territorial Cabinet Principal and Director of Curriculum February- • Development of Leadership Team • Training Principal June 2013 o Establish Distance Learning • Training Principal Committee o Assign Instructors • Director of Curriculum o Teach instructors methods • Director of Curriculum of online teaching • Development of additional materials o Course syllabi • Instructors as assigned o Full scale Manual of • Assistant Training Guidance Principal March 2013 • Submit budget proposal as part of • Finance Officer CFOT budget beginning Fiscal Year 2014 June 2013 • Presentation to Territorial Executive • Assistant Training Council during its June meeting Principal and Director of Curriculum March 2013 • Inform Territorial Candidates • Assistant Training Secretary / Divisional Commanders Principal of initiation of pilot program
163 Pilot Stage March 2013 • Begin candidate recruitment • Candidates Secretary March 2013- • Candidate recruitment, screening • Candidates Secretary July 2013 • Submit candidates to Territorial Candidates Council for approval and recommendation to program August 2013 • Commence Pilot Program with 3 – 5 • Assistant Training cadets in ministry context Principal September • Pilot Program runs for a full year • Assistant Training 2013-June Principal 2014 • Distance Learning Committee • Instructors Implementation Phase April 2014 • Submit request to Territorial • Training Principal and Commander for full-scale Assistant Training implementation Principal April-July • Candidate recruitment • Candidates Secretary 2014 August 2014 • Commencement of full-scale • Assistant Training distance education program Principal
In August of 2012, an unexpected opportunity arose to beta-test the distance education program before the start of the official pilot program. A Salvationist couple, each of whom is employed as a ministry leader at a Salvation Army corps in San Luis
Obispo, California, applied for admission to the College for Officer Training. Suitable replacements could not be found quickly enough for them to leave their corps to start the residential program in mid-August, so the decision was made to allow them to take the first year of classes online while they continue to lead the corps in San Luis Obispo.
They were interviewed to determine experience, readiness, and suitability for the program, and given assessment tests to determine education needs. Neither of them has a ministry degree, but each has eight years of prior ministry leadership experience in The
Salvation Army. The ATP worked out logistics with the Southern California Divisional
Commander, and the couple, now cadets, began the program on August 16, 2012. As of
164 this writing, Individualized Training Programs have been developed, and Curriculum and
Field Training plans have been approved and distributed to the cadets. The cadets are now taking three online classes: Homiletics, Old Testament, and Theology. Since the program was launched with little prior notice, the instructors thus far are using simple correspondence course procedures, having the cadets read materials emailed to them, and responding through email. The cadets also have reading assignments in various texts.
The instructors will begin to develop their courses to an online format as the quarter progresses. This is a tremendous opportunity to explore the protocols and logistics of the program, and to obtain feedback even as the development stage is just commencing.
Resources
The distance education will require resources to implement and to maintain, including finances, technology, and personnel. Fortunately, although it will be a new program, much of the infrastructure is already in place, meaning that expenses will be relatively minimal. The following is a review of the anticipated resources needs as well as a tentative budget.
As a department of the College for Officer Training, the distance education program will have its own budget line and expense account; however, since it is not an income-generating program, it will not have an income line. Much of the program’s expenses are already included in departmental budgets, and other expenses will be covered by the ministry locations, so the direct cost of the program to the college will be minimal. Salary expenses will also be minimal since program leaders, including the
ATP, the Director of Curriculum, the Director of Field Training, and most of the
165 instructors are already on staff; the additional duties involved in overseeing the program or teaching will be added to their job descriptions. One direct salary expense will be for an increase in the salary of the Administrative Aide to the ATP, whose hours will increase from part-time to full-time in order to coordinate program logistics.
Another direct expense will be for the technology needs of the program. Since the curriculum will be primarily online, the College for Officer Training will procure web-based education software such as Moodle to run the virtual classes and to create an online community. Each participant will be required to have a computer and Internet access, and the college will cover any expenses related to setting up and maintaining wireless Internet connection at the cadets’ quarters. Since the cadets will be working at
Salvation Army corps, they will already have Internet access at their ministry locations, so the college will not need to fund that expense. The college will also supply a notebook computer equipped with the appropriate software to each cadet participating in the program. This expense, however, will not need to be charged to the distance education program since all cadets are provided with a notebook computer, whether they are in the residential or distance program. Textbooks and other study materials are also supplied by the college, but since they are given to all cadets regardless of which program they are in, these expenses will not be charged to the program.
Another direct expense will be travel. Each cadet will be expected to attend several on-campus seminars and events each year, requiring them to travel to Southern
California. Rooms will be made available on the college campus, so there will be no housing costs; however, meals, airfare, and/or gasoline expenses will be incurred. As noted in the Individualized Training Program sample in the appendix, it is expected that
166 each cadet will travel to the college approximately five times a year. In addition, the
Training Principal and the ATP will each travel to visit the cadet onsite at least once during the course of the year. The annual budget presented in table 5 is per cadet, based on a projection of four participants in the pilot program. The total annual expense for each cadet will be $39,488.
Table 5: Proposed Annual Budget
DISTANCE EDUCTATION: Fiscal Year October 1 – September 30
Professional Salaries 22,155 Wages - Non-Exempt
Wages - Temp/Seasonal
Employee Medical 4,224 Employee Retirement 886 Other Employee & Officer Benefits
F.I.C.A. - S.A. Portion 1,695 Worker's Compensation 288 Uniforms - Cadets
Office Supplies 500 Duplicating and Printing Supplies 150 Miscellaneous Supplies 100 Computer Supplies - Department
Postage & Shipping 400 General Liability Insurance
Computer Equip (Under $10,000)
Local Transportation & Meals 300 Councils, Conferences & Institutes
Staff Travel 750 Cadet Travel - Intensives/Welcome/Commissioning 8,000 39,448
Assessment Plan
As the distance learning program is being developed and commenced, it will be evaluated and critiqued for viability and effectiveness. A number of different assessment
167 tools will be used at different times during the development, pilot, and implementation stages to ensure the program’s sustainability and productivity. In each case, results will be used in real time to adapt programming and logistics to address concerns and problems along the way.
During the development stage, the Distance Learning Committee will meet bi- weekly to review progress on preparations for the launch of the program. The committee will need to determine if the classes being developed are suitable for the cadets and that the instructors understand their new role as online teachers. Each syllabus will be reviewed by the committee and must be approved by the College for Officer Training
Curriculum Council in accordance with the accreditation policy. In addition, as the materials such as the Manual of Guidance and Course Catalogue are developed, the committee will review each document for accuracy and submit them to the Curriculum
Council for approval. The committee will also be responsible to ensure that the appropriate Army leaders and interested parties are kept informed of progress and developments.
During the pilot stage, a careful watch will be kept on the progress of the cadets in the program. The instructors will be responsible for monitoring the progress and involvement of the cadets in the online classes and, as per College for Officer Training policy, will inform the Director of Curriculum of any cadets that fall behind. At the end of the third week of class, cadets will be sent an online survey assessing the effectiveness of the initial modules. This is also standard policy for the College for Officer Training, and is done for all classes. The questions on the survey are: “1. The instructor has clearly communicated the expected learning outcomes associated with this course. 2. The
168 instructor has clearly explained all assignments/ course requirements. 3. I feel motivated/ challenged to think deeply about the topics covered in this course.”1 The comments are assessed on a scale of one to four, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The assessment is designed to determine if the instructor provided clear guidance for course assignments and expectations. This provides the Curriculum Department with data to determine if adjustments need to be made to the course objectives and if the instructor is providing effective leadership.
At the end of each quarter, all College for Officer Training classes are assessed using a more in-depth online survey. Cadets are asked about the content and delivery of course information, suitability of assignments, achievements of student learning objectives, and the transferability of course content to ministry context. During the program pilot stage, additional questions will be added to the survey to assess the adaptability of the course to the online format, the balance of class and ministry time, and the level of expectations from students that are involved in full-time ministry while they take as many as eight units of online classes. The committee will be reviewing the results, looking to ensure that the right balance is struck between class work and practical application, and that the classes themselves are viable as online courses. Adjustments can then be made to the courses as needed.
The distance education committee will also review program finances during the pilot stage. It will be important to accurately report expenses so that a true budget can be created for the full program. The College for Officer Training Finance Officer will
1 The Salvation Army College for Officer Training, “Course Instructor Surveys Part I,” Rancho Palos Verdes, CA.
169 monitor expenses and report to the committee at each meeting. The pilot program will give a fairly accurate estimate of expenses which will be used to extrapolate the budget for the full program.
The ATP will also report to the committee any developments or concerns regarding the logistics of the program during this stage. Since the program will interact with several Salvation Army divisions, coordination and cooperation will be critical. The committee will address any concerns as they arise, and work out any issues with the
Divisional Commanders.
During the implementation stage, much of the same assessment will continue.
The committee will continue to meet on a regular basis, discussing developments and concerns as needed. The course online surveys will be conducted on schedule, providing important feedback to the committee and the college. Expenses will be monitored to ensure the program stays within budget. While Salvation Army leadership will not guarantee to continue to fund a new program before it has proven itself, it is anticipated that if the distance education program passes the pilot phase, it will be endorsed and approved to continue into the foreseeable future.
Analysis and Report on Results
Since the pilot program has not yet been initiated, there are no formal results to report as yet. However, since the beta-testing program is up and running, some initial comments can be made. The distance education committee met and designed the materials included in this document, including the Individualized Training Programs,
Curriculum Schedule, and Field Training Requirements forms. The documents were
170 reviewed and approved by the Training Principal and the Southern California Divisional
Commander. As of this writing, the cadets have been taking correspondence classes for three weeks. It is entirely possible that this beta test could be substituted for the full pilot program, thus moving implementation forward by an entire year.
171 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
William Booth declared, “My ambition is the souls of men.”1 Booth’s ambition for The Salvation Army is as true today as it was when he founded the organization over
145 years ago. Booth did not intend to found a denomination; he simply wanted to get people saved and into the established churches. His compassion and concern for society’s marginalized eventually convinced him to offer a helping hand, and The
Salvation Army was born.
The Army quickly spread around the world, “opening fire” in nation after nation.
As the movement grew, the need to train leaders became evident, and the first “Training
Garrisons” were opened. From its earliest days, the Army’s ministry preparation regimen has always sought a balance between ministry skills, spiritual development, and academic learning. The Army understands that the purpose of clergy education is not just to educate, but to inculcate faith, deepen maturity, engender pastoral identity, and train leaders. To this end, it was endeavored to offer a multi-platform Officer training program, combining academic coursework with field experience. Still, improvement can be made.
Summary and Insights
Salvation Army officers, like other ministers, have multiple tasks and responsibilities. An officer is a pastor, a business manager, a social worker, a fundraiser, and a spokesperson. Salvation Army ministry training must match the multi-faceted
1 William Booth, as quoted in Barns, Words of William Booth, 72.
172 responsibilities carried by Army officers. While the residential training model is ideal in most situations, it has its limitations. Candidates who cannot attend the residential college are precluded from training and therefore officership. Candidates who do not need the full academic program can be discouraged by having to waste time attending classes they have already mastered. It is apparent that the Army would benefit from a distance education component that was flexible and designed to meet the specific learning needs of cadets within their own ministry contexts.
The biblical, denominational, and academic literature supports the concept of multiple education platforms for multiple skills and knowledge development. Scripture provides examples of leadership training through various means, from correspondence courses to on-the-job training. Moses learned about desert survival while shepherding flocks, and learned about shepherding people while leading the Israelites across the desert. Paul taught both publicly and privately by writing letters. Jesus taught using multiple means, including storytelling, example, and participation. The Army’s own mission-centric theology and ethos lend themselves toward a flexible, pragmatic clergy development program.
The Western Territory’s College for Officer Training is the right place to test a distance learning program. As an accredited college, it has the resources and expertise to initiate and maintain an online community, and can offer a balanced ministry preparation program that includes on-the-job training, online classes and on-campus seminars, all customized to meet the education and experience need of the individual cadet. The distance learning program would increase the pool of potential applicants, creating a more flexible training option for those who cannot attend the residential program, and
173 offering a more attractive option to candidates who already hold ministry degrees or who have already been in ministry leadership positions.
This paper has demonstrated the need for, benefits of, and viability of a distance education program operated out of the College for Officer Training in Rancho Palos
Verdes, California. It has established that Army policy allows and even encourages innovations in officer education, and would welcome an opportunity to explore this new format. It has shown that the current residential program restricts candidates with prior ministry degrees or ministry experience, and that it excludes those who cannot relocate to
Southern California. Finally, it has confirmed that the opportunity to commence a distance education program would broaden the candidate pool, and would provide a more flexible, learner-focused option for the training of Salvation Army officers.
Implications and Plans
This study has suggested the need for and feasibility of a distance education program for the Salvation Army’s United States Western Territory. With the approval of the Training Principal and the Territorial Commander, the beta-test has commenced, and preparations for the pilot program are underway. All evidence thus far suggests that the program will be approved for full implementation and enrollment by August 2014.
It is anticipated that the distance education program will have a positive effect on the Army as more candidates can be made available for training and a more comprehensive and effective training program is developed. The Salvation Army has always focused on pragmatic implementation of values—getting out there and “doing” ministry. This forward approach to officer training may even have a broader, energizing
174 effect on the Army as a whole. Getting cadets onto the field and engaging in ministry as they train exemplifies the Army’s ethos of “Christianity in action,” and may encourage others to get involved as well. It will certainly add much-needed human resources and leadership to corps around the Western Territory, providing assistance and pastoral support in locations that will greatly appreciate the additional help.
Implications for the Larger Christian Community
While the distance education program will be essentially an internal system within The Salvation Army, there are undoubtedly implications for the broader community. The most obvious effect will be simply the increased number of Salvation
Army officers in ministry. Removing geographic restrictions from the training program will result in a larger candidate pool and therefore more graduating cadets. The Salvation
Army is always on the lookout for new ministry and service opportunities. Its modus operandi is to arrive in a community, assess the needs, and get to work to meet those needs. Having more officers means the Army has a greater ability to meet needs, both in the United States and abroad.
Another possible implication involves other denominational academies. As the
Army remodels its clergy education program, it can learn from and provide an example for other denominations. As this paper has noted, both the Presbyterian and Nazarene models have much to teach the Army; perhaps the Army could return the favor by encouraging other denominations to follow suit. Clergy education programs often include requirements to participate in church programs concurrent with classes. Perhaps the Army’s model of full-time field apprenticeships combined with distance learning
175 could benefit other programs. The Salvation Army and other denominations could certainly learn by engaging with each other, perhaps offering cross-denominational courses or program-apprenticeships with each other. Such ecumenical education would broaden the ministers’ concept of Church and enrich the Church’s ministry.
Personal Insights and Implications
As this study has progressed, the greatest revelation has been the scope and depth of ministry responsibilities and the deep implications for clergy education. While other professional schools and institutes teach knowledge and skills, seminaries and ministry academies teach something much deeper. Ministry is more than a job; it is a sacred calling, something that is felt and held deep in one’s soul. It is not something one does; it is who one is. The responsibilities of ministry include not just programs, buildings, and finances, but people’s emotions, well-being, and most importantly their souls. This divine calling and responsibility cannot be taken lightly, and it behooves clergy educators to remember this. Ministry preparation must be as deeply held as ministry responsibility.
While programs and finances are important, it is the spiritual depth and maturity of the minister that is of utmost value. Clergy education, therefore, must converge around the pastor’s soul, equipping, encouraging, and enlightening the minister’s relationship with
God. This can be accomplished through various means such as mentoring, accountability groups, spiritual formation classes, chapels, and other programs, but it is essentially about personal development. The pastoral identity is at the heart of ministry and therefore it is at the heart of ministry education.
176 In my role as Assistant Principal, this takes on particular value and weight. Our programs at the College for Officer Training must be geared toward personal spiritual formation, allowing time and space for that pastoral identity to develop and solidify. The structure of the education program and the purpose of the college itself must be focused around this one main idea: the pastoral identity of the cadet. Perhaps our students are best served by us getting out the way, reducing requirements and time commitments and allowing cadets to focus on themselves. Only by developing spiritually mature leaders can we hope to prepare officers for Service in The Salvation Army.
The Salvation Army continues to need leaders. Its officers need to be trained professionals, experts in many topics and experienced in many fields. Clergy education and ministry preparation are crucial to that goal. Mostly, however, Salvation Army officers need to be equipped by God himself. Of all the responsibilities ministry entails, nothing is more important than that which is also most basic: brining people to Christ.
Theirs is a sacred task, a calling beyond mere profession. Passion for souls, spiritual depth, and a pastoral identity are the marks of a minister. The true essence of clergy preparation is simply being a vessel prepared for God’s use.
For William Booth to attain his ambition, he needed an Army. He certainly got one. The Salvation Army of today marches around the world, preaching the gospel of
Jesus Christ, seeking to meet human need, alleviate suffering, offering hope to those in despair and sharing the love of God to those in need. The ambition is the same: the souls of humanity.
177 APPENDIX A
PRESENTATION TO THE WESTERN TERRITORY CABINET
178
179
180 APPENDIX B
SAMPLE INDIVIDUALIZED TRAINING PROGRAM
The Salvation Army College For Officer Training
______
Distance Education Program Individualized Training Program: John Doe
Appointment: • Seattle Corps; Northwest Division • Supervisors: Majors Dave and Linda Harmon • Dates: August 16, 2013 – May 30, 2014 • Position: Cadet on Assignment • Duties: As assigned by Corps Officers in consultation with CFOT • Status: Upon successful completion of this program, the Cadet will receive a Certificate for Commissioning and will be eligible for ordination and Commissioning as a Salvation Army Officer.
Logistics: • Housing: o Corps to provide housing o Corps will provide cable, utilities and phone • Transportation: o Corps to provide vehicle o Corps will fund operating expenses • Finances o THQ to provide allowance of single officer minus $1. THQ will coordinate direct deposit o Cadet to remain on cadet medical and insurance plan o Other expenses: THQ to reimburse Corps for any related expenditures o Transportation to/from CFOT: CFOT (Distance Education Program budget)
Duties: • Corps Officers to create comprehensive Monthly Calendar listing all duties and expectations. It is understood that additional duties and appointments may be added as necessary.
Division of Time: • It is expected that the academic load will require approximately 10- 12 hours a week of focused study. • 5-6 hours a week of office time should be set aside for “classroom study”
181 • The cadet is expected to spend approximately 5-6 hours of additional, non- programmed time on homework assignments.
Furlough • December 24, 2013 – January 1, 2014
Field Training Program: Minimum Requirements • Complete all program responsibilities as assigned by Corps Officers • Additional Administrative Activities o Complete Corps Statistics 3 times o Assist in Corps Budget process o Attend Corps Council Meetings o Attend Corps Advisory Board Meetings
Academic Program: • Cadet must fulfill all National Standards for Training • Complete courses as assigned by Curriculum Department based on personal experience and prior education
On-Campus Requirements • Welcome Weekend • Holiness Seminar • Mentoring Seminar • Pre-Marriage Counseling Seminar • Commissioning/Ordination Activities
Cadet Reviews • Fall Review: Conducted by Seattle Corps Officers using CFOT rubrics. • Spring Review: Conducted by Seattle Corps Officers using CFOT rubrics.
Crestmont Officer Visits • Twice over the course of academic year (schedule to determined) o Training Principal o Assistant Training Principal
182 APPENDIX C
SAMPLE CURRICULUM PLAN
The Salvation Army College for Officer Training ______
Distance Education Program Individualized Curriculum Plan: Cadet John Doe
Fall Quarter
Catalogue # Course Units Instructor BI131 Old Testament Survey I 2 Major Tim Foley EC141 Theology I 2 Major Brian Jones ENG101 College Writing 2 Ethan Bradley ENG167 Homiletics I 2 Major Brian Saunders MI180 Field Training Practicum I 1 Major Keilah Toy Total units: 9
Winter Quarter
Catalogue # Course Units Instructor BI133 Old Testament Survey II 2 Major Tim Foley BU154 Business Management II 2 Major Jeff Martin PSY157 Introduction to Pastoral Care 2 Julie Sutton MI181 Field Training Practicum II 1 Major Keilah Toy Total units: 7
Spring Quarter
Catalogue # Course Units Instructor EC142 Theology II 2 Major Brian Jones ENG169 Homiletics II 2 Major Brian Saunders MI150 Introduction to Public Ministry 2 Major Ivan Wild MI176 Evangelism I 2 Major Ivan Wild MI182 Field Training Practicum III 1 Major Keilah Toy Total units: 9
183 APPENDIX D
SAMPLE FIELD TRAINING PLAN
The Salvation Army College For Officer Training ______
Distance Education Program Individualized Field Training Plan: Cadet John Doe
MI 180 Assignments Due Date Grade %
16 Field Training Rubrics • 8 Platform Ministry Skills 25% • 8 Program Leadership Skills 12 Sermon Delivery Evaluations • 2 CFOT supervised 25% • 2 DHQ supervised • 8 Self-Evaluation
1 CFOT Officer Evaluation 25%
1 Corps Officer Farewell Brief 25%
MI 180 Grade 100%
184 APPENDIX E
SAMPLE OF COURSES TO BE OFFERED IN THE DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAM
The following course descriptions are taken from the College for Officer Training at Crestmont 2012-2013 Catalog, published by The Salvation Army.
EC 141: Theology I: History of Theology An introduction to the development of the Christian Church and its doctrine, from Pentecost through the present day. This course will chart the history of Christianity, focusing primarily on key personalities and events leaving to, and arising out of the development of major themes in Christian doctrine and theology.
EC 243: Theology IV: Holiness An overview of Christian living including maintenance of salvation, assurance and holiness.
HIS 200: History 1865-Present This course traces the history and development of The Salvation Army from its origins to the twenty-first century. Emphasis will be place on the historical context, significant individuals and events, organizational and theological developments that have shaped the mission and ministry of The Salvation Army within the context of societal changes through the past 150 years.
SOC 200: Introduction to Sociology This course introduces cadets to sociological modes of thinking about the events, relationships and social phenomena and the ways in which people affect and are affected by their society. The course includes a substantive social work focus and prepares cadets for this important role.
BI 132: Old Testament Survey I: The Pentateuch This course is a survey study of the history of the Old Testament covering the books of the Pentateuch. The emphasis will be in the development and growth of the Jewish nation and humanity’s relationship with God. The course will also include historical and cultural information and methods on how to interpret the Old Testament.
BI 232: New Testament Survey I: The Gospels and Acts of the Apostles This course will survey the Synoptic Gospels and Acts of the Apostles including the cultural, social, religious and political background of the biblical material.
185 ENG 167: Homiletics I This course will serve as the foundation homiletics class. It will include an introduction to sermon and development and structure as well as instruction and experience in sermon writing and delivery.
ENG 190: Information Literacy and Research Skills This course provides and introduction to the skills needed to effectively gather information from online and print resources. Development of research topic and the creation of effective strategies for finding relevant information are discussed and practiced.
PSY 157: Introduction to Pastoral Care This course will study the purpose and meaning of pastoral care, the officer’s call, philosophy of ministry, counseling, various pastoral roles, and spiritual life ministry.
BU 154: Business Management I An introduction to the general principles of business management as they pertain to the work of The Salvation Army.
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