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Dynamics of Conservation and Society: the Case of Maputaland, South Africa

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Dynamics of Conservation and Society: the Case of Maputaland, South Africa University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Dynamics of conservation and society: the case of Maputaland, South Africa by Jennifer Lee Jones Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Environment and Society) Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences University of Pretoria Pretoria March 2006 University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Abstract Dynamics of conservation and society: the case of Maputaland, South Africa Student: Jennifer Lee Jones Supervisors: Prof Albert van Jaarsveld¹ and Prof Ian Meiklejohn² Departments: ¹Faculty of Science, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa ²Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa Degree: Doctor of Philosophy (Environment and Society) Abstract Current conservation practices in the developing world are conceptualized as tools to simultaneously protect biodiversity and provide rural economic development. Conservation’s responsibility or ability to contribute to poverty alleviation and maintain its primary function of biodiversity protection is widely debated. Regardless if one chooses to prioritize conservation over poverty or vice versa, human well being at the global scale and local livelihoods at the micro scale are dependent on natural resources, making it is impossible to separate environment and development issues. In South Africa, conservation has largely been pursued in protected areas, particularly fenced parks devoid of human settlement. The benefits of parks are well known (i.e. biodiversity and ecosystem services), but the impacts on local livelihoods are not well documented. The Maputaland region located in northeast KwaZulu-Natal contains exceptional biodiversity alongside massive poverty and has been the subject of conservation and development projects marketed as win-win solutions. Yet, conservation in Maputaland is driven by global external agendas and epistemologies based on i University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Abstract misconceptions of rural land use patterns and livelihoods, while the costs of implementation are borne locally. Nature-based tourism, participatory community schemes, and pro-poor polices have been designed to facilitate economic development, but the benefits have been minimal and slow to materialize. Uneven levels of power between rural residents and external institutions, as well as within the local tribal government, have resulted in the inequitable distribution of benefits and decision-making power. Development strategy in Maputaland continues to focus on conservation, including the expansion of protected areas to form transboundary peace parks linking reserves in South Africa, Mozambique, and Swaziland. However, expanded conservation is likely to result in household resettlement, lost access to socio-cultural and natural resources, and an increased risk of conflict over land use between conservation authorities and local residents. Complicating the success of any conservation and/or development scheme in Maputaland is the massive HIV/AIDS prevalence. With more than one third of residents infected, the disease will deepen poverty, decimate local capacity and leadership, and lead to an increased risk of resource degradation and land use conflict that ultimately undermines the long-term security of both biodiversity and local livelihoods. ii University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Declaration I, the undersigned, hereby declare that this thesis, submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Environment and Society), is my own and original work except where acknowledged. This work has not been submitted for a degree at any other tertiary institution. ___________________ Jennifer Lee Jones University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Disclaimer Disclaimer This thesis consists of a series of chapters that have been prepared for submission to, or publication in, a range of scientific journals. As a result, styles may very between chapters in the thesis and overlap may occur to secure publishable entities. iii University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Acknowledgements Acknowledgements First and foremost, I extend my warmest gratitude to South Africa and her people. They made the journey possible and enriched my life with a heightened sense of passion and purpose. My sincerest thanks and appreciation to my supervisors Albert van Jaarsveld and Ian Meiklejohn for their continued guidance, support, and trust to let me forge my own path. Thanks to everyone at the Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Pretoria for making this project possible. This work was supported by funding from the Centre for Environmental Studies at University of Pretoria, the Centre for Indigenous Knowledge at the University of Pretoria, the National Research Foundation of South Africa, and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Many thanks to the residents of Maputaland, including the people of the Tembe Traditional Authority and the staff of Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, particularly Wayne Matthews at Tembe Elephant Park. Thanks to Roelie Kloppers whose insight, friendship, and enthusiasm was invaluable. To everyone in Pretoria and Stellenbosch who gave so generously of their friendship, time, wisdom, and encouragement. Muchos gracias Mark Keith, un amigo verdadero; Ms. Aimee Ginsburg, who reminds me why friends are good; Belinda Reyers for time spent around the pool table; Erin Bohensky, a fellow 80s survivor and music groupie; Barend Erasmus, the consummate coffee partner; Tony Knowles for all the stoep chats; and Rouhet Oosthuizen and Jean Myburg, for everything . Thanks to Benis Egoh, Liezel Gerber, and Trogie Janse van Rensburg, Finally, my deepest thanks to my mom and dad whose support is everlasting. Their unconditional love and belief in me makes it all possible. iv University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) Contents Table of Contents Abstract................................................................................................................................ i Disclaimer.......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv Contents ...............................................................................................................................v Chapter 1: General introduction ....................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Using community-integrated geographic information systems to study land reform in South Africa .............................................................14 Chapter 3: Who benefits from ‘Conservation and Development’? The political ecology of biodiversity in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa..........................43 Chapter 4: Land tenure, HIV/AIDS, and population dynamics in the Maputaland Conservation Hotspot............................................................86 Chapter 5: Modeling conservation-induced resettlement in Mbangweni, South Africa .......................................................................................................109 Chapter 6: Transboundary conservation: development implications for communities in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa ........................................144 Chapter 7: General discussion ...................................................................................177 v University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) 1. General Introduction CHAPTER 1 General Introduction 1 University of Pretoria etd – Jones, J L (2006) 1. General Introduction The relationship between people and the environment is increasingly recognized as a set of complex and interdependent interactions. While natural ecosystems and human societies have co-evolved for thousands of years, our understanding of the relationship initially moved from one of human survival based on natural resource use, to one of societal development based on exploitation of resources for maximum human economic growth and prosperity (Diamond, 1998). The 20th century witnessed rapid advancement in scientific knowledge and the emergence of an environmental protectionism movement. Focus then shifted from notions of earth stewardship as a moral and ethical human obligation to the mainstreaming of ‘sustainable development’ into policy and prescription (UN, 1992). Current theory has moved further by envisioning the environment not as a simple bundle of natural resources to be managed; rather, it views biodiversity as a set of ecosystem services that provide raw materials (i.e. food, timber) and associated processes (i.e. water purification, soil fertility). Subsequently, the dialogue has come full circle. The use of nature by humans is not simply a tool for economic development; biodiversity and ecosystems are fundamental to human survival (i.e. physical, social, cultural and spiritual) (MA, 2005). As perceptions of the society-environment nexus change, theory and practice of how to manage and conserve biodiversity and ecosystems services for human development have evolved simultaneously. There has been a historical progression from ‘conservation or development’ (i.e. preservationist style fortress parks) to ‘conservation and development’ (i.e. integrated symbiotic management programs) to what I term ‘conservation through development’. The latter has emerged as protected areas, particularly in the developing
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