The Woman Singer and her Song in French and German Prose Fiction (circa 1790-1848)

Julia Irmgard Effertz

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Oxford Brookes University

November 2008

8863 8 11,1001111Ill 111111111IN103 IIIlill To my mother, Irmgard Effertz (nee Pelz), and to her mother, Gertrud Pelz (nee Salewski), two exceptionally strong women. Contents

Acknowledgments v Conventions vi Abbreviations usedforjoumals throughoutthe thesis vi Abstract ix

1 Introduction

Methodology 9 The Questionof Otherness 10 Performance,Subversion and the Possibility of FemaleAgency 14

2 Writing in Context: 18'h- and 19th- Century Musical Culture 19

The Reality of Literature: Court Culture and BourgeoisPastimes 20 The Rift Within the Myth: Femaleand Feminine Music 25 Idle Pursuits:Educating the Muses 29 Negotiating Ideal and Performance:Real-Life Singers 35

3. Conceptualising Female Song: 18'h-and 19'h- Century Musical-Literary Aesthetics 43

Finding the Original Language:Musical Aesthetics and the RousseauesqueTradition 45 Literary Conceptsof the Singer 53 Writing Otherness 55 Sublime Eroticism: Writing the Singing Body 57 Questionsof Life and Death 61 Genius 63

4 Goethe's Mignon and Madame de StaEl's Corinne: Creating a Literary Archetype (1795-1807) 68

(1) The Poeticsof Performance:Mignon 68 Existing Scholarship 70 Born from Song:Mignon in the Context of Goethe'sLied Aesthetics 74 A Poetic Cipher?Mignon's Existencethrough Song 80 Genderand Performance 91 (2) A French Soul Mate? Madamede Stadland Corinne, ou 17talie 97 The Genesisof a FemaleMyth 97 Existing Scholarship 100 Creatingthe FemaleArtist of Genius 101 The Doubts of Musical Utopia 102 From Improvisationto Opera:The Ambivalenceof the Artist's Voice 112 W done est votre belle Italie'? The Possibility of Artistic Reconciliation 117

5 Beyond the Canon: Singing Strategies in the Works of Caroline Auguste Fischer (1808-1818) 123

Piecing togethera 'Woman of Letters' 124 Rediscoveringa Phenomenon:Fischer's RecentCritical Appraisal 128 Writing Music, Writing Difference 130 Playing the Harp Until DeathDo Them Part: Der Giinstling (1808) 133 Anything But Music: Margarethe (1812) 142 A Songof Freedom?Justine (1818) 153

6 French-German Entgrenzung: The Singer in the Works of E. T. A. Hoffmann, Honork de Balzac and Hector Berlioz (1814-1844) 161

(1) Facinga Phantasm:the Singer in E.T. A. Hoffmann's Literary Work 162 Hoffmann's Aestheticsof Entgrenzungand Dissonance 164 Hoffmann's Singers 170 Musical Mechanicsand the Human Instrument:Rat Krespel 173 Glimpsesof Emancipation?Das Sanctus 178 Male Phantasms?Kreisler and Julia 181 (2) From Peripheryto Centre:France and the Artist as CentreStage 185 The Trivia of Genius:the Literary Output of the Singer 185 Hoffmann Legacies1: Honord de Balzacmusicien-littirateur 191 A Singing Illusion: Sarrasine 193 The Mystery of Artistic Legacy:Zambinella and Marianina 197 Tuer Piddal 1:Massimilla Doni 201 Conceptsof the Voice: Genovese,Tinti, Massimilla 205 From Entgrenzungto Reconciliation:Moving Away from Hoffmann 209 Hoffmann Legacies11: The Singer in Hector Berlioz's Les Soirjes de Vorchestre 212 'Voild I'dcrivain': the Poet-Musician 213 The Berliozian Singer:Goddess or Monster? 214 A Utopian Space?Les Soiries de Vorchestre 217 Tuer Piddal 11:Euphonia, or Musical Dystopia 218

7 Realistic Expectations: The Singer in Female-Authored Texts of the July Monarchy (1730-1848) 226

(1) Facing Reality: Emmeline,ou lajeune musicienne 228 (2) The Prima Donna Question 236 HoffmannesqueEchoes: George Sand, La Prima Donna 238 Trivial Surprises:Madame Taunay, Une Cantatrice 244 Marceline Desbordes-Valmore,Domenica 252

8 Conclusion 265

Bibliography 272

iv Acknowledgments

It would have beenimpossible for me to write this thesiswithout the help, support and friendship of many different people. First and foremost,my supervisoryteam, to whom I am most grateful: to Professor Valerie Worth who oversawthe entire thesisprocess as my incredibly knowledgeableDirector of Studiesfrom day one, and who continuedto supervise me despitemoving to a different university; to Dr. Nathalie Aubert, who graciously took over as Director of Studiesduring my final year and whoseongoing support and encouragementsafely saw me through to thesiscompletion. To ProfessorHans Hahn, who supervisedthe Germanside of this thesis,taking over from Dr. James Hodkinson,who had beenmy Germansupervisor during the first year of research.I furthermorereceived invaluable input for the musicologicalside of things from Dr. Alexandra Wilson. I am most grateful for the many networking and socialising opportunitiesprovided by different conferencesthat I was able to attendduring my research:most notably, I am much indebtedto the Societyof Dix-Neuvidmistes (UK), The Stadl Society (F) and the FrenchLiterature Conferenceat the University of South Carolina (USA). I was fortunateto haveaccess to the excellentresearch facilities at Oxford's Bodleian library and to the fantasticarchives of the Bibliothýque Nationale in Paris,without which I could neverhave accomplished this work. For the difficult, lonely momentsduring this researchproject, I will always be indebtedto the Oxford University Drama Society,which gaveme the opportunityto reconcilethe actresswith the researcher,and to the colleaguesand friends who were there for me: to the Goldfish Bowl researchers(Nicola, Alma, Ahmad, Javad,Mai, Rawiwan),to the PhD studentsin Arts and Humanitiesand thosewho madeit through: Joannaand Barbara.To my colleagueAlexandra Kleinlercher for relaxing coffee breaks,and to my flat-matesNapaporn and Jaturongfor manyjoyous eveningsof discussionsand delicious Thai food. Finally, thanksgo to my Strasbourg friends, Nassir and SimoneNaderi. Most importantly, I could not have donethis work without the constant, unconditionaland loving supportof my wonderful family back home in Germany,to whom I am forever indebted.

V Conventions

In this thesis I havefollowed the guidelineslaid down in the Modern Humanities ResearchAssociation style book.

The following principles apply to my treatmentof primary texts.

Due to the comparativenature of this thesis,all quotationsfrom primary texts are given in the original language. In the caseof lesser-knownauthors, especially those discussed in chapters5 and 7,1 havechosen to give slightly longer quotationsas I felt it importantto give the reader a tasteof the author's writing style and tone, as well as samplesof works that are not generally well-known.

Quotationsare taken from the critical edition of the author's work. In the caseof the lesser-knownauthors treated in chapter7,1 havechosen the edition(s) availableto me, all of which are held at the Bibliothýque nationalein Paris. The full referencefor eachedition is given the first time the work is cited, together with the abbreviationthat will be usedthereafter. A specialcase applies to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,whose complete works are available in a numberof critical editions. I have followed Germanistconventions by using the standardsigla outlined in the bibliography.

vi Abbreviations used for journals throughout the thesis

AFM Archivftr Musikwissenschaft

AMU Acta Müsicologica

ALZ Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung

A UK Ästhetik und Kommunikation

AMZ Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung

Coi CambridgeOpera Journal

DAI DissertationAbstracts International

DEP La Dimocratie pacifique DES Dalhousie French Studies

D VJ DeutscheVierteljahresschrift

ELI, LEurope littiraire

FHS French Historical Studies

FQR TheForeign Quarterly Review

GJB Goethe-Jahrbuch

GYB Goethe-Yearbook

GLL GermanLife and Letters GRM Germanisch-RomanischeMonatsschrift

GQU German Quarterly

HJB Heine-Jahrbuch

JDS Jahrbuch der deutschenSchillergeselischaft

JGG Jahrbuch der Goethe-Gesellschaft

JIG Jahrbuchffir Internationale Germanistik

JRM Journal ofthe Royal Musical Association LAB LAnnje halzacienne

LFH La France musicale LLZ Leipziger Literaturzeitung

MA L Music and Letters

vii MDF Mercure de France

MLN Modern LanguageNotes

MLR TheModem LanguageReview

MUB Musik und Bildung

NPH Neophilologica: A Journal of Germanicand RomanceLanguages and Literature

PMLA Publications ofthe Modem LanguageAssociationofAmerica

RCL Revuecritique des livres nouveaux RDT RevuedHistoire du Thidire

RGA RevueGinirale

RHL RevuedHistoire littiraire de la France

RLC Revuede littirature comparje

RLV Revuedes languesvivantes RDM Revuedes Deux Mondes

RDP Revuede Paris

RGM Revueet GazetteMusicale de Paris RMU Revuede Musicologie

ROF RomanistischeForschungen

RSH Revuedes Sciences Humaines

RUO Revuede I'Universitj d'Ottawa

VST Victorian Studies

WFS Womenin French Studies

viii Abstract

This thesisexamines the woman singerand her songas a literary motif in French and Germanprose fiction between1790 and 1848.In the form of selectedcase studies,I establishhow, for someauthors of this period,the singerconstituted an important cipher for femaleartistic empowerment.Although substantialresearch on the cross-fertilizationbetween music and literatureexists, this specific motif hasso far receivedvery little attention in ComparativeLiterature studies.Additionally, literary critics have not previously exploredthe potentialof the woman singer beyondthe stereotypesassociated with woman and song. By outlining the socio- cultural backgroundof singersat the time in chapter2, and the theoreticalcontext of idealizedfemale song in chapter3,1 first show the strong ideologicaldimension of the singer as a characterof ambivalence.I then investigatehow I iteratureresponded to this theme,and how key authorsdeveloped the characteras a reflection on aestheticideals pertaining to femalemusicality, and as a potentially subversive, empoweredfigure of femalesong performance. In chapter41 examinethe importanceof early singer archetypescreated by Goetheand Madamede Stadl,both of whose visions of musically inspiredartistic geniuspaved the way for subsequent literary treatmentsof the singer and her increasingprofessionalism and artistic agency.In Chapter51 show to what extent marginalizedauthors like Caroline Fischerwrote explicitly againstthe clichd of the musical feminine ideal, proposing different views on femaleagency through art, whereasin chapter71 demonstrate how women authorsof the July Monarchy period, such as Taunay,Sand, Ulliac and Desbordes-Valmore,wrote strong narrativesrevolving aroundthe life and geniusof the prima donnasinger. On the other hand,in chapter61 show that, although couchingtheir narrativesin seeminglymore traditional, patriarchalimagery, male authorslike Hoffmann, Balzac:and Berlioz implicitly criticized the idealism associatedwith both music and woman and looked for narrativeways to portray the woman singer as an artist who maintainsautonomy and integrity. My conclusion emphasizesthat through their uniquetreatment of the woman singer,authors contributedto a complex, continuousdiscourse on woman and music which went beyondthe stereotypicalnature of cultural and aestheticparadigms of femalesong.

ix Introduction

Womanand song.If we look at Europeanculture, it may seemthat thesetwo have always enjoyeda privileged rapport and that women have sungsince the very beginning.Strong imagesof femalesong go back all the way to Greco-Roman antiquity where it is saidthat it was a femalesinging voice that first relatedthe origin of the world: The Musesas literally the first singershave traditionally been consideredthe guardiansand teachersof the arts. If Orpheusbecame the first male singer-poetof Europeanculture (and the subjectof the first operasto emergein 17th_ century Italy), he owed his musical gift to the teachingsof his mother,the muse ' Calliope. Finally, the Musesalso remainedarchetypes of artistic inspirationfor generationsof poets,musicians and painters.It is their art, the 'art of the Muses' that we know today as 'music'. Throughoutthe centuries,the mythical union of woman and song losesnothing of its original fascination,as music itself becameallegorized through the femaletraits of Musica and the patron saint of sacredmusic, Saint Cecilia. Europeanculture boastsa numberof fascinating,if not to say extravagant, figures of femalesong, starting with the imageof the poet-singerSappho, or the rather disturbing accountsof the sirens.Interestingly, these two strong imagesof female songare also representativeof what hasto this day remaineda perceived threat of femalemusicality. Sincethe beginningsof musical culture, critics advocatedthe 'proper' performanceand called for regulationsto keepmusic in check, since it was considereda powerful art form capableof arousingpassion and immorality. 2 As the polar oppositeto the idealisedpoet-singer Orpheus, the siren 3 cameto representthe archetypalimagery of femalesong as a threatto society. As such,the siren hasremained firmly anchoredas representationof the ambivalence

' SeeCharles Segal, Orpheus. The Myth of1hePoet (Baltimore/London:The JohnsI lopkins Press, 1989);see also AlexandreAuguste Hirsch's painting Calliope enseignela musiqueauieune Orphje, 1869.P6rigucux; Musdc du Pdrigord. 2 'Use not much the companyof a woman that is a singer, lest thou be takenwith her attempts' (Ecclesiasticus,9.4). Seealso Plato's Protagoras (347d, p.48), and his Republic,in which he allows only certain modesand rhythms that do not indulge one's emotions(Republic, 398c-400c, pp. 95-98). 3 On the siren topic, seefor instanceSehnsucht undSirene: ViemehnAhandlungen: u Wasserphantasien,ed. Irrngard Roebling (Pfaffenweiler: Centauras,1992). This compilation contains an excellent study on the siren as a cipher for otherness(Ute Guzzoni, 'Die Ausgrenzungdes Anderen', pp.5-34). that hasalways surroundedthe singer herself,playing with the uncannyof both music and womanhood:half-woman, half-animal, the siren sangto draw men into her deadly embrace,thus reuniting the utmost raptureassociated with her singing voice with certain deathfor thosewho did not plug their earsin time, as the Odyssey aptly tells us. Sinceantiquity, and through the help of suchpowerful imagery,the beautyof song,and in extensionof music, hasalways beenlinked to its underlying threat,to the deaththat awaits the listener shouldhe follow the singing voice. Justas the Museshave nurtured the imageryof the saintly, innocentsinger who, for instancein the shapeof a harp girl, actsas a soothing,inspiring, loving force on the male listener,so the Sirenshave nurturedthe antagonisticside of femalesong, and continuedto underpinthe imageryof the woman singer as a siren singer,afemme fatale whosesong and performancecould be deadly for a male listener.As a myth, female songappears characteristically big in its socio-culturalimagery and symbolical charge,while at the sametime remainingmysterious and relatively little explored in terrnsof a femalemusic history. The myth of femalesong as a dangeroussong, as 'the siren's song', perseveredin Europeanculture, be it in the Pauline injunction reiteratedby the churchuntil well into the 18th century'i or in such powerful literary figures as the FrenchMdlusine, Paracelsus' Undines and the water nymphsand nixies that populateGermanic folklore, all of whom possessthe most enchantingvoice yet, alas,no humansoul unlessby marriageto a mortal man. One particularly rich and enticing variation of femalesong myth revolved aroundthe late 18th-and especially 19th-centuryfigure of the professionalsinger and operatic diva who, perpetuatingthe myth of femalesong into modernity,was like few other femaleartists able to entice audiencesand appearas the quintessential embodimentof woman and song in all their ambiguity, capableof appearingas either a saintly museto her male admirer, or afemmefatale who causesthe male listener's downfall. An overview of femalemusic history revealsthe ambivalence that especiallywomen encounteredin the areaof music, itself deemeda realm of

4 In the interpretationof St. Paul's remark 'Afulier in ecclesiataceal' (I Corinthians 14.34),women singershad beenexcluded from churches,and from the 17th century onwards banned from theatres. SeeFranz Hab6ck,Die Kastraten und ihre Gesangskunst:eine gesangsphysiologische, kullur- und musikhistorischeSludie (Stuttgart: DeutscheVerlagsanstalt, 1927), pp. 221-24.

2 potential worry, and the unique mixture of myth and reality that seemsto accompanyany accountof femaleartistry. It is this fascinatingcombination of woman and song,at the crossroadsof myth and reality, of music, culture and literature,that lies at the heartof this thesisand invites a thorough investigationof the imageand representationof the singerand her song in the transitional period of the late 18thand early 19thcentury in Franceand Germany.A study of the woman singerand her songin prosefiction could certainly be undertakenfor a different era, as well as in a different nationaland linguistic context. Yet the particular importanceof Frenchand Germanaesthetics between the two Revolutions,and at the core of EuropeanRomanticism, as well as the rich cross- fertilization betweenmusic and literature,and betweenGermany and Franceat the time makesthis specific focus on the motif of the singerand her songespecially worthwhile. Moreover, this areaof ComparativeLiterary Studiesso far appears under-researched:Existing studieson either Romantic literatureor a topic relatedto the myth and imagery of the singerappear biased in that they tend to simply focus on the mythological, stereotypicaldimension of singerand song,dealing for instancewith the motif of woman and water in GermanRomanticism, or the prima donna figure in FrenchRomantic texts. 5 Suchstudies are limited to the 'myth' of woman embodiedby one-dimensionalfigures of femalesong, yet they fail to addressthe complexity of femalesong as a socio-culturalreality and an important, musical-literary and aestheticconcept, and to investigatethe potential for female empowermentthrough the useof the singer figure in literature. To date, studieshave focussedon well-establishedworks of the literary canon, as well as traditional binary readingsof I 91h-century femalerepresentation in literature accentuatingthe rigidity and passivity of female 'types' in novels,like the siren-womanor the tendermuse-girl. In the light of modem literary scholarship,and especiallywith the additional anglesof genderstudies and comparativeliterature, I do not believe that a multi-facetedmusical and femalecharacter, carrier of a rather complex musical-literarydiscourse, can be readalong such simplistic, iconographicallines: At a time when fascinating,if controversialart concepts

5 Marie-JosdeVictoria, La Cantatrice dans la filliralure romantiquefranCaise(unpublished doctoral thesis,Universitd de Lyon, 1996).This constitutesthe only detailedstudy dealing specifically with the singer.There existsno comparablestudy in the Germanrealm.

3 emergein both countries,'song' becomesa poetic ideal while womenestablish themselvesincreasingly as professionalartists and partakein the musical-literary discourseas writers and intellectuals.In consequence,the woman singer,in all her different variations,appears as a multi-layeredliterary myth of both womanand music, a representativeof femalemusicality and musicalaesthetics, yet as we will see,also a very pertinentcomment on the part of the authorswho wrote her, on the well-establisheddichotomy of female ideal and performance,and the sublimity of music. The aim of my thesis is to investigatefemale song and its performeras a motif in selectedprose works of the period and to offer a fresh,critical readingof this motif beyondthe simplification of certain 'types' that haveso far beenat the centreof attention in literary criticism. I envisageproviding a much-neededcontribution to the areaof comparativeliterature dealing with the rapport betweenliterature and music, as well as offering a new take on the singeras a significant figure of female literary representation. What makesthis topic so fascinatingis not only the breadthof texts dealingwith the singer,but the generaloutput and degreeof preoccupationthat we encounteron the part of writers to engagewith music in their writing and to expressthis through a motif such as the singer.As part of a wider poetical-literarydiscourse, music becamea prominent linguistic, cultural, theoreticaland philosophicalreference for literature,manifesting itself in the form of (amongothers) theoretical treatises on the natureof music and its relationshipwith language,poems composed in homageto famoussingers, or prosetexts which treatedthe ideal that representedmusic in their own way and aimed to poeticize it through their stagingof musical plots and characters.While the literary scenediscovered music and musicians,the opposite was also true, sincecomposers chose to set poems,plays and other literary texts to music, oflen creating a role with a specific singer in mind. The intimate, reciprocally is fruitful link of thesetwo prominentareas of I 9th-century culture also accounted for through contemporaryiconography, for examplethrough the archetypal

4 6 depiction of the 'Lady with the Lyre', of the mermaid,the girl singing and playing her harp as well as the countlesspictorial commentson contemporarymusical culture, salon recitals or prima donnacaricatures. However, in contrastto the iconographicaldimension of the singer,literature treats the motif in a subtler manner.

Someof the most fascinatingsingers were createdby Frenchand German writers from the 1770sonwards. One only hasto think of Goethe'senigmatic Mignon, whosenostalgic Italy song becameknown throughoutEurope, as did the figure of the child-singer and social outcast,exotic, musical geniUS, 7 a strangerto society like many of her singing sistersin real life. GeorgeSand is but one of many writers to celebratethe singer in 1840sFrance and createher monumentalepos Consueloin homageto the outstandingartist PaulineViardot. In betweenthese two big namesof the Frenchand Germancanon, we encountera considerablenumber of different literary treatmentsof the woman singerthat spanmost areasof the discourse, aesthetic from sublimeto trivial, from proseto poetry tojournalism - someof whom constitutethe selectedcase studies of this thesis.Due to the vast natureof the topic itself (and bearingin mind its interdisciplinarycharacter with regardto music, comparativeliterature, cultural and genderstudies) as well as to the constraintsof the thesis,I haveselected texts that I believe significantly developthe singer motif againstthe backdropof contemporaryaesthetics, and illustrate the complexity, breadthand evolution of the singer figure. To begin with, in order to situatethe singeras a literary motif within its socio- cultural and aestheticcontext, I will briefly outline key aspectsof musical culture relevantto the period in questionin chapter2, and then contextualizethe singerand her song within the predominantmusical-] iterary discourseof the time in chapter3. The casestudies I shall then deal with open with the iconic singerarchetypes Mignon and Corinne, whom I discussin chapter4, and, in chapter5, the lesser- known treatmentof female songby Caroline AugusteFischer who, as early as the 1800s,offers a very critical position on the topic. Chapter6 and 7 discussthe

6 SeeMargaret Waller, 'The Melancholy Man and the Lady with the Lyre: The SexualPolitics of Genius in Early Romantic Fiction and Painting', in Correspondances:Studies in Literature, History and the Arts in 191hcentur y France, ed. Keith Busby (Amsterdam:Rodopi, 1992),pp. 223-37. For a more detaileddiscussion of the term 'genius' in connectionwith the woman singer,see pp. 63- 67.

5 significant contributionsto the musical-literarydiscourse made by Hpffmann, Balzacand Berlioz, and the richnessof the literary output by July Monarchyauthors suchas GeorgeSand and Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. With regardto comparativeliterature, an important underpinningof my thesisis the richnessand strength of Franco-Germanliterary relations at thetime, with some importantlinks, yet alsosubstantial differences to bediscussed in thetreatment of the singermotif in bothnational contexts. Additionally, the history of themotif is oneof a consistent,ongoing cultural and musical-literary discourse, with some authors,both in Franceand Germany, explicitly or implicitly referringto preceding writersand texts. This is relevant,for instance,if we look at Balzac'sappreciation of bothGoethe and Hoffmann, and his musical-literaryresponse in thewake of the receptionof Hoffmannin France.However, the majorityof textsrefer rather to a commoncultural and literary image, established through preceding texts, through the myth of songand singer and literary archetypes like Mignonor Corinne.Yet this moreor lessimplicit intertextualaffinity is not whatmakes the individualtext stand out, but ratherit servesto underpinthe evolution from earlymodels of femalesong in the late 18thcenturyto the overwhelmingpresence of the operasinger in narrativesof the mid-I 9thcentury. Likewise, not all textsdiscussed in this thesisare firmly establishedin their literarycanons. Rather, the range of textschosen for this studyreflects the breadthand diversity of the musical-literarydiscourse which embracedthe elitist tendenciesof musicand literature at thetime just asmuch as their popular,trivial side.Some texts were immensely popular at thetime of their publicationbut arenowadays largely forgotten, others are slowly being rediscovered by scholars,and subsequently re-assessed as importantcontributions to thecultural discourseof thetime andas fascinatingtestimonies of theomnipresent imagery of musicin literature.The varying quality and assessment of the singer'sliterary output,it seems,reflects the ambiguous,complex status of thesinger herself, betweenthe 'high' idealsof womanand song and the popular, mundane allure of the stageentertainer, between the margins and the centre of society. As a truesocio-cultural myth of hertime, the woman singer nevertheless appears,upon closer inspection, as a complexreflection and negotiation of diverging musical-literaryaesthetics and art practices,from the intimacyof the salonto the

6 spotlight of the operastage, from the idealsof songas poetry to the mundanityof operettasongs and streetperformers, from the strugglesof the woman music teacher to the acclaim of the celebratedopera diva. All of theseaspects offer us glimpsesof what the woman singerand her song imply during the period of the 1780sto the middle of the 19thcentury.

Existing Scholarship

Despitethe fact that the singer appearsas an iconic figure especiallyof 19'h-century musical culture, few studiesdeal specifically with this motif. Somesubstantial researchexists in the broaderareas of comparativeliterature, musicology and gender studies,which servesas a sensiblestarting point for any seriousresearch on musical- literary aesthetics,and a musical-literaryfigure like the singer. Substantialwork has beenproduced in Franceand Germanyin the areaof 'music and literature' and it has shown the intensity of the musical-literary discoursetowards the end of the 18'hand through the 19thcentury, 8 further illustrated by specific genreslike the artist novel, or literary archetypeslike the painter,poetý and musician. A more recentarea of research,feminist musicologyhas produced some important studiesaiming to rebalancethe perceivedbias in Europeanmusic history, from which women havebeen excluded for so long'.9 While it is true that European

' Standard works include Bdatricc Didier, La Musique des Lumiires (Paris: PUF, 1985); ibid., 'Le Mythe musical dans le texte littdraire des Lumi&es au Romantisme: du mythe de la musique au mythe du musicien', in Le Mythe en linirature: essais offertsii Pierre Brunel ii Poccasion de son soixantiýme anniversaire (Paris: PUF, 2000), pp. 81-94; Francis Claudon, La Musique des romantiques (Paris: PUF, 1992); Jean-Louis Back6s, Musique el littirature. Essai de poilique comparje (Paris: PUF, 1994); Michel Delon, 'La Musique dans le roman, de La Nouvelle Hilorse A Corinne', in LArt du roman. Lart dons le roman, ed. Thomas Hunkeler / Sylvie Jeanneret / Martin Rizek (Bern: Lang, 2000), pp. 23-36; Christine Lubkoll, Mythos Musik. Poetische Entwfirfe des Musikalischen in der Literatur um 1800 (Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, 1995); Corinna Caduff, Die Liferarisierung von Musik und bildender Kunst um 1800 (Manchen: Fink, 2003); Music and Literature in German Romanticism, ed. SiobhAn Donovan / Robin Elliott (Rochester: Camden House, 2004); Lawrence Kramer, Music and Poetry. The 19'h Century andAfler (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Steven Paul Scher, Literatur undMusik (Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 1984). 9 Judith Tick, 'Women in Music', in TheNew Grove Dictionary ofMusic andMusicians, pp. 519-37; WomenMaking Music: The WesternArt Tradition, 1150-1950,ed. JaneBowers/Judith Tick (Urbana/Chicago;UIP, 1986);Kimberly Marshall,Rediscovering the Muses: Women'sMusical Traditions (Boston: NUP, 1993);Carol Neuls-Bates,Women in Music: an Anthology ofSource Readingsftom the Middle Agesto the Present(Boston: NUP, 1996);Karin Pendle,Women and

7 musical culture hasalways beenmale-dominated, recent scholarship has aimed to unearththe history and works of educatedwomen musicians,such as the female troubadours,wandering minstrels, nuns or womencomposers. Most of thesestudies concludethat music history should gradually be re-written in order to acknowledge the contributionsmade by women musiciansand to canonizemore female-authored works. Someof these(often pioneering)studies have offered me a valuableinsight into femaleperformance realities, as well as the close bond betweenmusic, literature 10 and culture, and helpedme anchorthe literary and cultural fantasyof music and the singer on firm ground.More generalhistorical scholarshipequally provided important backgroundreading to put the musical-literary'ferment', in which the " singer evolved, on the map. Equally within the rangeof historical scholarship, studiesof selectedwomen singersthroughout history have addedto my understandingof the realistic implications of this figure. ,2 Scholarshiptreating the woman singer specifically is an interestingissue: as I haveexplained above, few studiestreat the motif explicitly. However,a numberof works to datehave

Music. A History. (Bloomington: IUP, 2001); Eva Rieger,Frau undMusik (Frankfurt: Fischer,1980); ibid., Frau, Musik undMdnnerherrschaft(Kassel: Furore-Verlag, 1988); Ruth Solie,Musicology and Difference: Genderand Sexualityin Music Scholarship(Berkeley: UCP, 1993);ibid., Music in Other Words. Victorian Conversations(Berkeley: UCP, 2004). 10 Joseph-MarcBailbd, Le Romanet la musiqueen France sousla monarchiedejuillel (Paris: Minard, 1969);Christine Battersby,Gender and Genius.Towards a Feminist,4esthetics (London: Women's Press,1989); Corinna Caduff / Siegrid Weigel, Das Geschlechtder Kanste(K61n: B6hlau, 1996); Freia Hoffmann, Instrumentund K&per, Die musizierendeFrau in der bargerlichenKultur (Frankfurt: Insel, 1992);Hoffmann., 'Institutionelle Ausbildungsm6g]ichkeitenfdr Musikerinnenin der erstenHNIfte des 19.Jahrhunderts', in Vonder Spielfrau : ur Performance-Kanstlerin.Aufder Suchenach einer Musikgeschichleder Frauen, ed. Freia Hoffmann / Eva Rieger(Kassel: Furore, 1993),pp. 77-91; JeanMongrddien, La Musiqueen France, desLumijres au Romanfisme,1789-1830 (Paris: Flammarion, 1986);Siegrid Nieberle, Frauenmusikliteratur.Deuischsprachige Schrifistellerinnenim 19. Jahrhundert(Stuttgart: Metzler, 1999);Nancy Reich, 'Women as Musicians: A Questionof Class', in Musicologyand Difference,pp. 125-46; Julie Anne Sadie, 'Musiciennesof the Ancien Rdgime', in WomenMaking Music, pp. 191-223;Bonnie Anderson/Judith Zinsser,A History of Their Own: Womenin Europefrom Prehistory to the Present(London: Penguin, 1988);Georges Duby/Michelle Perrot,Hisloire desfemmesen Occident.Tome IV Le X1Xe slecle (Paris: Perrin, 2001). 11Peter Bloom/Jacques Barzun, Music in Paris in the Eighteen-Thirties:LaMusiquei Paris dans les annies mil hull cent trente (Stuyvcsant:Pendragon Press, 1987); David Gramit, Cultivating Music: The,4spirations, Interests andLimits of GermanMusical Culture, 1770-1840(Berkeley: UCP, 2002); David Tunley, Music in the 19th-CenturyParisian Salon (Armidale, N. S.W.: University of New England,Armidale, 1997);ibid., Salons,Singers andSongs: a Backgroundto RomanticFrench Song 1830-70(Aldershot: Ashgate,2002); William Weber,Music andthe Middle Class: TheSocial Structure of ConcertLife in London, Paris and Vienna(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004). 12Biographically-angled studies include: RupertChristiansen, Prima Donna: A History (London: Bodley Head, 1995);Isabelle Putnam Emerson, Five Centuriesof WomenSingers (Greenwood, 2005); SusanRutherford, The Prima Donna and Opera, 1815-1930(Cambridge: CUP, 2006).

8 approachedthe topic of the femalevoice in general,often basedon psychoanalytical and postmodernfeminist criticism.13 While thesestudies, and their theoretical underpinningsare not essentialto my thesis,they haveoffered me importantbasic readingon the complexity of the femalevoice as a paradigmin Europeanculture. This brief overview showsthat the basicscholarship is certainly in place in order to facilitate researchinto the motif of the singer and her songnot only as a literary motif, but also as a strongcipher of 18'h-and I 9th-century cultural and aesthetic discourse.However, the woman singer,and with her a significant part of both female music history and the musical-literarydiscourse still remainsto a large extent unexplored,confined to the realm of literary myths, where she,doubtlessly, earned her place. However, in this thesis,I aim to offer a first substantialreading of the motif, in its complexity and controversy.

Methodology

The presentthesis constitutes a comparativiststudy of the singerand her songas a crucial motif in late 18th-and 19'h-centuryliterature. As such,the readingI propose in the form of selectedkey studiesof texts publishedbetween 1795 and 1844,is indebtedto the breadththat comparativeliterature studiesare able to offer and ties the disciplines of literature,musicology and genderstudies together in order to discussthe singer in her aestheticand socio-culturaldimension. Deeply entrenched in and contributing to contemporary,constantly evolving musical-literaryaesthetics, the singer constitutesan importantvehicle of thought transferand intertextuality betweenFrance and Germany.As I proceedin my selectedcase studies, I will carefully discusseach text in terms of its textual, aestheticand socio-cultural implications, while bearingin mind the importanceof French-Germanliterary relations,as well as the continuity of the motif of the singerwho, as a femaleartist,

13 See especially Leslie Dunn/Nancy Jones, Embodied Voices. Representing Female Vocality in Western Culture (Cambridge: CUP, 1994); Felicia Miller Frank, The Mechanical Song: Women, Kaja Voice, and the Artificial in Nineteenth-Century French Narrative (Stanford: SUP, 1995); Silverman, The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis and Cinema (Bloomington: IUP, 1988).

9 left such a deep imprint on I 9th_centuryculture. In order to be fully understood,the singer needsto be situatedwithin the cultural and literary tradition as well as within a history of motifs of precedingand subsequentmodels of femalesong. A complete picture of what the singer motif implies can only be obtainedif we considerthe bigger th picture of 18 - and I 9th-century thought, which stemsfrom Rousseauesque song aestheticsto early archetypeslike Goethe'sMignon and Staul's Corinne,and further on to the singerapotheosis of the 1840s.Such a comparativist,diachronic discussionindicates moreover that 'Romanticism' in its complexity calls for a continuousdebate on motifs and forms, and a seriousquestioning of traditional readingsof female representationin Romanticdiscourse.

The Question of Otherness

What is extremelystriking when looking at literary representationsof female song is the perceivedstigma of otherness,which was brought forward by 20"- century feminist scholarshipdiscussing women's place in westernsociety and coining the term of the other, the 'second' sex.' 4 Writing aboutthe singerand her song in the late 18thand the first half of the 19'hcentury seemsto addresstwo key aspectsof othernessthat particularly nurture literary expressionin this period: firstly, the problem of 'writing music' in literature,which refersto the fact that music was consideredan artistic ideal as well as an idealisedform of human expression,that inevitably changeswhen transcribedinto writing and which thus cameto be seenas an instanceof 'difference' in a narrativecontext. The appropriationof music by literatureentails the transpositionof soundonto the page, of the sensualexperience between singer and audienceto its abstractionat the hands of the author who transcribesthe musicalexperience into written text. In the triangle of voice, body and text, ']a voix est, par rapportau silence,comme Ncriture (au le blanc. [ ] Corporditddu la A sensgraphique) sur papier ... parler, voix se situe

14Most prominently by Simonede Beauvoir's Le deuxiiine sexe(1949). The conceptof otherness hasalso found resonancein the Social Sciences,usually subsumedby the term Alterity. In order to avoid confusion, I shall usethe lessmarked term of otherness,which I considermore appropriatefor the cultural and literary natureof my study.

10 Particulationdu corps et du discours."' It is in this textual transpositionof the sung voice onto paper,from singerto listenerto author,that a first dimensionof 'difference' of the singing voice, and its performer,occurs. Some I 9th-century scholarshave hinted at the hybridity of literary genresaround 1800,and the place which songor other non-prosaicelements occupy as different poetic and communicativemodes within a text.16 To what extentthese early lyrical narratives pavedthe way for more well-known I 91h-century forms suchas thepoýme enprose, still requiresthorough investigation.17 Although the aforementionedstudies do acknowledgethe textual dimensionof 'musical otherness'and the issueof trying to expressmusic through prose,they do not addressthe questionof 'gendered otherness'or performance(of song,singer and author), that is the issueof the woman singer as a representativeof femaleand musical otherness,and of the singing body as a mark of differenceand loss:

La voix humainecst en cffet Ic lieu privil6gi6 (eid6tique)de la diff6rence:un lieu qui dchappeA toute science,car il Westaucune science (physiologie, histoire, esthdtique,psychanalyse) qui dpuise]a voix: classez,commentez historiquement, sociologiquement,esthdtiquement, techniquement la musique,il y auratoujours un reste,un suppldment,un lapsus,un non-dit qui se d6signelui-m8me: ]a voix. 18

For this study, I considerit importantto groundmy investigationin this fundamentaltopos of 'ineffable' femaleand musical otherness,which noneof the abovementionedstudies take into consideration,and which takesme to the second implication of the woman singeras a figure of otherness.Feminist scholarship,and studiesthat do not havea gender-studiesrelated approach, point out that the musical-literary discourseof the 1800sblended music and femininity togetheras

15Roland Barthes,Essais critiques 111,l'obvie et lobtus (Paris: Seuil, 1982),pp. 225 f. Roger Kempf remarksthat 'Livres et corps, tout est texte d'dgale dignitd. Tout parle ou se parle, s'dcrit, se lit' (Sur le corps romanesque,(Paris: Seuil, 1978),p. 7). 16John Bayley, TheRomantic Survival A Studyin Poetic Evolution (London: Constable,1957); Paul Neuburger,Die Verseinlagein der Prosadichtungder Romantik(Leipzig: Mayer und Müller, 1924); Martina Kieß, Poesieund Prosa. Die Lieder in WilhelmMeisters Lehrjahren (Frankfurt/Main: Athenaeum,1987); Ingrid Winter, WiederholteSpiegelungen. Funktion und Bedeutungder Verseinlagein GoethesIphigenie auf Tauris und WilhelmMeisters Lehrjahre (Bem: Lang, 1988). 17La Poisie en Prose. Des Lumlires au Romandsme,1760-1820 (Paris: Pressesde l'Universitd de Paris-Sorbonne,1993). 18Barthes, p. 247. belongingto the sameimagery of the Other for which man felt a nostalgiclonging yet which he could hardly access,let alone understand.19 Thus, 'otherness'occurs in the literary conceptualisati on of femininity and the subsequentrepresentation of women in narrativetexts. Womenwere, biologically and socio-culturally, considereddifferent from men; as the 'other' (of men), they were subjectto socio-culturalexpectations as well as to idealisedconcepts of femininity. A numberof literary depictionsof womenduring the time clearly followed the paradigmof idealisedfemininity, examplesof which would be the musefigures encounteredin certain texts, or the imagesof 'traditional' femininity, suchas the dutiful wife and mother,or the well-bred salon girl who innocently performsa pleasanttune for a charmedaudience. As I will demonstratein chapters2 and 3, there existeda powerful, crucial link betweenmusic as an 'ideal' art and form of humanexpression on the one side,and woman as an 'idealised' creaturecomplementary to man, on the other - both implied idealisedversions of what they actually representedin reality and, as such,also gave rise to more controversialtreatments of women singersagainst the 'idealised' imagery of the time. Both women and music were conceptualisedas 'ideals' and as 'the other' from a male point of view, and groundedon the aforementionedlong- standingtradition of the close connectionbetween woman and song. I As I will show in chapter2, which dealswith the socio-culturalcontext of the woman singer,the 'ideal' woman of the time coveredby my literary casestudies had to conform to a numberof social and cultural norms- suchas motherhood, musical dilettantism and her statusas a complementaryforce and helperto her (artist) husband.Likewise, the 'ideal' woman singer,as I illustrate in chapter3, conformedto certain (male) expectationsof femalemusicality, which appear, contrary to the idealspertaining to women, slightly more blurred. The 'ideal' singer should give the illusion of an 'untrained' voice and convey,through her songand 'ideal' stateof being: emotive, pre-rationaland pre-linguistic- attributesalready associatedwith female natureand diametrically opposedto male natureand to the realm of reason,culture and the spoken(or written) word.

19'Music is genderedfeminine, that is, because of its difference.And, like woman and other Others, musicfinds itself freely metaphorized' (Sol ie, Musicology and Difference, p.14).

12 However, as we will seein chapter3, the 'ideal' singerwas, male expectations on her notwithstanding,equally a vesselfor and performerof music as an 'ideal' art form, meaningof music as a higher form of humanexpression and as a sign of utmost artistic skill and genius,which could result in the controversialimage of the woman singer as an 'idealised' woman who hadto answerto socio-cultural expectations,as well as an 'idealised' musicianwho had to do justice to suchhigh, 'inhuman' categoriesas artistic geniusand sublimity, which de facto placedher outsidethe normsthat normally applied to women. It is the controversyof these different idealspertaining to women and music, and the writing of femalesong as a negotiationof suchdifferent ideals,and in fact of the woman singeras 'different' (as a woman and as an artist) which underpinsthe presentstudy. 20 Music, especiallythe fantasyof femalesong, emerges as a strongantagonist to literature and speech,even more so if we take into accountthe increasingly important conceptof absolutemusic, voiced (though in different terms) by authors important to this study, suchas Goethe,Madame de Stadl,E. T. A. Hoffmann as well as other Frenchand GermanRomantics. 21 If music is considereda higher, sublime realm of humanexpression, the dichotomy of songand spokenword accountsfor a fascinating,if problematiccombination within the text, a combination that further invites a study of musical differenceand possibleconflict of music and words in the written teXt.22 In patriarchalculture, both women and music are marked as dichotomousfrom and complementaryto men, as well as to literatureand the written word, whereasmusic is defined by its freedom.'The everydayterms we [sic] use for humansubjectivity (one, he, everyone,mankind) make universalclaims but are nonethelesssituated as male within cultural practice. 23The issueof gendered difference, in Solie's words, is that of power, but assumingone's difference,dealing with it in an assertiveway, may representan underminingof existing hierarchiesof power, in addition to an affirmation of one's own identity, creativity and power.The woman singer appearsto be a pertinentcase for discussingthe issueof

20For a more detaileddiscussion of 'ideal' femininity and 'ideal' femalesong, seechapters 2 and 3. 21See p. 47; and Carl Dahlhaus,Die Idee der absolutenMusik (Kassel:Bdrenreiter, 1976). 22See also Rieger's discussionof 'absolutemusic' as a male preserve(Frau undMusik, pp. 16-17) 23Ibid., Musicology andDifference, p. 1.

13 empowermentwithin the constraintsand the liberties implied by musical-feminine otherness. I shall ground the textual analysisof my casestudies of the womansinger and her song in this key motif of double otherness,that is of both a 'writing' of (female) music in prosetexts and of the narrativetreatment of the woman singeras an unconventional,'different' and possibly polemic embodimentof music and femininity, written both in concordancewith and againstthe idealsof womanand music that I briefly pointed out above.The writing of femalesong in literaturemay thus expressthe conflict, but also the potential implied by the writing of a female, musical characterwho is appearsas 'the other', antagonisticto men but also to more traditional types of womanhood.Investigating the narrativeembodiment of female song, I shall discussto what extentthe woman singermay be considereda motif of narrative,aesthetic and genderedotherness, and how this narrativetreatment of the singer relatesto the socio-historicaland aestheticcontext introducedin chapters2 and 3. Betweenthe singer's songand her silence,I aim to discussto what extentthe musical feminine can be regardedas an areaof dispute,as is arguedby feminist critic Anna-Maria Stuby, who, through her standardwork on the siren myth, identifies the central antagonismof westernculture as the dichotomy betweenmale and female,text and music, culture and nature,24 or as a potential for a female narrative discourseof empowerment.

Performance, Subversion and the Possibility of Female Agency

This leadsme to the secondimportant theoretical grounding of my study,which draws on the understandingthat writing the singerand her songmay well imply a writing of difference,yet at the sametime, this differencesuggests a degreeof hybridity and openness,if not subversionand liberation. In contrastto most I 9th- century scholarship,which readsthe woman artist as a fixed stereotypealong clearly

24Anna-Maria Stuby, 'Sirenen und ihre Gesänge.Variationen über das Motiv desTextraubs', in Frauen: Erfahrungen,Mythen, Projekte, cd. Anna-Maria Stuby (Berlin: Argument-Verlag, 1985).

14 defined lines of aestheticsand gender,such as the femalemuse or thefemmefatale- type of singer who threatensthe male order, I aim to discussthe singeras an ongoing negotiationof different views which take into accountthe complexity of the singer as a subversivecharacter as well as the act of writing as a performative, continuousdiscourse. Recent (feminist) criticism arguesthat what we perceiveto be stable,ontological categoriesof genderare in fact continuousgender performances, constructedand re-enacted,25 which createthe illusion of ontological gender categories.The singer herself is not a fixed literary motif, sheappears as a subjectof continuousdebate in the literary discourseand is markedby her hybridity as well as her potential for subversionof traditional genderstereotypes as part of an ongoing, literary discourse.As a literary motif, the singer is notjust a textual cipher or a literary representationof a specific type of femalemusic, but sheconstitutes a possiblefemale musical performance,as authors'perform' the singerand her song through their writing. While my thesisis a comparativistwork not exclusively focusedon feminist criticism, I am awareof the importanceof questioning traditional notions of genderand find that approachingthe literary motif, and thus literary discourse,as possible'gender performance' may offer a useful startingpoint to breakaway from traditional binary readingsof literary texts, if we understand eachauthor's contribution as an ongoing,discursive negotiation of the singeras a femaleand musical ideal.26 The singer as sheappears in the different casestudies is both a rewriting of contemporaryaesthetics and idealsregarding female musicality, and a possible performanceof criticism towards suchstereotypes. If authorsdraw on the reality within which they write, they also possessa freedomin the way they reflect on this reality. Their own performancesuggests an ongoing discourseon and negotiationof , seeminglybinary stereotypes,with the potential for a more complex, liberal and subversivetreatment of the woman singer.As af ictionalisedaccount of cultural paradigms,literature is a two-fold processand in consequence,the study of the woman singer and female songmust encompassboth the purely textual level of literary analysisand the realm ofperformance in every senseof the word. Literary

25See Judith Butler, Gender Trouble.Feminism and the Subversionof1dentity. ThinkingGender (London: Routledge,1990). 26See pp. 10-11, and chapters2 and 3.

15 texts are not isolatedbut reflecting upon and rewriting the socio-culturaldiscourse from which they develop(the 'performance'that Judith Butler refersto). As such,I considerit the privilege of literatureas a continuous,fluid discourse, bothto givecultural paradigms a different,aesthetic depth, and at the sametime to negotiatediverging, sometimes conflicting viewpoints of thetime, such as musical aesthetics,the singeras a musicalgenius or the issueof the performingwoman. Underthe surfaceof a seeminglycoherent binary, patriarchal Romantic discourse,I will showhow viewson womenand art wereat leastdiverging, if not contradictory,and that the so-called'Romantic discourse' can best be assessedif we studyeach author individually, in theirown right andwith regardto the specific culturaland aesthetic context of their writing.This becomesespecially important sinceI comparefemale and male authors, who still occupydifferent places within literaryhistory and aesthetics:

We can only reinstatewomen creatorsin cultural history when we pay them the compliment of treating their works with the careand respectthat we accordto the individuality of (white) males.And we cannotdo this if we negatethe fact that they were writing as women who emergefrom a femalesituation (which needsto be explicated),and who fit into the patternsof patrilineal and matrilineal continuity (whose links haveto be exposed).27

As an icon of femaleprofessionalism and of musical-literary aesthetics,the singer seemsto be a relatively accessiblemotif for both male and femaleauthors to use, but for the latter perhapseven more so. The characterbridges real-life artistry, representingone of the likely possibilities for figures of femaleartistic empowerment,which may seeman obvious choice for women authorsin order to discussissues of femaleeducation, empowermentý artistic creativity and professionalism.This of coursemay be true for male authorsas well and I would disagreewith feminist critics who arguethat the femalewriting tradition must be segregatedfrom male traditions sincewomen's texts 'explore what it meansfor a woman to "have a voice". Voice thus becomesa metaphorof and vehicle for female empowermentboth on stageand off 928While this may be true to a certainextent, I female do not excludethe possibility of male authorsrepresenting empowered

27Battersby, Gender and Genius,p. 23 1. 28LeonardVPope, p. 18.

16 voices through their singers,just as women authorsmay reproducemale-authored stereotypesof the singer as a passivemuse or a stylized angel,or quite simply a dilettantish songbird.Although the socio-culturaldiscourse of the period in question is patriarchalin tone, and an appropriationof femininity for the sakeof male artistic (pro-)creationdoes occur, it would be wrong to assumethat there are only two types of singers,depending on whetherthey were written by men or women.In fact,just as the context I have discussedso far is heteroclite,so the singer may be a motif not of a genderdichotomy but rather of a genderdialectiCS, 29 to which both male and femaleauthors contribute equally. Writing the woman singer constitutesboth representationand performance through which authorsnegotiate certain stereotypeswhile inscribing their own performanceof the motif and aestheticsinto an ongoing discourse.Writing the singer and her song is not per se a predeterminedact. Thus, in my casestudies, I aim to demonstratethe diversity of authors' voices in the literary representationof the singer, by discussingthe potential of the motif and its possiblesubversion of aestheticstereotypes. Beyond the constraintsthat terms relating to aestheticperiods such as Romanticismor EmpJ1'ndsamkeitimpose, I will discusseach author's textual embodimentof the singer and discusstheir aestheticsrelating to the motif in the continuity of what I considerto be a fascinatingModygeschichte of the singer.In doing so, I proposeone possibleevolution of the singermotif, betweenFrance and Germany,from the late 18thto the middle of the I 9thcentury. Before proceedingto the selectedcase studies, I shall now further investigatethe motif of femalesong in its aestheticand pragmaticdimension. Writing aboutmusic or about a singer in a Gen-nancourt of the 1780ssimply could not havethe same implications as doing so as a Parisianconnoisseur of the 1840s.The following chapterdoes not aim at a complete,exhaustive analysis of all aspectsof Frenchand Germanmusical culture and aesthetics,but ratherat highlighting its importantkey aspects,which are essentialin order to understandthe complexitiesand

29By 'gender dichotomy' I meanfixed, unalterableand hierarchicalcategories of 'male' and 'female' as they were for instanceadvocated by gendertheories during the period in question,as opposedto a 'genderdialects', which implies more fluid, shifting gendercategories. See Richardson, 'Romanticism and the Colonizationof the Feminine', Romanticismand Feminism,ed. Anne Mellor (Bloomington, IUP, 1988),p. 22.

17 underpinningsof the motif, and the context into which the singer was born, both as a socio-culturaltype and as a literary motif.

18 Chapter 2

Writing in Context: 18'h- and Igth_century Musical Culture

Ih Within the frame of late 18 - and I 91h-century culture, the singerappears as a complex literary motif which evolved throughouta period of political and social transition and profound changesin musical, literary and socio-culturalaesthetics. We can only properly addressthe individual casestudies and the complexitiesof the motif if we set our literary discussionagainst the backgroundof the musical culture and aestheticsof the time and establishthe interdisciplinaryreality of a literary discourseso deeply intertwinedwith the socio-culturalreality of the time. As I havemade explicit in the previouschapter, a substantialamount of historical and musicologicalscholarship of the period exists,and increasingly,there are studieswith a focus on femalemusic history. Basedon this knowledge,the aim of this chapteron musical culture is to illustrate the backgroundagainst which I shall read my casestudies, and to highlight crucial aspectsof musicalculture and aestheticsas they relateto authorsof the period.Although I partly draw on existing musicologicaland socio-culturalscholarship, my discussionof the interdependence betweensocio-cultural and literary discoursewill bring forth a re-appraisalof the woman singer in context,and thus be of useto literary, musicologicaland cultural scholarsalike. After a brief outline of the bourgeoisimagery of musicalculture, I will discussthe femaledimension of musical culture, and to what extentthis perceived'femininity' of music implied the traditional senseof ambiguity attached to both music and woman. I shall exemplify the ambiguity associatedwith female musicality by briefly outlining the contestedareas of educationand real-life singers who becameincreasingly prominent figures of public femalemusicality.

19 The Reality of Literature: Court Culture and Bourgeois Pastimes

When we look at musical culture beforeand after 1800,two aspectsespecially stand out as relevantto the evolution of the woman singer.To begin with, the period may be seenas the first vogue of massmusical culture whosemost significant trait setting it apart from earlier periods,is the rise of bourgeoisMUSiC30 and the increasedprofessional ization, as well as popularisationof musiciansand their 31 busineSS. Secondly,as I will elaboratefurther on, it is a musical period particularly marked by increasinglyfemale musical practice,during which the imageryand the myth of the woman singertook a distinctive form. The woman singer did not emergeout of nowhere:throughout earlier music history, one doesencounter women musicians,mostly singers,sometimes instrumentalistsor composers,or a mixture of all three. Despitethe church's ban on the female voice and more or lesssevere general restrictions, women did sing and practisemusic; however,this practice implied a clear division cementedsince antiquity betweenthe well-bred, respectableamateur and her professional counterpart,the latter always associatedwith immorality and prostitution.32 The rise of operaand secularmusic from 1600onwards, together with the generalevolution of women's legal and social status,gradually openedup more possibilitiesfor them, to engagein music, usually as singers,and, under royal protection,to embracea careeras professionalperformers. 33 Although neverwithout controversy,the singing careerwas one of the earliestand more accessibleartistic professionsfor womenof the middle classes,i. e. who did not come from music families, though the

30The term' bourgeois' in this context means'middle class', and refersto the culture and aestheticsof the middle classesin Franceand Germanyduring the period in question,and to their predominancein shapingcontemporary musical culture and aesthetics. 31 SeeGramit (especiallypp. 125-60); Bailbd, pp. 14ff.; Tunley, Salons,Singers andSongs (especially 1-18). pp. ,See Diane Touliatos, 'The Traditional Role of Greek Women in Music from Antiquity to the End of the Byzantine Empire, in Rediscoveringthe Muses,pp. 111-23 (pp. 114-16.); Tick, 'Women in Music', p.52 1. However, the original platonic differentiation betweenrespectable and 'professional' women musiciansas put forward in both studieshas been relativized by Roger Han-non,'Plato, Aristotle and Women Musicians', MAL, 86.3 (2005), 351-56. on medievalfemale music, see Coldwell, 'Jougleressesand Trobairitz: SecularMusicians in Medieval France', in WomenMaking Music, pp.39-61; Marshall, 'Symbols, Performersand Sponsors',in Rediscoveringthe Muses, pp. 140-68. Though early singerslike FrancescaCaccini and BarbaraStrozzi were accomplishedcomposers, women continuedto be acceptedas performersrather than composers-a situation that becomes more dramatic in the I 9thcentury (seeAnderson/Zinsser, 11, pp. 175f.)

20 implications of sucha career,as well as its obstacles,in theory and practicewill be discussedfurther on.34 Court culture played an importantrole in making music accessibleto women before 1800,35since the nobility was able to promotemusical practiceacross social classesand acrossthe divide betweenamateurs and professionals,while servingas the foremostexample of positive dilettantism in the 18'hand I 9thcentury: 36 'Mough usually not in the professionalsense, singing, compositionand instrumentalpractice were widespreadamong women of a certain social standing,and the division betweennobility, middle classesand artists sometimesappears less strict. 37 A typical representativeof GermanResidenzkullur, Anna Amalia of Brunswick- WolfenbUttel,duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,came to be known as a highly accomplishedcomposer, musician and art patronwho presidedover the Weimar court of musesand under whosetutelage art and especiallymusic thrived. Long before he was madea noble, Goethebecame Weimar's artistic director, working with professionalartists and amateursalike and baskingin the ideal of an all- encompassingart practice.38 In France,musical life thrived underthe patronsof the Ancien Rigime, suchas Louis XIV and Mari e-Antoinette.The queenwas herselfan accomplishedsinger, harpist and harpsichordist,and music was extremelypopular amongthe aristocracy,in the forms of the public ConcertsSpirituels series, 39 Oratorios,church performances,tragidies lyriques and opera. Womenperformers of both sacredand secularmusic were the customaryand women singersoften

34See Anderson/Zinsser, 11, pp. 62ff. Hoffmann calls the musicalcareer the first qualified profession for middle-classwomen (Institutionelle Ausbildungsmbglichkeiten',p-79). " Noteworthy musiciansto emergeout of this context include Madamede Genlis and ClaudeJacquet de ]a Guerre.The latter's 'trýs beaugdnie' was praisedby Titon du Tillet who accordedan important Tsace to women musiciansand dancersin his Parnassefranqois(p. 636). Seepp. 23ff. 37Sadie, pp. 203 f, Tick, 'Women in Music', p.526. Reich howeverargues for a rather strict professionaldivide betweenbourgeoisie and artist class(, Womenas Musicians', pp. 125f). The cases of the Comtessede Genlis, Henriette Sontagand RosineStoltz show that it was not impossibleto combineprofessional musicianship with social status. 3' The Weimar court of musesperfected the cult of the Aeolian harp as a reverenceto both Greek aestheticsand natural music. Performancesoften took place outdoors,with rather purist accompaniments.See 13011, Frau und Musik im Zeitalter der Aujkldrung, pp. 151-79;Der Welmarer Müsenhof Dichtung, Musik und Tanz,Gartenkunst, Geselligkeit, Malerei, ed. GabrieleBusch- Salmen/Walter Salmen/ChristophMichel (Stuttgart:Metzler, 1998).Tunley recordsa similar mixture of different hierarchiesand social classesin 19'h-centuryFrench culture (Music in the 19,4- CenturyParisian Salon, pp. 13-22). 39See Sadie, pp. 192/200; Jamain, pp. 51-63.

21 aspiredto the financial securityand professionalrecognition of the court singer position - not surprisingly, sincethe imageryof the singer had always retainedits ambivalentconnotation of immorality and frivolity. Court culture offered a specific, yet rich context for femalesingers, and servesas a socio-culturalbackdrop to some singer narratives.40 However, it is with the rise of the middle classestowards the end of the 18'h century that musical culture not only becamea massphenomenon, but also that the situation of female singers,as of musiciansin general,changed, both positively and negatively. By the time the young Goethebecame artistic director in Weimar,music was no longer a privileged practiceof the clergy or the nobility, or an immoral professionassociated with wanderingartist-musicians, but had becomean accessible pastimefor the newly emergingmiddle classeswith their tastefor operaand public performancesand a desireto appropriatethe fantasyof music for themselves.The vogue of Volksmusikin the German-speakingcountries and the Chansonspopulaires in Franceboth pertinently reflect this new desirefor a collective musical geniusthat would also educateand unite the masses.41 At the sametime, the widening accessibilityof music provided an importantbackdrop to increasingdomestic and public female musical practiceas well, coinciding with a new-foundvocality: genres like opera,lieder and romancesin particular reflect a central dichotomy of 19'h_ century music, the preferencefor an intimate, 'natural' music experienceon the one 42 increased for female side , yet also the need qualified performersto sing on stage on the other -such diametrically opposedfeminisingdevelopments in musical practiceand aestheticsbrought with them a very specific context in which the woman singer evolved.43

40Whereas Heinse, Goethe and Hoffmann set their narrativesin an aristocraticcontext, women authorslike Stadl,Fischer, Sand, Taunay and Ulliac debatethe implications of social statusfor their singers.The questionof artist and classin generalbecomes a pressingissue for writers in the 19'h century. 41See Jamain, pp. 293-96; Fulcher, 'The PopularChanson', pp. 29-32; Gramit, pp.103-13. 42By 'natural', I refer to the commonperception of music as a naturally-givenattribute which women were said to possessand to be inclined to (seealso pp.24ff. ). The performanceideal for women referredto what was perceivedas a 'natural' setting for femalemusic practice,i. e. the salon and the private space,but also to the 'natural' quality of femalesong as not professionallytrained and as a 'natural' attribute of women's charmsin society. 43See Citron, 'Women and the Lied, 1775-1850',in WomenMaking Music, pp.224-48; Bailbd, pp. 14-23.On the importanceof the piano in domesticmusical culture seeBurgan, 'Heroines at the

22 Music becamea predominantpublic and domesticpreoccupation among the middle classeswho, through money,taste and writing significantly influenced important developments in musical practiceand aesthetics-a point which has 44 promptedscholars to life the 'province 9 regardmusical as of the middle classes, 45 and the 'bourgeoisfamily as the real engineof larger-scalecultural developments'. As an intrinsic part of middle class upbringing and daily life, music was enjoyed by most men and women from middle to upper class backgrounds, albeit not professionally. With the decline in importance of the courts, musical culture was essentially shaped by the middle and upper classes, whose salons became increasingly important as platforms for new music and aspiring musicians, as well as being a place for discussions of art and music. If we are to believe certain authors like Goethe (who had his own house choir)46 or Hoffmann, the very private performances at home were particularly cherished. Some highly respected institutions like the Berlin Singakademie grew out of informal gatherings among music lovers and included both male and female voices.47 In this ferment of middle class musical culture, women played a vital role as intellectuals and artistic patrons, as practitioners and members of the audience. Madame de Stael had unrivalled freedom as the patron of the Groupe de Coppet, a circle of like-minded artists and intellectuals, while Pauline Viardot's and George Sand's prominent circles of friends accountfor an extremelyrich musical-literarydiscourse, of which both gave th ample testimony.Although it may seemmore logical to think of 19 -centurywriters as consumersof music, an impressionto which numerous'opera visit' or 'musical gathering' scenesin novels may have contributed,authors, especially those featured in this study, played a multi-facetedrole of music practitionerand writer, theorist and consumer.In fact, all the authorsthat I havechosen for my casestudies fit into the mould of the highly accomplishedamateur musician, in the caseof Goethe, Madamede Stadl,George Sand, if not into that of the professionalmusician, as in

Piano: Women and Music in Nineteenth-CenturyFiction', VST,30.1 (Autumn 1986),51-76; Rieger, Frau, Musik undMdnnerherrschaft,p. 36. 44Reich, p. 130. Seealso Weber,pp. 30-52; Bailbd, pp. 105-27. 45Solie, 'Music in other Words,p. 87. 46See Salmen, pp. 74-78. 47Yet Rieger(Frau, Musik undMInnerherrschaff, pp.71-75) alludesto the male bias in choral singing, which aimed to excludewomen from choirs and promotea distinct masculine,aggressive and nationalistsinging tradition.

23 the caseof E. T. A. Hoffmann, Berlioz, Marceline Desbordes-Valmore,Caroline AugusteFischer. All the authorsin this study had an imminent approachto music in that they were subjectedto similar musicaldrills during their childhood and that, as intellectuals,they were fully immersedin the musical-literarydiscourse of the time, dealing with music and musicianson a practicaland theoreticallevel. Several authorswere active contributorsto the newly emergingmusic journals, suchas the AllgemeineMusikalische Zeitung, which proposeda broadtreatment of music theory and practice,from music reviews to performancecalendars and inventionsof new musical instruments,to discussionson musical metaphysicsand treatiseson the human 48Slightly later in Germany, bourgeois singing voice. than the vogue of musical culture as a social phenomenonand mass-compatibleart form only developedin Francefrom the 1830sonward, propelledby the Revueet Gazette de Paris dealt French life, musicale '49which with all aspectsof musical reviewing new musical pieces,as well as performancesby the musiciansand singersin vogue. Salonactivities were chronicled,as were developmentsof musical instrumentsand the activities of the Paris Conservatoire.Like the AAIZ, the RGM was a platform for musical-literarydebates, highlighting the strongcross-currents and reciprocity betweenmusic and literature,which redefinednotions of musicaljournalism and literature thanksto contributorslike Hector Berlioz, JulesJanin, George Sand and Honor6 de Balzac,who all publishedmusical fiction in various art and music joumalS.50

While it may seemthat this newly-developingquality of music as an art capable of transcendinggender and classreunited like-mindedartist- intellectuals and allowed for importanttraditions of femalemusic and songto develop,the dichotomy implied in female song,between ideal and reality, in fact grew stronger.Between the flamboyanceof the public stageand the sanctity of the 'private-public' salonswhere

48Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1798-1865). 49A fusion of Fdtis's Revue musicale (1827-1835) and Schlesinger's Gazelle Musicale de Paris (1834-1835), the Revue el Gazelle Musicale de Paris successfully ran from 1835 to 1880. Other noteworthy journals include the Revue de Paris (1829-1858), LArtisle (1831-1904) and La Revue des deux mondes (1829-) 50 See Katharine Ellis, Music Criticism in Nineteenth-Century France. La Revue el Gazette musicale de Paris, 1834-1880 (Cambridge: CUP, 1995); Brzoska, Die Idee des Gesamikunstwerkes in der Musiknovellistik der Julimonarchie (Laaber: Laaber-Verlag, 1995), pp. 23-49; Tunley, Salons, Singers and Songs, pp.7-9. )

24 women could appearmusically without risking their reputationand their status,51 the debateover the woman singer as an ideal of femaledomesticity or an embodiment of indecentfemale performance intensified, as did the discrepancybetween the ideal of female song (and its implied constraintson women in terms of musicaltraining, professionalismand performancespace) and the reality of the singer-performer. Indeed,it is with the rise of bourgeoismusical culture that we witnessan unprecedentedrift in musical aestheticswhich we will discussin the next section:as music becamemore accessibleand more professional,with the 'professional musician' emancipatinghimself from patronageand embracingthe careerpaths of composerof geniusand acclaimedvirtuoso, women singerslogically hada sharein thesedevelopments. Yet the traditional double-bindof femalemusicality, with its ancienttaboo of the musical feminine, continuedto shapethe imageof the singer, deepeningthe rift betweenthe ideal of woman as 'musical', and womenmaking in music - the essentialconflict of ideal and performancethat becomesapparent numeroustexts of the time.

The Rift Within the Myth: Female and Feminine Music

Alongside the increasingprofessional izat ion of music, a significant part of musical culture was female,domestic musical practiceengaged in by women dilettantesat home or in the salons,and encouragedby women as patronsand salon hostesses. Music was regardedas an intrinsic part of femalenature, that is, as an art form towardswhich women were said to be naturally inclined to and which was said to, 52 bestexpress the femalepsyche _ as such,it constituteda 'natural' attribute of femalebeauty and a powerful tool of sexualattractiveness that greatly enhanced marriageprospects. 53 Thus, regardlessof talent, girls were madeto sit down at the piano, take singing lessonsand learnto entertaintheir families with pleasant

51For a theory on the 'public privacy' of the salon as a spaceof morally legitimized artistic freedom Ort der Musik im 19.Jahrhundert', seeJürgen Kesting, 'Salon - Thesenzu einem gesellschaftlichen MUB, 9-7/8 (1977), 337-80. 52See for instanceJean Paul's and Caroline de la Motte Fouqud'sremarks on the 'naturally musical' femalesoul in chapter3. 53See Anderson/Zinsser, 11, pp. 156ff.

25 This melodies. was an archetypaldrill that most women authors(and many male authors,too) of the time could relate from personalexperience. We can assumethat singing was the most widespreadmusical activity amongwomen, since, due to the strict genderdichotomy of the time, femalemusic remainedconfined to the home 54 and to suitable instruments:piano, songand the harp. The archetypalgirling at the parlour piano was part of a woman's socialisationand genderperformance, 'the 55 social processthat forms girls appropriateto the the they live in , needsof society , but also their own re-enactmentof that myth of femininity which was the woman musician.Pragmatic as much as ideologically charged,song was both a sign of female graceand of what characterizedwomanhood; it was a domestic,female 56 activity and one of the first educationaltasks of a mother towardsher children. 201h Even at the turn of the century, women were still traditionally associatedwith poetry and the songsof the people: 'MNdchenund Frauensind von altersher die berufenen 57 Hüterinnendes dichterischen Gutes, das im Volkslied ruht'. The term of dilettanliSM58left its mark on femalemusicality during this period and requiresa short explanationin this context.Although the notion of dilettantereceived an increasinglynegative connotation during the courseof the I 9thcentury as a mark of artistic mediocrity or insufficiency, it was originally not usedin this negative denotation.Rather, until the 19thcentury, dilettantismreferred to the music lover and practitioner who, usually a noble person,had to be set apart from the lower classof the artist-musicianwho had to makea living from music. Before the institutionalizationof music educationtowards the late 18th century, both dilettante and professionalreceived similar music training in the form of personal tuition/apprenticeships.Thus, for a long time, musical dilettantismhad beenone of the pillars of Europeanmusical culture, alongsidechurch music and the popular music of wanderingmusicians and performancetroupes. Aristocrats were amateur

54 SeeRieger, Frau, Musik und Mannerherrschaft;pp. 4 8-75; Reich, pp.132 ff; Hoffmann, Instrument und Kbrper, pp. 131 ff. 55 Solie thus definesthe term 'girling' in Music in other Words,p. 86. '6 SeeGramit, pp. 113 ff.; Rieger, Frau undMusik, pp.21-22. S7 Lehrplanfir das Jahr 1894,cit. in Rieger,Frau, Musik und Mannerherrschaft,p. 66. 5' Both French(1740) and German(1759) acquiredthe Italian term towardsthe mid- I 8'hcentury, when it was still used in the original senseof the Latin 'delectare', to refer to non-professional, 'amateur' music lovers and practitioners.More than 'dilettante', the term 'amateur' haskept the positive meaning.See Dictionnaire hisforique, 1,p. 1087; DeutschesFremdwdrlerbuch, IV, pp.580- 88.

26 musiciansbecause the mere statusand needto makea living would havebeen below them. Especially for well-bred women,music was regardedas self-cultivation. Dilettantes like Anna Amalia or Marie-Antoinette,or writers like Bettina Brentano could easily have passedas 'professional' musicians,had it not beenfor their social The standing. French-Germanmusical -literary discoursethat evolved during the 18th and the I 9thcentury would have beenunthinkable without the supportof this largely positive dilettanteculture. However, the distinct class-dividethat separatedthe musicianfrom the rest of society in terms of money also becamemore pronouncedthrough the imageof the professionalmusician as a sublimeartist and musical genius,ideals which all nurturedthe myth of the musician- as we havealready seen, the conditionshave always beenharder on women as 'public performers'. With the commercialisation of music and the debateon artistic geniusemerging 59 from the late 181h century, and with the increasein musicaleducation and professionalism,dilettantism, a trademarkof middle classart-practice, became more and more linked to femalemusic-making, marking the divide betweenwell-educated (and mostly male) professionalsand privately or self-taught(mostly female) 60 amateurs. In what scholarsconsider a rift in 19th-centurymusic aesthetics, professionalmusicians, as composergeniuses and virtuososappropriated the 'high' discourseon music, whereasmusical dilettantismbecame a questionof confined femalemusicality at home,compliant with views on female insufficiency and domesticity. In the caseof a woman's song,this becomesan important issue,all the more as professionalwomen musicianswere equally targetedwith the dilettante stigma, a verdict that had beenless pronounced for femalemusicians before 1800, yet which becamemore importantas women struggledto closethe gap between themselvesand their newly-trainedand male colleagues-turned-geniusesin the 19th century. As we move through the 19'hcentury, many narrativesnot only focus on the 'otherness'of the singer in terms of her artistic identity and social statusoutside the

59See pp. 63-67. 60 Goethe'sand Schiller's conceptsproved crucial for the link betweenwoman, natureand dilettantism (Schiller/Goethe,Ober den Dilettantismus,FA XVIII, pp.739-86). The Musicalisches Conversations-Lexicon(1835) explicitly blendsmusical dilettantismand woman (Nieberle, pp.46- 52); Rieger (Frau, Musik und Mdnnerherrschaft,p. 3 7) concedesto the necessityof professional women singersin the music business,yet stressesthe double-bindthat thesewomen experienced.

27 norms, but also on the very basicquestion of educationand professionalism,and women's sharein the new music business,which I will briefly outline in the next paragraph. On the onehand, as women were still debarredfrom orchestras,and a careerin the opera,let alone in churchmusic, was not automaticallyaspired to by middle- classwomen musicians,domestic music-making was one legitimateway for them to play the piano and sing. In the senseof positive dilettantism,salon music constituted a 'gateway to diversemusical occupationsand professionalrecognition %6 ' and it was equally able to offer professionalsingers a fulfilling careeras salonperformers. On the other hand, unlike other musicians,the singerhad to navigatethe dangerous line betweenthe public and the private spheres,for which the compromiseof the salon spaceis symptomatic.The many areasof daily culture in which womencould becomemusicians said little abouttheir actual strugglesand aboutthe deepdivide that ran betweendomestic and professionalmusicians, between what we perceiveto be afemale musical culture and women's relative freedomto enjoy musical practice, and the limitations and theoreticalobstacles that weighedon thefeminine side of music. However art-loving and musicalthe long I 9thcentury may seem,it was characterizedby an increasedsolidification of segregatedgender characteristics and roles, leading to a striking discourseof genderdichotomy in music,to the detriment of women. Singing at homeor in the salonsmay have beena stapleof a girl's upbringing, yet if they had professionalambitions, women found themselvescaught in the fundamentalstruggle of negotiatingtheir artistic and professionalpursuits againstwhat society demandedof them as daughters,wives and mothers,the only roles that contemporarydiscourse saw them as fit to fulfil, and which could only allow them to be 'natural women', i.e. not professionallytrained, musical dilettantes. This, as we shall seein the following chapter,causes an important rift betweenthe actual implications of music as a 'female' domainon the one hand,and the between 'feminisation' of the musical-literary discourseon the other, a realistic struggle for artistic expressionand professionalismon the one hand,and the relegationof femalemusicality into the realm of the ideal and its limitations on the domestic her other - backedup by both the cult of the mother and woman, and

61Tick, 'Women in Music', p.527.

28 elevation into the realm of artistic passivityas a muse.This appearsas the central conflict of femininity and music, betweenidealism and professionalism,so aptly embodiedby the singer myth and its literary treatment.One of the centralareas of disputerelating to women in general,namely the questionof education,will serveto further illustrate the polemicsattached to the double-bindof femalemusicality.

Idle Pursuits: Educating the Muses

Although music and songwere consideredpart of 'female nature', the true ideal of femininity was domesticlife. If a woman wantedto becomea professionalsinger, shehad to overcomeboth theoreticalobstacles and factual debarments,which served to cementa woman's placeat home,as a wife and mother,while stressingthe unwomanly, frivolous natureof the professionalwoman artist who defied the biological and social order. In the wake of the FrenchRevolution, legal reforms such as the CodeNapolion (1804) and the AllgemeinesLandrecht (1794) effectively reducedwomen to the property of their husbands,and to the roles of wife and mother.62 Philosophers and educatorsalike stressedthe fact that not only were women incapableof achievinghigher goalsas artists,and as musiciansin particular, but also that their natureprescribed the role of wife and mother. Ideal femininity equalleddomesticity, with the realistic demandsof the householdoften not leaving enoughtime for seriousartistic pursuits(and certainly not leavingthe time required for professionalart practice).Most influential male intellectualsof the time agreed that a woman should not aspireto professionalmusic. Music was perceivedas -a feminine domain, and as an expression,a quasi-naturalextension of femalenature, but not in the senseof an intellectual capacityor cultivation, preservedfor male geniusand thus inaccessiblefor women.Defying the biological and social order by pursuingmusic professionallysubjected women to reproachesof immorality, prostitution, 'semi-masculinity, 63and failure of their biologically predeterminedrole

62See Anderson/ Zinsser, 11,pp. 143-15 1. 63See Julien-Jospeh Virey, Histoire naturelle du genre humain (cit. in EscaURousseau-Dujardin, p.61); Jean-PierreCabanis, Rapports du physiqueet du moral de Phomme,ffuvresphilosophiques I (Paris: PUF, 1956),pp. 297-99.

29 as wife and mother. Musical education for girls and women was expected and desired, yet it did not aim very high: 'En ces temps, lajeune fille bien 6duqude devait savoir peindre et chanter, jouer des instruments de musique, dcrire des vers, soutenir une conversation brillante. Peinture et musique restaient des arts au f6minin 64 pour Vagrdment de la vie mondaine publique'. A woman's 'natural' (i. e. not professionally trained) musicality was to complement her female nature and charms as a desirable wife and mother functioning within a social context of musical pleasure; but not to make her an artiSt.65 As a pan-Europeanphenomenon, Rousseau had a significant impact on French and Germanaesthetics, both as a musician(whose thoughts on music significantly shapedthe musical-literarydiscourse, as I will discussin the next chapter),and as a pedagogue.Rousseau set the tone for femaleeducation in his tmile, in which he portrayshis vision of womanhood,female upbringing and behaviourthrough the characterof Sophie.His theory on women's inferiority had long-termrepercussions for girls' and women's education:

Sophiea destalents naturels; elle les sent,et ne les a pasndgligds: mais Wayantpas dtd A portdede mettre beaucoupWart A leur culture, elle s'est contentded'exercer sa jolie A [ ) A devint A voix chanterjusteet avec go0t, ... peu peu elle sensible Pharmonie;enfin, en grandissant,elle a commencdde sentir les charmesde Vexpression,et d'aimer la musiquepour elle-mdme.Mais c'est un goOtplut6t qu'un talent; elle ne sait point ddchiffrer un air sur la note.66

Rousseaustrongly discouragedartistic educationfor women,since he considered them to be incapableof artistic sensibility and geniusand regardedtheir 'natural' duty to act as carersfor their husbandsand families. Reiteratingthe cultural stereotypeof music's dangeroussensuality, Rousseau discouraged female music tuition at the handsof untrustworthy,frivolous music instructorswho would deter girls from their naturally-givenrole and exposethem to immorality:

Pai quelquepeine ä croire que le commercede cesgens-lä ne soit pas plus nuisible ä dejeunes filles que leurs legonsne leur sont utiles, et que leurjargon, leur ton,

64Escai/Rousseau-Dujardin, p.69. 65Abraham Mendelssohn'sadvice to his daughterFanny is well-known: 'Du musstDich ernsterund bilden'. emsigerzu Deinem eigentlichenBeruf, zum eitrigen Beruf einesMädchens, zur Hausfrau, (Hensel,Die Familie Mendetssohn,pp. 115-16). 66tmile ou de l', Üducation,V, p.583.

30 leurs airs, ne donnent pas A leurs dcoRres le premier goOt des frivolitds, pour eux si importantes, dont elles ne tarderont gu&e, A leur exemple, de faire leur unique occupation. 67

However, like other authors' views on femalenature, Rousseau's were not always consistent.Diderot, rather divided on the topic of femalemusic education, concededthat 'quand elles ont du gdnie,je leur en crois Pempreinteplus originale " que nous'. Allowing his own daughterto be trained as a pianist and composer, Diderot displayedthe typically ambiguousattitude of a man of the Enlightenment who, despiteadvocating education and autonomyof the mind, and while being pleasedwith his daughter'stalents and achievements,clearly saw the limits of a well-bred for 'freedom69 woman musicianas professionalismand personal . Similarly, Rousseauadmitted in an unpublishedmanuscript that womencould be heroic 70Not capableof acts. surprisingly, contemporarywomen writers struggled with what they perceivedas a fundamentalparadox of generalhuman perfectibility: 'He [Rousseau] chusesa commoncapacity to educate- and gives as a reason,that a itself Recognizing in Rousseau's geniuswill educate .71 themselves vision of the 6natural'man of genius,they still had to cometo terms with Sophie,whom Rousseaucreated as a 'naturally' docile and ignorantpartner to tmile, qualitiesthat Rousseauenvisioned for a natural stateof humankindwithout a needfor 72 professionaliSM. Of the many female intellectuals,Mary Wollstonecraftperhaps most prominently appropriatedRousseauesque aesthetics by extendingthem to

61 Ibid, p.553. 6' Diderot, Sur les Femmes,ffuvres compOes X, p.53. 69 Diderot's daughterabandoned music after her marriage.Her apprenticeshipsurvived in the form of Diderot's Leqonsde Clavecinet Principes dHarmonie, co-authoredwith Marie's music teacher Anton Bemetzrieder.See Lilo Gersdorf,'Diderot's Tochter', in Frau undMusik im Zeitalter der ,4ujkldrung, pp.83-93. 70 SeeEscal/Rousseau-Dujardin, p. 40. 71Mary Wollstonecraft,letter to her sisterEverina, 14.03.1787(The CollectedLetters ofMary Wollstonecraft,ed. JanetTodd; London: Allen Lane,2003: pp. ] 14-15). 72 Isabellede Charri6reespecially struggled with Rousseau'seducational ideals for women and developedantagonistic views in her works. SeeDidier, LEcriture-femme (Paris: PUF, 1981), p.99; Madeleinevan Strien-Chardonneau,'Isabelle de Charri6re,pýdagogue% in Belle de Zuylenllsabelle de CharrRre, pp.49-68. Charri6re's doublesignificance as a writer and a musician/composerhas only startedto attract scholarly attention.See Jacqueline Lctzter's standardworks (co-authoredwith RobertAdelson): 'Un dramed'ambitions d6gues: les opdrasd'Isabelle de Charri6re',RDT, 195(Fall 1997),235-54; WomenWriting Opera: Creativit)vand Controversyin the, 4ge ofthe French Revolution(Berkeley: UCP, 2001).

31 73 women. Despitethe odd concessionsand contradictionsin men's theorieson women,the prevailing argumentwas that of women's 'natural' inferiority to men and, consequently,their secondaryrole as helpersof art, but not artists in their own right. In concurrencewith Europeaniconography idealizing the Muses,Musica and St. Cecilia, 18th - and 19'h-centuryaesthetics regarded woman in herselfas art - woman was song,was the embodimentof music, but shecould neverhave access to this specific type of artistic sublimity herselfas a meansto create.This viewpoint remainedfirmly in place until well into the 201hcentury:

Ist also die Frau nicht imstande,Kunst zu schaffen,die Ideendes Lebensbewusst bildend, plastischzu gestalten,so ist ihr Naturell doch mit Kunst verwandt.Sie selbst ist als Seeleund Erscheinungein Kunstwerk der Natur, wie der große männlicheSchöpfer ein Kunstwerk der Kultur ist. [... ] Die Frau ist künstlerisch unproduktiv, aber sie ist als Individuum ästhetischim Körperlichenund Geistigen.`

In Rousseau'sinfluential frowned the wake of Ekmile,all noteworthyeducators on the possibility of femaleeducation as a pretentionto renderwomen virile and thus, immoral and frivolous - in that, the educatedwoman as a 'public woman' joined ranks with the professionalsinger and the prostitute.On the Germanside, the pedagogueJohann Campe cemented the dogmaof women's 'natural' purposeand destiny in life: 'Unter hundertpreiswürdigen Tonkünstlerinnen, Zeichnerinnen, Stickerinnen,Tänzerinnen usw. möchtewohl kaum eine gefundenwerden, die zugleich alle Pflichten einer vernünftigenund gutenGattin, einer auf alles Hausfrau Mutter [ ] aufmerksamenund selbsttätigen und einer sorgfältigen ... zu erflillen nur versteht.15 Later intellectualsreiterated this dichotomy, stressingthat a respectable,'natural' woman could nevertake upon herselfto pursueeither educationor art extensively,nor should shetry to, sinceher 'natural' (biological, intellectual and artistic) deficiencieswould standin her way. In his educational

73 A Vindication of the Rights of Women,chapter V, pp. 10243 (p. I 11; 116-18). 74Karl Scheffler [ 1908],Die Frau und die Kunst, cit. in Rieger,Frau, Musik und Mannerherrschaft, p. 121. Seealso Cacilia Rentmeister'sstudy on woman as allegory: 'Berufsverbot for die Musen', AUK, 7/25 (1976), 92-113. 73Campe, VaterficherRalftr meine Tochter,p. 53. Like most authors,Campe does not considerthe arts part of women's Bestimmung(p. 59). Contemporarypedagogues like Basedowdeveloped similar '[ ] daß die Virtuosin, die besteSängerin die belesenste,fertigste Künstlerin views; ... erste und eine schlechteGattin, eine schlechteHausfrau und eine schlechteMutter sei' (Pädagogische Unterhandlungen1, Dessau,1777, pp. 10-84).

32 programmesand reforms, Wilhelm von Humboldt did not even considergirls, since 76 as future wives and mothers,they had no needto learn. Likewise, French educationalconcepts catered poorly to girls, and unanimouslydiscouraged musical 77 education. Although somewomen venturedforward with educationaltreatises, like Betty Gleim, Amalia Hoist, Madamede Genlis and Isabellede Charri&e,78 these femaleviews on educationsaid surprisingly little aboutthe questionof creative genius in women, and whetheror not girls had a right to proper artistic education,or whetherthey should evenaspire to it in the caseof genuinetalent. In general, despiterecognizing the needfor proper education,female-authored treatises put women's role as a motherand wife at the forefront andtried to harmonizewomen's cducationwith their future role at home.A woman should be educatednot for her own sake,but so that shecould be a bettermother (and educator)to her children.79 One Germanpedagogue and musician,Nina d'Aubigny von Engelbrunner(1770- 1847)stands out as the author of the musical treatiseBriefe an Nathalie fiber den Gesang(1804), a work known for having beenappreciated by Beethoven.In this, she stressesthe importanceof musical educationfor women; yet again shedoes so in the context of women's generalduty as wife and motherat home. Songand music should not servefemale self-expression, but rathermake marriageand life in the householdmore pleasantand cultivated.80 In summary,female music education could only try to bring out the 'natural' musicality of womanhood,for the sakeof harmoniousmarriage and motherhood,but never in the senseof erudition and artistic craftsmanship.81

76 This view was consistentwith his infamoustheory of genderedcharacter, which diametrically opposedfemale, receptive passivity with male aggressivenessand creativeactivity (Ober den Geschlechisunlerschied,Werke 1, especially pp. 277ff, 286fo. 77 SeeIsabelle Bricard, Sainfesou pouliches: Piducation desjeunesfilles au X1Xesijcle; Rebecca Rogers,'Boarding Schools,Women Teachersand Domesticity: Reforming Girls' Secondary Educationin the First Half of the NineteenthCentury', FHS, 19.1(Spring 1995), 154-81. 78 Amalia Holst, Ober die Bestimmungdes Weibeszu h6herer Geislesbildung(Berlin: Fr6lich, 1802); Betty Gleim, Emiehungund Unterrichl des weiblichenGeschlechis (Leipzig: G6schen,1810); Gleim severelycriticizes the lack of educationfor femalemusic teacherswho are part of a new proletariatof professionalwomen musicians(see Rieger, Frau, Musik undAinnerherrschaft, pp.67-68). 79Both Rieger (Frau, Musik undMannerherrschaft,pp. 64 ff. ) and Gramit (pp.96 ff. ) commenton the almost propagandisticnature of folk music, in which motherstook a central role. 80 For a more detailedstudy of Engelbrunner'swork, seeRieger, Frau undMusik, Nieberle, pp.29- 35; and Manfred Elsberger'sbiography Nina dAubigny von Engelbrunner(MUnchen: Allitera, 2000) 81See Rieger, Frau, Musik undMdnnerherrschaft,pp. 40 ff. Riegerspeaks of the dangerous Halbbildung to which women remainedconfined throughoutthe 19'hcentury (p. 50).

33 Educatingoneself in order to becomea professionalsinger was consequently lessa true choice than a questionof opportunitiesand character.An aspiring singer neededtechnique and determinationto defy the social,cultural and intellectual standardsand conceptionsof femininity of her time; and aboveall, the courageto face the accusationof not being a good wife and mother and thus of violating that which nature,God and patriarchalsociety considered her only function in life. Interestingly,the exceptionto the rule can be found in sometexts arguingthat if a woman possessedthe necessarytalent and ambition, shecould makea legitimate elaim for a professionalartistic career:Tür diesegibt es keinen Grad, keine Grenze; höhereAusbildung und vermehrterNutzen sind hier genaumiteinander verbunden'. 82Not all men categoricallydenied the possibility of femaleartistic excellence;some admittedthat in the rare caseof exceptionaltalent, a woman could pursuea professionalcareer. As for literature,the questionof educatingthe singer is a fascinating,if sensitiveissue that touchesupon suchcentral paradigmsas musical geniusand its origins, and the fantasyof the divine singing voice that we will discussin greaterdctail in the following chapter.As we will seein many of the case studies,the singer's education,or lack thereof is directly relatedto her artistic makeupand agenda,to the singer's claim for musicalgenius and professionalism, thus highlighting the very different facetsof female songas an ideal as well as a very realistic type of femaleperformance.

82Guthmann, 'Grad der musikalischenBildung bei Frauenzimmern',AUZ, 9.24 (11.03.1807),p. 380.

34 Negotiating Ideal and Performance: Real-Life Singers

Despitethe rise of instrumentaland orchestralmusic, a large part of musical culture was dedicatedto songand vocal music, an areawhich, as I haveexplained, was nurturedand representedby women musiciansand singers,professionals and amateursalike, both reflectedupon in the musical-literarydiscourse. Between the salon and the operastage, female song implies a breadthof aestheticsand performancepossibilities; yet while I havebriefly outlined the importanceof female songas a cipher for ideal femaledomesticity, it was the professionalsinger who pushedthe boundariesof femalesong further. Of all possibleartistic careers, especiallyin music, becominga singerremained the first choice for talentedwomen with the right education,support and determination,just as singing at home remaineda pertinentpastime for young girls, wives and mothers.Singers count amongthe first true femaleartists who, unlike women writers, did not revert to male pseudonymsor husband-publishers,but whosestruggle for performanceinpublic appearsmore visceral, bridging more visibly the gap betweenfemale ideal and reality. Court life, and then increasinglybourgeois musical culture provided opportunitiesfor financial stability and careerprospects, although most singerswere self-employedand working under the pressureof both financial needand society's problematicattitude towardsthe working woman artist. As such, it is not easyto classify the woman singeraccording to types,or to unanimouslybrand all singersas social pariahs,struggling music teachersorfemmefatale divas. Despitereal and theoreticalobstacles, many singersenjoyed a fulfilling career,either in the salons,at the courts or on the operastage, providing someof the finest vocal performancesin 19th-centurymusic history and supportingthe ongoing vogue of vocal music. Some women went very far in their respectivecareers, such as Gertrud 'La Mara' Schmeling(1749-1833), Wilhelmine Schr6der-Devrient(1804-1860), 83 Henriette Sontag(1806-1854), Maria Malibran (1808-1836)and her youngersister Pauline Viardot (1821-1910). The personallives and artistic merits of thesewomen significantly contributedto shapingthe myth of the diva, as did writers' accountsof

" The erotic novel Memoiren einer deutschenSdngerin (1861) was falsely attributedto her.

35 theseseemingly extravagant, liberated women, whose art wasjust as importantas 84 their allure. More than for male singersof the time, we find strongreactions to female performers- both positive and negative,and often enough,a pronouncedfascination with the woman singer on the part of writers suchas Goethe,Hoffmann and especiallyBerlioz, whosecollaboration with PaulineViardot producedsome of the finest art in mid-centuryFrance. Yet even in thesehigh-profile women performers, we find the problematic,if fascinatingmixture of myth and reality, of female musicality and professionalismand its associatedfantasy of the musical feminine, furtheredby a male-dominatedmusic businessand its patriarchalattitudes: 'Men held the important posts in music educationand publishing, formed the committees making decisionsfor concerts,organizations and festivals,conducted the orchestras, hired the players,and determinedthe fees.'85 Fighting on difficult groundsin terms of morality and social norms,the singer possessedrelative freedomand artistic agencyas a working woman artist, yet often at the cost of bitter real-life struggles. Despitethe glamorousimage and the mystified ideal of song,becoming a singerand living as a singer,the 'performance'of that role, was by no meansan easytask, and the demandson professionalsingers were extremelystrenuous. In spite of, or perhapsbecause of, her relative freedom,the singer dependedon thosemen that held the positionsof power in the music business,with someof them taking advantageof their femaleprotdgdes. 86 A financially independent,working woman, shedeeply shookthe patriarchalvalue of the man as provider for his family; and what is more, the singer sold her body to the audience. Behind the diva myth and the reputationof capriciousnessand sexual insatiability, most singerswere hard-workingwomen from usually modest backgrounds,who lived a highly disciplined life in a businesswhere few succeeded, often forsaking personalhappiness for their careers.Perhaps adding to the myth of the prima donna,singers were often self-taughtand worked hard to gain their way

84The imagery of the diva is extremelyrich, as proven by the accountsof musicjournals and literaturealike, as well as by the life storiesof individual singers.See Christiansen; Rutherford; Emerson;Rieger, GbItliche Stimmen.Lebensberichie beriihmier Sdngerinnenvon Elisabelh Mara bis Maria Callas (Frankfurt/Main: Inscl, 2002); Brunel, 'Diva', in Dix mythesauflminin, ed. Pierre Brunel (Paris: Mai sonneuve,1999), pp. 199-210. 95Reich, p. 130. 86See Rieger, Frau und Musik, pp.30 ff.

36 into the singing business.For financial reasons,many of them occupiedthe double function of performerand music teacher,a situationthe writer SophieUlliac presentsvery accuratelyin her novella Emmeline." There were few formal training facilities for them, apart from the Paris Conservatoirewhich openedin 1795,or regional singing schools,such as the Leipzig school foundedby JohannHiller in 1771in an attemptto opposewomen's exclusionfrom churchchoral singing, and whose noteworthy studentsinclude Nina d'Aubigny, La Mara and Corona Schr6ter.88

Music educationin a transitionalFrance between the Revolutionand the July Monarchy appearsas 'une tr&sgrande anarchie'. 89 The lack of formal education paired with the generaldebarring of women from the then-existingmusic schools madethe singing careeraccessible only to girls from wealthy families who were willing to pay for private tuition as the only accessto music education: 'Naturellement,lesjeunes filles cn dtaienta priori exclues:il Wexistaitalors pas pour ces derni&resd'autres possibilitds de recevoir un enseignementmusical que le recoursa un maltre particulier'.90 At the sametime, the ever-increasingvogue of operaand vocal music demandedprofessionally trained women singers.As the first national music school for boys and girls, the ParisConservatoire made regular musical educationaccessible to women: voice studies,and to a lesserextent instrumentsand composition.91 Yet somescholars consider the lack of a formal, mandatoryeducation for women musiciansan advantage,as the systemof private

87 Seechapter 7. Rieger describesthis grey areaof femalemusic educationand professionalismas a 'berufliches Proletariat' (Frau undMusik, p.26). Yet this is not the most popular motif in the majority of literary texts which focus on the singerand her strugglesinstead of the more banalaspects of Frofessionalmusicality. Tick, p.525; Rieger, Frau, Musik undUannerherrschaft,pp. 48-49. Later conservatoiresinclude those in Prague(1811), Vienna (1817) and Leipzig (1843). The first institutionalizedmusic programmefor women startedat PragueConservatoire in 1815(see Hoffmann, 'Institutionelle Ausbildungsmbglichkeiten',p. 78). 89Jean Mongr6dien, La Musiqueen France, des Lumiýresau Romanfisme,1789-1830 (Paris: Flammarion, 1986),p. 11. 90Ibid., p. 11. 9' Ibid., p. 12. Between 1795and 1798,the pianist and composer,II&ne Montgeroult occupiedthe post of piano tutor with the samesalary as her male counterparts,which was exceptionalfor the time (ibid., p. 18). On subjectsopen to femalestudents, see Reich, pp. 134-36.

37 tuition and musical apprenticeship made it easier for women to gain accessto the business.92

Yet if most women receivedbasic tuition in compliancewith the idealsof musical domesticity,even women of musical families struggledfor professionalism: growing up as the daughterof the Garcfafamily may havemade the careerchoice more obvious, but the notablecase of Fanny Mendelssohnillustrates the struggle betweenartistic vocation and fatherly expectations.93 Although scholarshiphas shown that the boundariesbetween private and public performancebecame 94 blurred, and that many singersdid build careerseither in the salonsor on stage,the stigma of the professionalwoman performerpersisted. Even the Romanticicon Maria Malibran assessedher social statuswith disillusionment:'I am merely the opera singer- nothing more - the slave whom they pay to minister to their 95Performing in had been for pleasure'. an upper-classor royal context a privilege musiciansof both sexes,and the sought-afterstatus of court musicianoffered women singersfinancial security,relative artistic freedomand a respectedstatus. But the evolution of professionalmusicianship together with genderand music idealsdeepened the divide betweenprofessional singers and their dilettante counterpartsat home,as they polarizedthe imageof the singeragainst the backgroundof middle-classtastes and aesthetics.There was doubtlessroom for great singersand femaleartistic genius,especially towards the 1840s,yet at a time where the image of the singer peaked,so did the ambiguity surroundingfemale song. Regardlessof all the admirationthat especiallylater high-profile singers receivedfor their perfon-nanceson stage,the very natureof the singercontinued to be perceivedas that of a 'public' woman who openly displayedher body and voice to a paying audience.Music journals, which greatly contributedto the formation of

92See Hoffmann, 'Institutionelle Ausbildungsm6glichkcitcn',pp. 78/79. It is importantto remember that most great women musicians,until well into the 19'hcentury received no conservatoireeducation at all. 93See n. 6 1. Other well-known casesinclude Clara Schumannand, earlier, Come]ia Goethe,Marie Diderot and Nannerl Mozart. This further illustratesthat singers,pianists, and composersall faced similar obstaclesas professionalwomen artists. 94Tunley, Music in the 19'h-CenturySalon, pp.12 ff. 95The Comtessede Merlin describesthe proud diva as 'tearful' and 'painfully mortified' by the social divide betweenrank and talent: 'She alreadyfelt grievously annoyedby the conviction that if shewas receivedin society, it was only on accountof her talent' (Memoirs of1fadameMalibran, pp. 92-93).

38 the singer myth, were surprisingly unclear on this matter, often displaying the stereotypical mixture of praise and criticism towards the singer, whom they reviewed along the lines of song ideals, as well as the eroticism of the female body. 96

A brief glanceat terminology further emphasizesthe somewhatunclear view of the woman performer:was sheregarded as a musician,a singer,an actress,or perhapseven a dancer?Or did sheoccasionally stand above such simplistic terms becauseof her genius,which markedher as 'different'? Interestingly,the differentiation betweenthe various professionsand relevantterms is not always clear, even lessso sincemany women artists exercisedseveral professions and neededartistic versatility in order to succeed.The termsactrice and Schauspielerin, very often referredto singers,but carried the connotationof stageperformer (in operasand plays), whereasthe nobler term of musiciennelMusikerinapplied instead to concertperformers. 97 In France,thefille dopira situatedthe femaleartist within the immoral, low classof the Demi-monde," and would perhapshave been the equivalentof the 20'h-centuryshowgirl with a rich patron.In the German-speaking countries,the Harfenmadchencould either be situatedamong the dilettantesor the morally doubtful group of wanderingstreet musicians, but shewas also a very important part of folklore, fairy talesand popular culture. Yet even later, terms paying homageto the grand namesof song,like the terms prima donna,divina and diva (assoluta)did not eclipsethe ambiguity associatedwith the natureof the singer personaherself. Singersremained archetypal negotiators of private and public femininity, yet their stageperformance was indissociablylinked to the dubiousworld of theatre,to actressesand entertainersof no moral values.The thought of her daughteraspiring to a careeras 'une actrice' was enoughto throw a respectablemother into despair- yet we also find the oppositescenario in literature,namely pushy mothersor fathers

96See for exampleAnon (possibly florstig), IDbertlerm und MadameLear, BUckeburg',AAE, 1.6 (07.11.1798),pp. 91-93; Paul Scudo,Critique et littirature musicales:Premijre el deuxiMe siries. Prdfacede FrangoisLesure (Gen&ve: Minkoff, 1986). 97See Arthur, pp.71/72; Marian Smith, Todsie lyrique' and 'Chordgraphie'at the Op6rain the July Monarchy', COJ, 4.1 (March 1992), 1-19. 98See Tili Boon, 'Women Performing Music: Staginga Social Protest', WFS,8 (2000), 40-54 (pp.42/5 1).

39 drill who their daughtersfor stagefame at any prize, without shying away from immoral means,like selling their daughterto a rich patron.99 Certainly, a young man from a middle-classbackground faced similar obstaclesif planning to becomea singer- the genreof the artist novel would be unthinkable without its central conflict of a well-educatedman wanderingoff the straight-and- narrow onto the artistic path. But not only was it much easierfor a man to train properly as a musician,he was also unlikely to receivethe stigmaof 'public man', or 'prostitute', and the problem of physical, public performancedid not affect him in 100 the samemanner as a woman. Rather,the typical conflict of the male artist, often a virtuoso/composerbut rarely an operasinger, is that of the individual geniusat odds with society,or of the artist unableto transposehis ideal love into reality. Although the questionof femalegenius and artist love is part of the literary motif, the singer, before facing her artistic conflicts, hasto addressthe moral stakes,much higher for her than for a male musician. The most professional,accomplished singers struggled with commonperceptions of a woman's respectabilityand the constantnegotiations between their own artistic vocation and the limits and expectationsplaced upon them by society.The double workload they dealt with as working musiciansand wives and mothersat home often proved to be the insurmountabledouble bind of the woman-artist,101 while, at any given moment,the singerwas an object for the male gazeand intellectual discourseand for a patriarchalsociety which scrutinizedwoman andartist, and was quick to criticize. Not surprisingly, many artists had to choosebetween career and family life. Idolized and admired,the woman singer was neverthelessconsidered a generally immoral woman,as shewas 'free' in every senseof the word, belonging, as a fantasy,to her audience.Upon her marriage,passing over into the householdof her husbandas a wife and future mother,the singer in most casesended her career and ceasedto perform in public. But until then, shewas a female 'on the loose',

99 This is the heroine's dilemma in Charri&c's CalisteJaunay's Une Cantatrice and Desbordes- Valmore's Domenica (see chapter 7). '00 Though apparently,class mattered for men, too. Tunley cites the caseof Dr. Orfila who, conscious of his social status,only performedin the safety of his own salon(Music in the 19'h-CenturySalon, 14). In 'Woman the words of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, this would translate as and artist - either incomplete' (Aurora Leigh, 11,p. 38).

40 living outsidethe rules of society,projecting an idealized,yet at the sametime sexualizedimage of the female body and voice.102 One may of course argue that the singer's freedom implied possibilities of artistic fulfilment and financial as well as personal rewards. Despite the difEculties and

compromises in reality, many singers seem to have enjoyed their careers as much as the image they embodied. The etymology, evolution and innuendos of the terms 'diva' and 'prima donna' bear witness to the potential for both freedom and fantasy that the figure of the singer contained at all times. Society's biased feelings towards

women performing in public certainly contributed to both sides of female song, the flamboyant embodiment through the opera diva, and her more demure counterpart, the lied recital iSt.103 From real-life performanceto the written page,the singer continuesto navigate betweenvery diverging, polemic ideals relating to woman and music, yet in the literary realm, we will seehow far the singer liberalizedartistic discourseand offered an alternativespace beyond real-life implicationsand theoreticaldogmas in which sheevolved as a truly uniquecharacter and creationof her author. The caseof women writers is interestingto observe:quite a few of them deliveredan accountof their musical studies,which neversurpassed a certain level of proficiency or ceasedupon marriage.Germaine de Staal,Bettina von Amim, JohannaSchopenhauer and Marceline Desbordes-Valmorewere all gifted and

skilled artists, composers,singers or evenactresses - yet they are today remembered for their literary legacyand not for having had a careeron stage.A forerunnerto GermanRomantics, Sophie LaRoche studied music from an early age,yet ceasedto perform at the age of 19 and becamea novelist who, like many of her time, wrote about musical-literaryaesthetics and performance.104 It would be exaggeratedto claim that any of thesewomen missedout on an importantcareer path, or that being a singer would have meantthe utmost freedomfor their artistic aspirations,while their literary careerswere merely compromises.Like the aristocraticdilettantes mentionedearlier, thesewomen were often simply 'too well-bred' to earntheir

102Rieger, Frau und Musik, pp.28-3 1. 103See Citron, 'Women and the Lied', pp.227f, 104LaRoche is known for publishing the art and literary journal Pomona,in which she herselfwrote the treatises'Über das Tanzen', 'Über die Musik' and 'An eine musikalischeFreundin' (all 1783/1784).See Düll, Frau und Musik im Zeitalter der AujVärung, pp.95-113.

41 living on stage- eventhough for some,the thought may have developedinto a minor existential crisis. In comparison,male authorsfaced different, but similar issueswhen negotiating their 'artistic calling'. Goethe'sand Hoffmann's strugglesin their respective bourgeoiscages are well-documented,as is Berlioz' bitter life as a musicianwhom his father had wantedto becomea doctor. The distinction that needsto be madehere for authorsboth male and femaleis that to a certainextent, performing music and writing about it belongedto different realmsin terms of professionalism,aesthetics and socio-culturalacceptance. In that regard,writing the woman singer(or writing music and musiciansin general)reflects crucially on the inherentconflict of the character,as an embodimentof socio-culturalideals and norms,between musical philosophy and pragmatics. If in the next chapterwe look at the musical aestheticsof the period, it must further lead us to questionthe discrepancybetween a musical culture and literature perceivedasfeminised and the reinforced idealsof domesticfemininity and musical dilettantism, as well as the discrepancybetween the ideal of songas a sublimepoetic force and its performing body perceivedas immoral femininity. Womendid not stop singing, on the contrary,we can tracethe rise of the professionalsinger in literary texts very clearly - yet the idealisationof the singer,the re-evaluationof the feminine soul as beautifully musical and its ideological counterpartoffieminised music addeda new twist and controversyto the topic of femaleartistic empowermentand its consequentrepresentation in literature.

42 Chapter 3

Conceptualisint! Female Sonji:

18"- and 19'h-centuryMusical-Literary Aesthetics

In the last chapterI discussedthe implications of the singerwithin the context of contemporarymusical culture, and her importanceas a socio-culturalarchetype betweenideal and performance,marked by the ambiguity associatedwith both woman and music. I shall now take a closer look at the conceptualization of singer and song in the musical-literarydiscourse of the period and discussthe aesthetic environmentfrom which authors' preoccupationwith music developedand from which the singeras a motif in fiction grew. How is the socio-culturalimagery of singer,song and musical practicereflected aesthetically and how doesthis reality of literature resonatewithin the literary discourseitselP How did authorsreflect upon music in general,and on the singer in particular, respondingto the dichotomy betweenfemale music as a perceivedmusical and feminine ideal and the questionof the female performer? As I explainedin the last chapter,the discourseon musical aestheticswas rooted in middle- and upper-classmusical culture, conceptualizedby intellectualswho were usually not professionalmusicians. The ideal of music and its representative figures was developedin a striking musical-literarydiscourse illustrating the authors' fascinationwith both the reality and the philosophyof music. Literature focussedstrongly on music through its portrayal of musical themesand treatmentof central questionsconcerning musical aesthetics,artistic geniusand the artist in society, or the imageryof poetry-song.However, one hasto treat the musical- literary discourseand its blend of musical and feminine idealswith caution.The addeddiscrepancy between making music and conceptualisingit intellectually leads us to questionfurther the literary experienceof music, and authors' potential idealizationand stylisation of singerand songas part of their poetics.Against the th ideal female broaderbackground of 18 - and 19'h-centurydiscourse, the of song

43 promptsthe paradigmaticquestion of the compatibility betweenideal and reality of music and woman-a discrepancybetween (biological)femaleness and (aesthetic) femininity which Schlegeldiscusses thus: 'Die Frauenwerden in der Poesieebenso ungerechtbehandelt, wie im Leben.Die weiblichen sind nicht idealisch,und die idealischen 105 sind nicht weiblich.' This central problemof the ideal implied by the musical feminine standsat the core of this chapter,as I will discussmusical aesthetics,their relevancefor singerand songand reflection in the literary discourse. The aestheticsof thetime reflectedthe 'feminisation'of musicalculture in that theyconceptualized music and song by usinga feminisedimagery and, theoretically at least,put womenand feminine qualities on a pedestal,together with 'sublime' musicand song. Yet to whatextent such ferninised musical-literary aesthetics constituteda genuinestatement of femaleartistic agency, both in real life andin literature,remains to be critically addressedhere. Although musical concepts were couchedin feminineimagery, as were the fantasyof songand singer, they were also markedby misogynyand the long-heldview of women'sphysical, intellectual, and consequentlyartistic inferiority. As a largelyinstinctive, unprofessional keeper and practitionerof song,a womanwas considered a musicalhelper rather than a musical genius.This imageryis aptly reflectedin thesimplistic imagery of musicalculture, aswell asin the evolutionof the Romanticmuse who, in contrastto herGreek namesake,was capable only of fulfilling an inspirationalrole to the malecomposer 106 or poet. Althougha womanwas considered 'musical' in herself,she faced serious ideological obstaclesin her claim for musicianshipand musical genius,a paradoxicalideology largely due to Rousseau'saesthetics and influenceon French and Gen-nanthought. It was the.Rousseauesque statement on natural music unspoilt by civilization and the performing arts industry, and its link with the feminine that determinedthe imagery of femalemusicality for a long time.

los Krifische Friedrich Schlegel-Ausgabe,ed. Emst Behler et a]. (Paderbom:Sch6ningh, 1958-), 11.1, N72 (hereafterKFSA). 6 The muse figure underwent a significant development throughout the 190' century, from inspirational, quasi-angelic helper of art to a 'muse malade' (to use Baudelairean terms), a femme fatale cipher of decadence and fin dc si&le aesthetics. See for example Josd-Luis Diaz, 'Avatars de ]a Muse A Npoque romantique', in Masculin-fiminin dans lapoisie el lespoiliques du XIXe sikle, ed. Christine Planid (Lyon: PUL, 2002), pp. 121-36 (pp. 134f.); Serge Zenkine, Ta "Muse romantique" et son corps', in Masculin-fiminin, pp. 151-62.

44 Finding the Original Language: Musical Aesthetics and the Rousseauesque Tradition

What makesthe musical discoursein literature of the time so fascinatingis the intimate link that writers perceivedbetween music and language,and the way they tried to appropriatethe very essenceof music in their texts - to useNovalis's words, literature's ideal consistedin the attempt 'besfimmtdurch Musik zu sprechen'.10' Theoriesand conceptson the relationshipbetween music and language(and in 108 extensionliterature) were not new, but it was through Rousseau'swritings and the developmentsof an aestheticsof sensibility and introspectionin Franceand Germanythroughout the secondhalf of the 18th century that the link betweenmusic and words becamemore importantand that the imageryof music as a complementary,other languageoccupied a centralplace in musical-literary discourse.In his Essai sur VOrigine desLangues, "9 Rousseaumade the first noteworthy claim of the alikenessof humanspeech and music:

Avec les premi6resvoix se form6rentles premi6resarticulations ou les premiers sons,scion le genrede la passionqui dictait les uns ou les autres.La col6re arrache des cris menagantsque la langueet le palais articulent: mais la voix de ]a tendresse douce, ]a la devient [ ] est plus c'est glotte qui modifie, et cette voix un son; ... ainsi les vers, les chants,la parole,ont une origine commune.Autour des fontainesdont j'ai parld, les premiersdiscours furent les premi6reschansons: les retours pdriodiqueset mesurdsdu rythme, les inflexions m6lodieusesdes accents, firent naltre la podsieet ]a musiqueavcc la langue.110

Though he was not the only author to conceptualizemusic and speech,Rousseau th proved crucial for 18 - and I 9th-century thought in that he establishedthe firm paradigmof music as a natural,unspoiled form of humanexpression, ascribing a particular nature,texture, body and emotivity to the musical languageas the vague

107 Novalis, AllgemeinesBrouillon no.245, Schriften III, pp.283-284. logSee Head, 'Birdsong and the Origins of Music', JRM, 122.1(1997), 1-23;Didier, La Musiquedes Lumijres, pp. 111-27;Downing Thomas,Music and the Origins ofLanguage: Theoriesfromthe French Enlightenment(Cambridge: CUP, 1995),pp. 34-56. 109 The Essai was publishedposthumously in 1781,but had beenconceptualized in different variations from the 1750sonwards, starting with his Lettre sur la musiquefranqaiseand his attackon Rameauand Frenchsinging. SeeJean Starobinski's introduction in auvres V, pp.CLXV-CCIV. 110(Euvres V, p.410. Pre-Rousseauesquethought understoodmusic in mathematical,rational terms, lessas an expressionof the humanheart and soul than a 'gdomdtriemusicale' (Jamain,pp. 67-69). Rousseau'smusical imagery must obviously also be seenin the light of the 18'h-centurymusical disputesand the author's preferenceof Italian over Frenchmusic (seeLa NouvelleHilotse, p. 185).

45 memory of pre-socialharmony -a harmonywhose seat Rousseau firmly places within the humansoul and heart,thus breakingwith the previously-held Pythagoreanconcepts of musical mechanics.Music as the better languageand the languageof humansensitivity and poeticsconstitutes one of the central paradigms of musical-literary discourseof the time, which subsequentauthors embraced and rewrote, developingthe various implications of the mythical union betweenmusic andlanguage:

Je me perdaisdans ccs sentimentsinddcis que fait naffre ]a musique,art qui tient le milieu entre,la naturematdrielle et la natureintellectuelle, qui peut d6pouiller Vamourde son enveloppeterrestre et donncr un corps A Vangedu ciel. Selonles dispositionsde celui qui les dcoutc,ces mdlodies sont despensdes ou des caresses.' 11

In this accountof his personalmusical experience,Chateaubriand adopts the musical aestheticsof his time, identifying music as a poetic experienceblending the terrestrialwith the divine. Though he doesnot specify it, we may assumethat Chateaubriandattributes the rational effect of music to a male listener,and the emotionaleffect to a female listener,which would be consistentwith Rousseauesque conceptsof music and woman, as we will seefurther on. What is striking here is that, like so many authorsof the time, Chateaubriandconceptualizes music as the 'other' language,capable of transcendinghuman existence and linking matterwith spirit, earth with heaven.Music becomessynonymous with a higher reality, a heightenedform of speechand sublimated,transcendent form of humanexpression, while at the sametime, in Rousseauesqueaesthetics, it remainsan originally truthful, inherentpart of humanity.This thought becomesapparent in the th sentimentalistliterary traditions and revival of the pastoralgenre in the late 18 century, where the idea of an ideal humanstate in harmonywith natureis expressed through music and the figure of the shepherd.Among the many authorsto rewrite the paradigmof such 'natural' humanmusic, SophieLaRoche aff irms that 'ich stelle mir vor, dassdie erstenTänzer und Sängergesunde, unschuldsvolle Kinder waren, die zwischenden Schafen,mit denensie erzogenwurden, froh herumhüpften,und

111Unpublished fragment, here cited in Anatole Feug6re,'Fragments inddits des Mdmoiresd'Outre- tombe', RHL, 16.3,P. 589.

46 den Gesangder V6gel nachzuahmensuchten'. 112 Not surprisingly, LaRoche's heroine Sophievon Stemheimis suchan unspoiledmusician: Urged to perform at court, Sophieescapes her misery by singing sentimentalsongs, full of nostalgiafor the 'lost' simple life, to help her copewith the decadenceof court life. Truly Rousseauesque,Sophie hates to perform operaticarias; by dramatizingthe artificiality of the performanceas well as Sophie'ssexualized singing body, the author also implicitly criticizes the inappropriatemale gazeon the singer,and the misuseof song in the wrong environment.' 13This ideal of simple songand of music as a signifier for an original, idealised,and thereforelost stateof humanitycan be found th throughouttexts of the period, and well into the middle of the 19 century- even the divas of July-Monarchynarratives still long for that simple tune, synonymousof lost happiness,simple harmony,and often love.' 14Most authors draw on the analogyof music, natureand songas a heightenedform of human expression,in reminiscenceof the antiquemodel of lyrical poetry, but also through the new, Rousseauesqueimagery of music as the other language.The paradoxof the human melody is both its simplicity and its sublimeelusiveness -the dilemma of ever finding and owning the musical geniusthat is felt within one's soul and heart. Especially later Romanticsdraw on the image of the 'unattainable' languagewithin oneself,the ideal of poetry, embodiedthrough the humaninstrument: 'Je Wai encore entenduque les premiersaccents de la mdlodie qui est peut-dtreen moi. Cet instrumentva bient8t tomber en poussWes,je Wai pu que Paccorder,mais avec ddlices!" 15This paradigmof the musicianand singerwho appears'natural', that is unspoiledand simple, yet who is capableof expressingthe ideal of musical genius and sublimity, appearsmore complex than the basic ideal of the untrainedsinger would at first suggest- Mignon for exampleis a representativeof simple, untrained and unspoiledsong, but she is at the sametime one of the most enigmaticand complex charactersand figures of musical geniusin literature,as we shall seein the following chapter.

112LaRoche, Pomona, 1.2 (1783), pp. 184-202.Jamain succinctly remarks that Vhomme qui chante devient berger' (p.206). Danceand song are consideredequal forms of expressionof the musicalself. Seechapter 4,04. 113LaRoche, Geschichle des Frduleins von Slernheim,p. 42; 208-209. 114We find dramatizationsof the 'simple song' in Fischer,Thellusson, Ulliac, Hoffmann and Balzac, amongothers. 115Musset, (Euvres complites enprose, ed. Maurice Allern (Paris: Gallimard,195 1), p.328.

47 In Rousseau'swake, the ideal of songas heightenedhuman expression featured prominently in intellectual discourse,as authorsintensified the link betweensong and the innermostself, the soul and the heart,and thus the imageof the voice as the most humanand most sublime instrumentof all. ' 16Hegel articulatedhis thoughts 1" aroundthe conceptof the 't6nendeSeele', in which he saw the quintessenceof " 8 musical humanexpression. Most Germanauthors, such as Novalis and Hoffmann, ascribeto music the statusof a sublimatedproto- or meta-language,capable of expressingeverything, yet beyondthe graspof language,and transcendinghuman ' 19 expression. On the Frenchside, both Germainede Stadland Chateaubriand,as well as the later generationsof Romantics,conceptualized music as a quasi-religious elevationof the individual, as a vehicle of humanemotions and man's divine inner self. The humanvoice appearsas the perfect instrumentand expressionof an original (musical) language,120 of poetry beyondlanguage and reason,echoing an ideal state humanity 'sentimentde Vinfini' 121 Especially of original as well as a . Madamede Stadl,as mediatorbetween French and Germanthought, articulated her views on music in De IAllemagne, as a blend of her Rousseauesqueheritage and her new impressionsof Germanaesthetics. Music as the better languagealso became increasinglyabsolute, i. e. it was considereda sublime,autonomous entity independentfrom outer reality and from the constraintsof spokenor written 122 language. Yet this specific conceptof absolutemusic (which determinedlater music aesthetics)was first formulatedby the literary discoursewhich thus set up the paradigmof music as the 'other' language,and eventuallyas an art form which no longer requiredspoken language. However, song as a quintessentialgenre of the

116 'La voix est sanscontredit le plus beaudes instruments; la musiquevocale la plus belle musique' (Diderot, iEuvres compM1es,IX, p.201). 117 'Zugleich läßt die menschlicheStimme sich als dasTönen der Seeleselbst vernehmen' (Ästhetik, 11,p. 291). And further down: 'Im Gesangaber ist es ihr eigenerLeib, auswelchem die Seele herausklingt' (p.291). 'la Othertheorists similarly regardsinging as a 'Vervollkommnung sowohl derDichtkunst als auch der Musik' and as the languageof the heart(Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorieder schönenKünste, 11, pp.460-61; 1075);Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommeneKapellmeister, pp. 94-99; 133-60;Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart,Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst,pp. 335-43. Schubart explicitly situatesmusical geniuswithin the heart(p. 368). " Goetheremarks that '[Die Musik] ist ganz Form und Gehalt und erhöht und veredeltalles, was sie ausdrückt'.Marimen undReflexionen(HA XII, p.473). Seemy casestudy on Hoffmann in chapter6. 120Schubart, p. 335. 121 De l'Allemagne, ed. ComtesseJean de Pangeand SimoneBalaye, 5 vols. (Paris: Hachette,1958- 1960),111, p. 376 (hereafterDA). 122See Dahlhaus, Die Idee der absolutenMusik.

48 time was crucial since it carriedthe double significanceof music as an absolute, sublime language,and also that of an accessible,popular performance. Vocal music linked the more abstract,ideal side of musical aesthetics,of the Rousseauesquc ideal, with the very pragmatic,almost banalside of musical culture, also embodied by the imageryof the woman singer. This ideal of humanspeech as song (and vice versa)makes the writing of music in the literary discoursehighly fascinating,since authors embraced the paradoxof Gwriting'music so passionately,treating songas a carrier of the sublime, ineffable music, yet also as a very graspableexpression of the sublime throughthe imageof song and singer. The secondparadigm established through Rousseauesquesong aesthetics is the problematic link betweenmusic and woman.As the aboveEssai quotationshows, he accentuatedthe intimate link not only betweenmusic and language,but also betweenmusic and emotion,and ultimately, betweenmusic and femininity as opposedto speech,which he marksas a male preserve.Identifying speechas being engenderedby violent emotions,whereas music and harmonioussounds are the productsof tenderemotions, Rousseau reaffirms the paradigmatictriangle of music, emotion and femininity, setting it apart from male reasonand speech.

La m6lodie, en imitant les inflexions de la voix, exprime les plaints, les cris de la douleur ou dejoie, les menaces,les g6missements;tous les signesvocaux des passionssont de son ressort.Elle imite les accentsdes langues,et les tours affcctds danschaque idiome A certainsmouvements de Pfirne:elle Wimite passeulement, elle parle; et son langageinarticuld, mais vif, ardent,passionnd a cent fois plus d'dnergie que la parole m8me.VoilA d'o6 nait la force des imitations musicales; voilA d'oa net Vempiredu chant sur les cccurssensibles. 123

Although Rousseau was not the first to link the realm of music implicitly to emotion and to the female psyche, his view on female nature and on the world of professional performers was influential. It is in Rousseau's wake that the 'natural' woman singing a simple tune became a literary clichd, and that the dichotomy between the 'natural', unspoiled singer and the professional performer increased. The musical-literary discourse did not simply poeticize music and song, but also reprised the long-established underlying uncanniness of music which, at the far end

123(Euvres, V, p.416.

49 of musical sublimity, had always containeda latentthreat to social order.A double- edgedsword sinceantiquity, music belongedto the realm of emotion, irrationality and nature,and so did woman, which createsthe problematicparadigm of woman- music as a potential threat that needsto be contained.The sublime songwas also an erotically charged,dangerous song:

Quant A la musique,je la regardecomme le v6hiculede toutesles passions.Les sons entrentdans I'Ame mieux que les paroles,etje penseque la sagessed'une femmea de la peine A chanterun air tendresans en sentir Peffet et sansen faire I'application A un objet particulier, lorsqu'il se rencontre.124

Another variation of the long-establishedambivalent attitude towardsfemale musicality, the dangerousmusic lessonas seductionhad beena classicscenario in Europeanliterature sinceat leastMoli&e: a well-bred young girl receivesmusic tuition from a handsometeacher and is constantlyin dangerof succumbingto the charmsof both teacherand music. As I outlined earlier, femalenature was consideredweak and unsuitablefor study. But musical educationwas notjust consideredunnecessary for women, it was consideredharmful, and what is more, the imagery of musical educationbore strong frivolous connotations,usually opposingthe vigilant mother with her daughterand the dangerousseductor- teacher.125 Music, though part of female nature,was potentially dangerous,which refers back to the generalimagery of femalenature as a threat to male order, and the archetypeof the siren and her male listener.Unleashing both music and woman by bringing them togetherin the context of physical love constituteda powerful, quasi- anarchicimagery. Dependingon the point of view, the sexualcharge of woman- music could take on various shapes:the rapturethat two lovers experiencethrough music wasjust as typical as a play with voyeurismand the male gazeon a woman's eroticized singing body, as shown in Cazotte'sLe Diable amoureux(1772) or Heinse'sHildegard von Hohenthal (1794). The emotionaland erotic qualitiesof

124Lelfres inidiles de la Marquise de Criqui 4 Sdnacde Meilhan, 1782-1798(Paris: Potier, 1856), cit. in Anne Mooij, Caracfýresprincipaux el lendancesdes romans psychologiques chez que1ques femmes-auteurs,de MadameRiccoboni a MadameDe Sou:a. - (1757-1826)(Groningen: Drukkerij de Waal, 1949),p. 22; Seealso Sulzer,p. 46 1; Tbomas,pp. 145-49. 125See Delon, 'La Musique dansle roman', pp.23-36. Educatorslike Mlle Lespinasserecommended that music lessonsshould always be monitoredby a parent(Mooij, pp. 19f).

50 songwere both situatedin a feminine cosmosand attributedto femaleart practice; both the soprano,idealizing the etherealsound of the high voice, and the alto, her more sensualcounterpart, fuelled the ambiguousimagery of the femalesong betweenideal and performance,heightened speech and dangerousfemininity. Rousseau'sviews on the 'natural' woman were furtheredby his generalcriticism of civilisation. Favouringthe man and woman of nature,his conceptof songand languagereferred to an originally intact fon-nof expressionwhich, aroundthe time he wrote his treatise,he consideredto be lost by society. Songshould be the voice of nature,but it had in fact ceasedto be a 'natural', and thus a moral art form:

VoilAcomment le chantdevint, par degrds, un art enti6rements6pard de la parole dontil tire sonorigine; comment les harmoniques des sons firent oublier les inflexionsde la voix; ct commentenf in, bomdeA Peffetpurement physique du concoursdes vibrations, la musiquese trouva privde des effets moraux qu'elle avait produitsquand elle dtaitdoublement la voix de la nature.116

Rousseauclearly separatesthe ideal of songand languageas an original, worthy humanexpression in a pre-socialstate, from its perversionthrough a decadent performanceculture, embodiedby performers,theatre people and especiallywomen singers.12' Not only did Rousseaustress the unspoiled,sublime and emotional characterof music, furthering its allure of femininity (and women's needto remain true to their simple, emotionalnature), but we can seethe clear discrepancyin his thought betweenthe ideal of songand femininity, and the reality of performanceand

womanhood.Both Ekmile(1762) and the Lettreii dAlemhert (1757) show his contemptfor contemporary,'degenerate' art practiceas well as educated,artistic women, a verdict that perpetuatedand exacerbatedthe centralrift betweenwoman as a symbol of ideal song and woman as a professionalperformer. 12' Not surprisingly, Rousseauevokes the ideal of song in his Essai simultaneouslywith the

126 (EuvresV, p.427. 127In his Dictionnaire de Musique,Rousseau differentiates between the ancient,ideal poet-musician in the image of Orpheusand contemporary,idle performers(Euvres V, p.915), 128In his Lettre, Rousseauexplicitly links moral and social decadencewith women performing in public: 'Je demandecomment un dtat dont l'unique objet est de se montrer au public, et qui pis est, de se montrer pour de I'argent, conviendraitA d1honn6tesfernmes, et pourrait compatir en elles avec]a modestieet les bonnesmccurs ((Euvres V, pp.820. Yet again,Rousseau concedes the odd exception: He often cites the actressand singer Marie Fel (1713-1794)as an exampleof vocal perfection.In his Dictionnaire, he pleadsfor more variety in women's voices, inspiredby the Contralti that impressed him in Italy (ffuvres V, p. 1151).

51 dangerousside of music, that of pleasureand amorousrapture. In a scenarioevoking man's fall and original sin, Rousseaudescribes the first peopleas having emerged through songand amorouspassion. 129 In consequence,Rousseau's concept of original, pre-social,and therefore'lost' songhas little to do with the figure of the actual woman singer, whom he rejectscompletely as an indecent,perverted figure. The paradoxof femalesong lies in this paradigmaticRousseauesque ontology: by its very nature,music belongsto femininity, expressingan ideal of sublimity; yet the woman who sings(in the professionalsense) appears to be the exactopposite of the musical ideal, sinceshe is regardedas pervertedin her very nature.130 Hence the paradoxicalnature of song imagery: althoughsong seems to addressqualities that are ascribedto woman, suchas intimacy, natureand emotion,the song ideal excludeswoman as an actual songperformer, as someonewho puts the ideal of song into practice,sharing her innermostwith an audienceand performing femininity that should be confined to the homeexclusively. In other words: 'true' song in its aestheticconceptual ization can never havea femaleperforming body, which appears irreconcilablewith musical sublimity and genius. Be that as it may, literature respondedstrongly to Rousseauesqueaesthetics of songas the sublime other languageand lost ideal. Although Rousseaustrictly dissociatedthe song ideal from the woman perfon-ner,authors were quite attunedto both and continuedto conceptualizethese two antagonisticsides of femalesong. In the following, we will take a brief look at key paradigmsof the literary treatmentof female song.

129 (Tuvres V, pp.402-405. 130This view resonatesin later conceptsof the genderedcharacter (see pp. 27-32). Seealso Claudia Honegger,Die Ordnung der Geschlechler(Frankfurt/Main: Campus,199 1), p.42.

52 Literary Concepts of the Woman Singer

'Ah! Ma Julie, qu'ai-je entendu?Quels sons touchants?quelle musique?quelle source ddlicieusede sentimentset de plaisirs?' 131

If we are to follow Rousseau'sthoughts, the only true embodimentof femalesong could be the 'natural', simple singer in the imageof tmile's Sophie,a decent, virginal girl who singspleasing tunes that confqrrn both to Rousseau'smoral standardsregarding women and his ideal of songas the original, unspoilt harmony of humankind.Rousseau's singer would not be trainedto perform in public but, excludedfrom artistic agencyor genius,would only perform in the context of the home, for instanceas a mother singing to her children, or beautifyinga domestic evening,the only legitimate songcontexts where the latentthreat emanatingfrom female musicality would be containedand a careful balancebetween the celestial and the carnal side of woman-musicestablished. Rousseau's views did certainly not coincide with the real-life situation of singers,nor did writers of the 18'hand 19'h century write the singer alongsidesuch rigid lines. The paradoxof literature in fact arisesfrom the importanceof Rousseauesquemusic aestheticsfor writers who drew on the imageof songas sublime,ferninised otherness, thus theoretically relegating the woman singerto the realm of artistic redundancyand femalepassivity. The stereotypicalmuse character would doubtlesslyfit this category. Writing in Rousseau'swake, most authorsperpetuated the imageryof woman as 'naturally 'Die Frau [ ] ist Herz, ihre Ohren Herz- musical': ... ganz und sind 132 die Ohren'. JeanPaul famously affirmed that 'die Musik - die singendeund de la Motte Fouqud spielende- gehörtder weiblichen SeeleZU9,133 whereas Caroline consideredmusic to be the art-form best suitedfor women in that it best represents female nature:

So ist die Musik, selbstmit Pretentiongetrieben, immer noch dasElement, in welchem sich das Wesender Frau am freiesten,am naturgemäßesten

131 Rousseau, Julie, ou, La nouvelleffiloise. ed. flenri Coulet (Paris: Gallimard 1993),p. 181. 132Jean Paul, Levana, WerkeV, p.695. 133Ibid., pp.713-14.

53 zurückspiegelt;ja, Beide sind so sehr Eins, dass[... ] die ursprünglicheHannonie sich stetsauf rührende,ahndungsvolle Weise herausfühlt. 134

While JeanPaul, consistentwith the paradigmof the human instrument, describesmusic as part of a woman's soul, Caroline de la Motte Fouquduses the Rousseauesquekey notions of 'natural' music and original harmonywhich are truthful, unspoiledexpressions of femalenature, thus aligning woman and music. In this sheechoes contemporary musical and genderideals, especially Humboldt's Geschlechtscharakter,135 according to which music and woman possessed inalterablequalities. Evadingthe questionof musical agency,Caroline de la Motte Fouqudfurther ferninisedher vision of transcendencethrough music by describinga woman's transformationto eternal beautythrough music and song:

Und wie sie sich denn mit einemale gleichsam innerlich eröffneten und die göttliche Musik hervorquoll, und sie auf ihren Wellen himmelan trug, schienen sie andre Wesen, völlig unterschieden von dem gewohnten Eindruck ihrer Erscheinung. Sie hätten sich wohl selbst nicht wieder erkannt, so unbewusst verklärt das ewig Schöne.136

Fouqudthus rewrites the stereotypeof femalemusical attractiveness,and of music as an intrinsic enhancementof femininity, as affirmed by other theoristsas well: 'Wie leicht vergisst man beim schönen Gesang, dass die Sängerin nicht schön ist und wie leicht kann sie dadurch sich eine ganze Gesellschaft unterwürfig machen?' 137 Yet, in general,authors appeared attuned to the complexity of femalesong and its potential for femaleempowerment, if not controversyand subversionof suchkey paradigmslike femaleartistic agency,professionalism and genius.The literary treatmentof the singer owes its major aestheticunderpinnings to post- Rousseauesquemusical-literary discourse. As I have explainedbefore, literaturealso opensup more interesting,multi-faceted visions of femalesong performance (and possibleempowerment through song)than musical aestheticsand theorieson female natureseem to suggest.Though drawing on the aboveclichd of female

134 Die Frauen in der grofien Well, Ausgewdh1te Werke 111,p. 258. 135See p.30. 136Ibid., p.258. 137Sulzer, pp. 1077-78.

54 beautificationthrough song,some texts eventuallyappropriate this motif in order to accentuatethe singer's strugglefor emancipation:if the singer's 'ugliness' sabotages her personalhappiness, she is literally able to transformherself into the stage performerwhile singing, and then exudeglamour and attractiveness.139 If this scenariomay appearsomewhat banal, certain texts, like Corinne and Consuelouse the musically-induced embellishmentand sublimity of the singer very consciously as part of the femaleartist's empowermentand superiority.

Writing Otherness

As to the paradigmof female musical otherness,literature responds on different levels. As we shall seein the following casestudies, the singer may appear 'naturally' different, as implied by her musical nature,meaning a musicalgift she doesnot needto train, but which is an intrinsic part of her natureas a woman. Yet she may as well appeardeliberately (and defiantly) different as an artist - this two- fold differencemanifests itself textually, poetically and socially. Dependingon the national and linguistic contextof the text, it is rare to find a literary treatmentin which the singer appearsat home in the socio-culturalcontext set up in the narrative.Thus, the singer herselfand her languageappear doubly foreign, as representativesof the other of music, yet also as strangerswithin the narrative context, usually situatedoutside the social order. In the newly evolving genresof artist novel/novellaand musical prose,which appropriatethe other languageof music, the singer appearsjustas hybrid, an unusualfemale character, usually a foreigner or at leastbi-national, 'different' through her parentsor upbringing. While in Germantexts, we usually find an Italian element,French texts introducesingers with a Germanor Italian heritage.Alternatively, the plot is geographicallytransposed, usually to Italy. Although this partly alludesto the real- life context of Germany'sand Italy's musical dominance,it is also a poetic device within the text to developthe aspectof the singer's difference,as well as her specific statusoutside social structuresand the specialstatus of music. The singer's mixed

138See the casestudies in chapter7.

55 heritageor mysteriousorigin often reinforcesthe complexity of her musicalnature and her statusas an outsider,socially and poetically. Both singerand songappear foreign and transposed:Goethe specifically situateshis child-singer Mignon within the realm of musical-poeticotherness, creating in her a defiant artist who radically distancesherself from any social context by communicatingexclusively through song,and whose music evokesthe 18'h-century utopia of the original harmonyof songand speech.A similar imageryof othernessapplies to Madamede Stadl's Corinne, yet in her casethe musical-poeticnature of the femaleartist (that which differentiatesher from other women and from men) is much more strongly aligned with the othernessof the woman performerwithin middle classsociety as a social stigma; a leitmotif that becamemore important in subsequentliterary treatmentsof the singer,and which ultimately reunitesthe two realmsof femalesong that Rousseaukept strictly apart: namely,the sublimity of musical geniusthrough song and women's statusas legitimateprofessional song performers. Although the singer becomesmore professionalin the courseof the I 9thcentury, and the questionof her othernesswithin society,much like that of her male artist counterpart,becomes predominant, the literary treatmentcontinues to draw on the Rousseauesqueideal of music and songas the other language,as a different level of human existence,both poetically and literally. The stylization of the woman singer within the idea of otherness,and by it the refiection on the statusof music, remaina literature, leitmotiv throughoutmost I 9th-century texts, which showsto what extent againstthe backdropof musical culture and aesthetics,was fascinatedby the singer's potential to evokethe sublime as much as the carnal,to carry a higher principle while appearingas a performer in breachof social and artistic norms.

56 Sublime Eroticism: Writing the Singing Body

Du singst- und Deine Zauberkehle Haucht süßeLust in jedes Herz. So singt im Haine Philomele Der Liebe Glück und ihren Schmerz. Doch hat sie unter dichtenZweigen Sich nett ihr Nestchenerst gebaut, Fängtsie allmählich an zu schweigen- Das Weibchensingt dann keinen Laut. Nun fiat applicatio! Du singst wie sie; bald schweig auch so. "9

A great deal of the singer's literary attractivenessstems from the author's needto transposethe experienceof songperformance onto paper,and to renderthe singer 'audible' as well as 'visible'. This literary transpositionaddresses the questionof the singer's objectification as much as the author's aestheticsin 'writing' music, while at the sametime respondingto the dichotomy of song ideal and performing body. As I have explainedin the methodologicaloutline of my thesis,the paradoxof Gwritingmusic' is that authorsstrive to rendera foreign principle in a medium which cannotadequately represent it. The writing of femalesong hence always remains approximateto a certainextent. Other elements,obviously, play a role in the literary stylization of the woman singer as a representativeboth of musical othernessand as a woman who literally performs 'in public' and puts herselfon display. In the light of musical aesthetics,we needto briefly look at the implications of writing the singing body in literature. Whereasin music criticism we often find a stereotypicallymisogynist commentaryon the singer's appearancealone, without any credit whatsoevergiven to her musical merit, literature is more diverse in its negotiationof the ambiguity associatedwith woman-music,playing with the imageryof femalesong as both a sublime ideal and a sexually chargedimage of femininity. Especiallyin the late 18'h century we encounterboth extremepositions, the utter poeticizationof song,which sometimesgoes hand in hand with the ideal of disembodiedsong and the sexualisationof the female singing body. Heinse'sHildegard von Hohenthal

1'9Anon, 'Gedicht ins Starnmbucheiner Sgngerin',AAM, 2.32 (07.06.1800),p. 567.

57 celebratesthe statusof the femalebody as a sensualobject to the male gaze.In a voyeuristic scene,the composerLockmann first seesthe singer Hildegard naked while she is bathing140- when he later composesfor her voice, he equally drawson his impressionof the nakedsinger's body, thus blendingthe imageryof sublime 141 voice with femalesexuality. In Le Diable Amoureux,Cazotte employs male voyeurism explicitly in connectionwith song,rewriting the fantasyof the woman singer as sexualizedotherness, and as an intimate act in which the singer literally revealsthe most intimate part of herself.Even more subtletreatments, like Goethe's Wertheror LaRoche'sSternheim, still usethe dualismof ideal singing voice and sensualsinging body to either emphasizeor criticize this imageof female song.The male protagonist'sdesire to match a femalebody to the ethereal,invisible voice that he hearsfurthers Hoffmann's treatmentof the singerAntonie in Rat Krespel,and the blatant mismatchbetween her voice and her body, which are an areaof dispute betweenfather, lover and the singer's own questfor absoluteartistic freedom.This dualism remainsa leitmotiv for later generationsof writers, with somevery interestingdevelopments in works of the 1830sand 1840swhich, at the height of the diva myth, explore very closely the implications of the singer's voice and body and the conflict betweenthe idealsof the singing voice and the reality of the performing body. Even authorsdisillusioned with Romanticaesthetics, like Berlioz, treat this dichotomy implied in the ideal of woman-music.In his novella Euphonia,Berlioz evokesboth the celestialimage of female songand the carnal fatality of the promiscuoussexual monster within the samesinger, who, at the end of the novella, hasto be crushedto deathby mechanicalmeans. The literary conceptualization of the singer revolvesaround the sublimeof music, as it doesaround the sexualcharge of the femaleperfon-ning body. Female song as a sexualizedfemale voice had beenlinked to a woman's fertility since antiquity. A woman's physical characteristics,like the buccal cavity and anatomyof the throat, were believedto be analogousto a woman's womb and vaginal

140 Not surprisingly, in Heinse's view of song as a 'Sirenenkunst'(Samiliche WerkeV, p.227) we find the stereotypicalconnection of woman,song and water. 141 SdMIliChe Werke V, pp. 7/35/123. See also Caduff, pp.240-41.

58 142 passage. Throughoutthe period in question,the voice was considereda secondary sexualdeterminant, through which woman was differentiatedfrom man by her larynx her developmentduring smaller and vocal pubertywhich differed from man- again, this presumedbiological fact blendedwith the philosophicaldiscourse on womenýs'natural ly-given' physical and intellectual inferiority, as part of the unalterablegendered character. The singer's performanceconsumed energy and bodily fluids that were normally neededin her womb, which gave rise to concerns about her physical health,her menstrualcycle, her ability to bearchildren, and her risk of untimely consumption.Even as late as 1840,Segond admonished celibacy in his Hygiýne du chanteur,whereas others argued that a woman's voice improves when she losesher virginity and comesinto contactwith a man.143 Again, this dual perceptionof femalesong evolved simultaneously.Song was not only the heightenedexpression of sublimity, but evolved alongsidethe discourseon women as an immoral performers,as well as treatisesin biology and anatomy.144 The ancient imageof the voice as a flute evolvedto that of the voice as a string instrument,a violin or harp, played through air vibrations that appear,depending on the point of view, as celestialor sexual.Whether viewed as vocal chords,folds, or singing orifice, the voice blendsmedical, philosophicaland literary discoursearound a certaintype of imageryof song,and specifically of a woman's song,the latter reuniting so pertinently the sublimity of the museand of original languagewith the sensualityof the female body, the disembodiedhuman voice with the male voyeurism directedtowards the female singing body. Musical performanceas amorousrapture and ecstasy,just like the medicaldiscourse on a singer's constitution and the dangersof singing, belongto the sameimagery of femalesong. It is in this imagery of the singer's body on display that we again encounterthe

142 SeeThomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Genderfrom the Greeksto Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: HUP, 1990),p. 36; Nieberle, pp.44-45. 143See Janine Neboit-Mombet, 'Evolution desconnaissances sur la voix humainede 1770A 1870', in La Voix dans la culture el la litiftaturefranVaises (1713-1875),ed. JacquesWagner (Clermont- Ferrand.PUBP, 2001), pp.25-34 (pp.29-30). 144 Although specific voice conceptshad beenaround since Dodart's Himoire sur les causesde la voix de Phommeet de sesdiffirents tons (1703), anatomicaltreatises became interesting only towards the end of the 18'hcentury. In 1741, Ferrein, throughposthumous experiments on the larynx, establishesthe term 'vocal chords' (seeDidier, La Musique,pp. 111-127).However, the imageryand fantasyof the female voice as synonymouswith femalesexuality was much strongerthan de facto medical knowledge,which did not fully explain female biology until the end of the I 9thcentury (see Anderson/Zinsser,11, pp. 152f. ).

59 blend archetypal of real-life implications and aesthetic discourse: according to medical manuals of the period, a woman, when singing, reveals the most intimate her 145 part of own body, her vocal folds, ergo her sexual organs. An assumption blends which well with the image of song as pleasure, if not rapture and physical and spiritual ecstasy, as it equally coincides with the period's musical aesthetics, according to which song is the innermost speaking of the human SOUI.146 Not surprisingly, many are the warnings issued by doctors who not only criticize the singer's unwomanly demeanour, but wam against the fatal consequencesof excessive singing for her health. 14'

This blend of different views on a singer's public performanceaccounts for extremely interestingliterary treatmentsof the topic, where the negotiationof the public spherestands as one of the centralaspects of the singer.Her performancein public is always also a debateon the context of the songand on the singer's but position, not only as an artist, as a woman within (or outside) society- the singer's performance,her strugglewith space,privacy and publicity, takeson an existentialisttone, to the point that the questionof the performancepractice and spacebecomes tied to the life and deathof the singer.Hoffmann's Rat Krespel and Sand'sLa Prima donna,to namebut two music novellas,both dramatizethis conflict brilliantly. The double chargeof the woman singer,as a fantasyon whom the male subject projectsutter poetic transcendence,yet also a performerwhose body suggests sensualityand musical raptureseems to lose nothing of its dramaas we move along in the individual casestudies. Even though the singer becomesmore professional and, as we will seein chapters6 and 7, to a certainextent potentially more trivial, the sensualityof the performerretains the Rousseauesqueideal of music as the other, the better language.Even if the gazethat lingers on the singer constitutesan essentialfantasy in literature,as doesthe performing body, so doesthe questionof song itself, and of the singer as a messengerof somethingother. Writing the singer's body, and respondingto the questionof the singer's othernessare two essential

145 146 SeeLaqueur, pp. 35-37; Neboit-Mornbet, pp.28-30. Seepp.41ff. 147See Rieger, Fray, Musik und Mannerherrschaft, pp.54f. Nina d'Aubigny also warns against the fatalconsequences of abusive singing, such as training an alto to bea soprano,or excessivetraining forthose with a weakconstitution (see Caduff, Die Literarisierung, pp. 247-49).

60 literary paradigms,as well as important reflectionson post-Rousseauesquemusical culture and aesthetics.

Questions of Life and Death

At the sametime, authorsdramatize their treatmentof the singer by reflecting on such difficult topics as motherhoodand personalhappiness, and the generalconflict of the woman singer who actively defiestraditional female stereotypesand life models.As an outsider,the singer often finds herself in stark antagonismto the conventional,socially sanctionedfemale roles of wife and mother.This is an area that all my casestudies touch upon in various ways, and in which they not only reflect upon a very realistic problem,namely the difficulty for professionalsingers to reconcilea careerwith their searchfor love, and the often unattainableideal of motherhood- but on a more dramatic,yet also poetic level, the singer's position outside social norms, her role as an exceptionto the rule, a woman who hasno accessto 'normal' womanhood.A crucial areaof dispute in a numberof texts, this paradigmis often developedwithin the singer's psycheand her rapportwith her environment,but also very often through the useof a diametrically-opposed pair of female charactersthat serveto illustrate thesetwo antagonisticmodels of femininity. In literature, it seemsthat the singer's statusas artistically and personallydifferent excludesthe possibility of personalfulfilment in love, marriageand motherhood.In the majority of the casestudies treated here, the singer ultimately lives and dies alone, unableto reconcilethe two opposingmodels of womanhood,thefemmefatale singer and the saintly mother figure. In somecases, the singer,like male artists in literature, deliberatelychooses the lonely existenceof the artistic genius,perhaps indulging in a conceptlike the unfulfilled love of the Romanticartist that we often encounterin male artist novels.Rarely doesthe singer find happinessin love, and then only under the condition which is rather sheepishlyexpressed in the above poem drawing the parallel betweensinger and songbird:upon her marriage,the singer must ceaseall artistic activity, sincethe bliss of married life and motherhood can only be obtainedby femalesilence. Often enough,the singer's fate is a question

61 of choice on the part of her male suitor, who, facedwith two antagonisticmodels of femininity, eventually choosesthe conventionaltype for marriageand parenthood or, in the rare case,believes in the singer's moral integrity and finally agreesto marry her. This, however,is extremelyrare, and only occurson the aforementioned condition of the singer's silence(i. e. the symbolical deathof the woman performer). The singer thus hasto face not only the consequencesof her own artistic and personallife choices,but more dramatically,society's reactionto her lifestyle outside the norms,and the implications of her ascribed'nature'. Facedwith contemporaryfeminine ideals,the singer's dilemma takeson an existentialisttone to the point that the singer's struggleoften revealsitself as a questionof life or death. Although the deathof the artist, whethermale or female,is to a certain extent a stapleof I 9th-century literature in general,with the generally insolubledilemma of the artist in society being a favourite literary theme,the denouementof the woman singer's struggle in her own deathtakes on a specialquality and can be readon severallevels. Going back to Rousseauesquesong as the expressionof a lost ideal, the singer's deathappears as a sign of both aestheticand textual irreconcilability: in her songs,and thus in her very nature,the singercommunicates an ineffable ideal, a musical and femaleotherness that can hardly find an expressionin the prosaic context.The singer herself is different to the point of incompatibility from her surroundings,as her song remainsto a certain extent unattainableand unliveable. Here, the ideal of writing and speakingmusic mergeswith the fantasyof the singer as a sublime, non-prosaiccreature who eventuallycannot be sustainedin a prosaic environment. Additionally, this ineffable ideal of songblends into the taboo of the female performer. In the oppositesense, the ideal of the femalesinger as a performeroften appearsas unrealisticas the attemptto capturethe essenceof music on the written page.As I haveexplained above, the discourseon the singer reunitesthe various aspectsof medicine,psychology, biology, philosophyand musical-literaryaesthetics - as such,the singer's deathis highly poetic as it plays with contemporaryviews on women's health and fragility. The stereotypicalconcerns about the singer's health are often highly stylized in literature,and in consequencethe singer's untimely, mysterious'consumption' appearsas an undecipherableblend of medico-

62 philosophical views and poetic sublimity of the singeras an 'unearthly' creature.As we shall seein someof the casestudies, the singer's deathoccurs in momentsof utmost physical and musical transcendence,as if her voice transcendedthe physical dimensionof the performing body, and as if deathwere the only logical consequenceof her conflictual inner nature,torn betweenthe demandsof artistic life and the higher sourceof her divine voice. Yet in other cases,death occurs almost prosaically and in few words, relating to the singer's rapid declineand deathas the logical result of a life lived aloneand outside love and society.However, to regard the singer's deathas a stereotypeof misogyny would be both wrong and simplistic, since her deathneeds to be analysedwithin the individual narrativecontext and as part of the singer's overall agenda.

Genius

In the light of this brief outline of musical-literaryaesthetics and to concludethe discussionof the woman singer as compliant with or defiant of the contemporary idealspertaining to woman and music and outlined in chapters2 and 3, we finally needto addressthe crucial questionof the singeras a musical genius,and literature's 1h take on this key paradigmof 18 - and I 9th-century thought. In the light of what has beensaid so far, is the female singer really that different from male artists in literature and what, if at all, is her sharein the debateon genius? 1 48 If we want to understandthe 18th-and I 9th-century musical-literarydiscourse, we cannot ignore the importanceof artistic genius,a conceptquintessential and fundamentalto Europeanthought, as it markedthe 'extra something' of the artist, that which madehim different from othersand surpassthe 'normal' categoriesof humanartistic production: 'it was creativity, not reasonor talent that mademan [ ] It Poetrydifferent from Science resemblea god. ... was geniusthat made verse; different from industry and technology;Music more than meretune, harmonyand

"' For an excellent overview of the history of the conceptof geniussince Antiquity, and in particular for the topic of 'female genius' seeChristine Battersby'sstandard work Genderand Genius.

63 149 rhythm Y. Music in particular was considered one of the highest possible bf articulations artistic genius, and interestingly, both music and genius were 'feminised' in that both were said to possesscertain 'naturally' feminine qualities such as emotions, nature, and apparent simplicity and introspection.

Earlier concepts had defined as genius the civilised man, who was different from (and better than) savagesor animals, through his 'reason'. 150Throughout the 18th century, genius came to be defined as someone possessing superior talent (for example a musician), yet it continued to be viewed merely as an exceptional capacity that was, theoretically, accessible to most men. In contrast to 18th-century thought then, the Romantic notion of genius implied that the artist was born with his sublime, God-given creativity, that it was a 'natural' part of himself, an 'extra something' that made him superior to other people, and which he was able to channel as original creativity and intellect, into original works of art. Genius came to reside within the human nature itself, taking the form of the sublime other of the male subject, the 'stranger within' in the words of Edward Young, whom man must 151 know and revere. The defining quality of 'genius' as human excellence, as the 'extra something' of human creativity became the artist's originality, rather than his skills or talent. 152 It be th must noted that late 18 -centuryand I 9th-century thought conceptualised geniusthrough the imageryof the irrational subconsciousand of natureand her raw, savageprocesses, as well as through the imagery of man's 'natural' instinct and feeling, which emphasisedthe belief that geniuswas a 'naturally'-given 153 th characteristicof excellence. What is important in this context is that late 18 - and I 9th-century conceptsof geniusdrew on characteristicsnormally ascribedto women (the image of the artist as a procreator,'giving birth' to his works of art, was crucial) - yet though a theoreticallink betweenwoman and geniusmight havebeen implied, the possibility of a woman geniuswas vehementlyexcluded by most authorsof the time, such as Kant, Schiller or William Duff. 154

149 Battersby,p. 4. 150 SeeBattersby, p. 3. 15 1Edward Young, Conjectureson Original Composition,pp. 53-54. 152See Battersby, pp. 71-72. 153Jbidem, pp. 74-75. '5' Ibidcm, pp.76-79. For Mary Wol Istonecraft'sposition on this matter, seep. 3 I.

64 The feminine qualities implied by geniuswere qualitiesthat could be appropriated by male reasonand which furtheredthe cult of the male, supremeartist as a wild, untamedman of nature,a hero and a priest-like figure.155 Women were excludedfrom suchconcepts of male original creativity and supremacy,as it was their natural and intellectual deficiencieswhich disqualified them from the creative originality as a prerequisitefor genius,which furthermorerequired an intellectual and psychologicalstrength that only men were said to possess.Despite the importanceof feminine qualities suchas emotivity and passionin the conceptof Romatic genius,women, according to contemporarygender theory, were regarded as not having the requiredphysical and mentalcapacities to aspireto the realm of genius,and to developthe 'extra something' implied by genius,especially artistic originality and the capacityto (pro-) createtruly excellent,sublime and original works of art. Their 'natural', biological weakness,as we have seenearlier, was perceivedas part of their gendercdcharacter and extendedto the realmsof education,work, and especiallyartistry. The 'naturally deficient' woman remainsa constantof Europeanthought well into the 20thcentury; dependingon the authorand the context, women were seenas lacking whichever faculty requiredfor art and for genius happenedto be in vogue.156 A woman could not be an original creatorand could not produceworks of artistic sublimity, of which sheherself was considereda symbol. Shouldshe attempt to emulateman and aspireto artistic geniusand creativity, sheby no means qualified as the covetedandrogynous sublime of Romanticism,but ratheras a freak of naturewho should neither exist nor haveher sharein the greatartistic achievementsof society.Thus while on the one hand,the perfect artist cameto be a ferninisedmale, appropriatingfor instancethe feminine essenceof music, the androgynous,'masculine' femaleon the other hand, if at all possible,was considereda freak of nature.157 As an interestingfootnote, the genderideology of the time, in analogyto the man as a wild 'child of nature"and born artist also promotedthe imageof woman as a wild, untamedcreature, which howeverserved

155 SeeRieger, Frau, Musik und Mdnnerherrschaft,pp. 105-107. 156 Ibid., pp.165f, The infamousexamj5le of Otto Weininger's Geschlechtund Character (1903) is a noteworthy exampleof how misogynistviews on women and art perseveredwell into the 201h century. 157Battersby, pp. 78 ff.

65 to further promotethe ideal of the domesticatedfemale who, as a controlled wife and mother,was essentialto the core stability of middle-classculture and values. Genius'remainedthe preserveof afeminine male,158 i. e. of a male who, drawing on both male and femalecharacteristics, appeared superior through his creative originality and was able to channelhis supremacyin the form of sublime,artistic procreation.Musical geniusin particular, in analogyto the ferninisedimagery of music discussedso far, was consideredan 'extra something'to be reveredand not coincidentally did the imageof the composeror virtuoso of geniusas a man capable of channellingthe 'other' languagethat was music, into works of art, rise to unprecedentedimportance during the I 91hcentury. Theseideological underpinningsadd to the controversyof the singeras a female artist at oddswith social and philosophicalpositions alike, and make her discussion as a woman, yet as an original creatorof art, and as a supremehuman being characterisedby the 'extra something'of artistic geniusquite interesting. As we haveseen so far, views on the woman singerwere contradictory,with literature being relatively free to discusscontroversial paradigms. Do we encounter singersof genius in literature?Interestingly, some literary texts (both male- and female-authored)offer surprisingly strongtreatments of femalemusical geniusby developingthe woman singer and her songalong the lines of naturally-givenartistic creativity and originality, and in extensionas a creaturenot only of 'otherness',but potentially of supremacy.As we shall seein the casestudies, the genius,and thus the supremacyof the singer is not only linked to her artistic originality, but also to her vocal characteristics;to the 'genius" of her voice proper,that is, to the supremacy,originality and sublimity of the soundthat sheproduces. The singer's genius is thus equally articulatedthough her voice, which standsas an entirely unique, inhumansound that can neither be comparedto other voices nor be reproduced. Literary treatmentsclearly statea caseon the singeras 'more' thanjust the traditional female stereotype,with her songgoing beyondthe rangeof normal language.The singer most certainly is a 'freak' of nature,due to her hybridity and the subversiveelements implied in both her characterand her performance,which

158Ibid., p. 11.

66 make her go much further than the simplistic ideal of femalemusicality. The singer representsthe 'other' implied by genius,yet to what extent she is able to transform her musical othernessinto artistic agencyremains to be seenin the casestudies. In theory, the singer may make a claim for original creativity that goesbeyond artistic expressionsconsidered normal, and shemay thereforechallenge the paradigmof exclusively male artistic geniusand underminebinary categoriesof female/male, nature/art.What shecertainly shareswith her male counterpartsis the 'extra something' that definesartistic genius,but which also exposesher to the problem sharedby male artists: the constantdanger of having to reconcileher own genius with the demandsof a 'prosaic' social context,and the latent dangerof being unable to cope with 'the strangerwithin'. Just I ike her male counterpart,the singer hasto be able to channelthe overflow of artistic self appropriatelyto avoid the 'too much' of the artist predisposingher for failure and death,and reconcileher exceptionalself and the constraintsof society.But if that was the case,would shestill be considered a genius?In this dilemma, the singer is not so different from the male artist in literature.

Thesebroad strokesmust suffice to introducethe motif of the singer in its aestheticcomplexity and to preparethe individual, detailedcase studies that we shall now turn to. As we have seenin chapters2 and 3, betweenthe poles of song ideals, ivoman-musicand the questionof the femaleperformer, neither theoreticalnor literary treatmentsseem to offer a homogeneousview on this topic. Rather,literature developspossibilities of femaleartistic agencyas opposedto the stereotypical representationof the singer accordingto femalesong ideals.It is from this multi- facetedimagery that the fascinationof the literary motif stems,a motif whose trajectory we will now trace in more detail through the individual casestudies taking us from Goethe'sMignon all the way to the divas of the July Monarchy.

67 Chapter 4

Goethe's Mignon and Madame de RAN Corinne: Creating a Literarv Archetvpe (1795-1807)

The two major works forming the first casestudy need no lengthy introduction:Both JohannWolfgang von Goethcin his 1795/96novel WilhelmMeisters Lehrjahre, and Germainede Stadlin her 1807novel Corinne,ou l7talie createda standardwork of the Europeancanon and, through the traits of the poetic child-singerMignon and her Italian counterpart,the artistic geniusCorinne, two femalecharacters that redefinednotions of femalemusicality, geniusand songperformance around 1800.Written at the height of the debatesurrounding music and womanwhich I havediscussed in the previoustwo chapters,Mignon and Corinneshare striking traits highlighting the complexityof the womansinger in literatureduring this period of transition so rich in musical-literary imagery.In this chapter,I shall discussthese two figuresagainst the backgroundof the authors'aesthetics and eachnovel's implicationswith regardto the femalesinger and the contemporarymusical-literary discourse.

(1) The Poetics of Performance: Mignon

Of all singersthat populatethe Germanliterary canon,Goethe's Mignon is one of the most iconic and recognizablecharacters, whose impact extendedbeyond the realm of Germanliterature into the generalimagery of Europeanculture, into music and the fine arts. Yet of all literary singers,she is also one of the most enigmaticand contradictory creatures.Goethe himself claimedthat he had written WilhelmMeister, which he countedamong the 'inkalkulabelstenProductionen, wozu mir fast selbstder Schlüssel

68 fehlt," for her explicitly and becauseof her2-a striking remarkif one takesinto accountthat Mignon is not the novel's protagonist.Responses to her were strongfrom the beginning:Schiller, who, as a friend and critic, accompaniedGoethe during the redraftingprocess of Meister, statedthat 'Mignon wird wahrscheinlichbei j edemersten 3 und auch zweiten Lesen die tiefste Furche zurücklassen'. Presentedas a 'Rätsel' 4 throughout the novel, Mignon constitutes an ongoing ontological and also structural problem, due to her mysterious nature and her contradictory, subversive character, 5 which Goethe described as a 'Wahnsinn des MiBverhaltnisses'. It seemsthat of all charactersthat occur in the novel, Mignon bestembodies Goethe's central statement 6 aboutthe novel's symbolism; in turn, this heightensthe fundamentalparadox of her seeminglysimple, yet underneathvery complex,symbolical nature: 'Den anscheinendenGeringflügigkeiten des "Wilhelm Meister" liegt immer etwasHöheres zum Grunde,und es kommt bloß daraufan, daßman Augen, Weltkenntnisund 7 10bersichtgenug besitze, urri im Kleinen dasGrbBere wahrzunehmen'. Against the backgroundof what hasbeen said on musicalculture and song aestheticsin the previouschapters, Mignon appealsas a singerwritten during a time of intensemusical-literary debate, yet her mysterious,gender-transgressing character marksher as a very unusualcase of femalesong. Like few other singers,she seems to expressthe centraldichotomy that I havemade explicit as fundamentalto the problem of femalesong, namely the discrepancybetween contemporary ideals of womanand

1 Talk with Eckermann, Rehbein and Riemer, 18.01.1825 (F,4 IXV, p. 141). 2 Interestingly, Goethe stated this in connection with his critique of De IAllemagne and of what he perceived to be Madame de Stael's blatant misunderstanding of Mignon as an 'dpisode charmant' (D,4 111,p. 256): 'Seine Unzufriedenheit Oberder Frau von Stael Urteile über seine Werke. Sie habe Mignon als Episode beurteilt, da doch das Werk dieses Charakters [ ] Die Stael ganze wegen geschrieben sei. ... habe alle seine, Goethes, Produktionen abgerissenund isoliert betrachtet, ohne Ahnung ihres innren Zusammenhangs,ihrer Genesis'. (Chancellor von Müller, 29.05.1814. FA XXXIV, p.346) 3 Schiller's letter to Goethe,23.10.1796 (MA VIII. 1, pp.260-6 1) 4 The actressPhiline thus introducesMignon to Wilhelm: 'Hier ist dasRätsel, rief [Philine], als sie das Kind zur Tür hereinzog'.(FA IX, p.45 1). 5 Goethewrites this in his redraftingnotes for WilhelmMeister (Notizbuch 1793, Blatt 27,35136,39der Handschriftim Goethe-und Schiller-Archiv,Weimar); sec HA VII, p.616. 6 Chancellorvon Müller notesthat 'es macheGoethe Freude und Beruhigungzu finden,daß der ganze Romandurchaus symbolisch sei, daßhinter denvorgeschobenen Personen durchaus etwas Allgemeines, Höheresverborgen liegt'. (22.01.1821, FA XXXVI, 143) 7 p. Talk with Eckermann,25.12.1825 (FA IXV, p. 165).

69 its in form female song, and expression the of a character - additionally, in the caseof Mignon, her femininity is continuously under discussion. In what follows, we will discuss how Goethe develops Mignon and her songs between the extremes of poetic ideal and artistic agency and how far she sets the tone as an early archetype of female song.

Existing Scholarship

Secondaryliterature on Goethe'slife and work is understandablyvast; and this also appliesto the author'smost importantnovel, WilhelmMeisters Lehrjahre. However, while the novel itself as well as its poetic characterMignon have arousedconsiderable interestsince their publication (andcontinue to do so), the numberof scholarlyworks dealingwith the specific focus on Mignon, music and songremains manageable. Only in recentyears have scholarsturned towards seemingly less important themes, such as the statusof music within Goethe'sthought and ceuvreand feminist issues,both of which have openedup possibilitiesfor a reneweddiscussion of Mignon. Music, a long- time neglectedarea in Goethescholarship, since the authorwas neverconsidered a 4musical'writer (a view he furtheredthrough his own modestyand conservatismon the subject),has received increased interest in the last decade,as scholarsacknowledge the importancethat music had for him and, in consequence,how music affectedhis life and Goethe his ceuvre. was certainly more an 'Augenmensch'than an 'Ohrenmensch',yet interestin music, and participationin musicalculture and the musical-literarydiscourse is undeniableAlongside the standardGoethe-Handbuch a numberof individual works deal with music in Goethe'slife, thought and writing. 8 Researchfocuses on Goethe's

8 SeeGoethe-Handbuch, ed. Bernd Witte (Stuttgart:Metzler, 1996-1999);Heinrich iaskola, 'Vom Geheimnisdes Liedes. Theoretische Erwägungen Goethes und der Seinenzur Wort- und Tonkunstdes Liedes',Aurora 26 (1966),66-8 1; ThomasFrantzke, Goethes Schauspiele mit GesangundSingspiele, 1773-1782(Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 1998);Eine Art SymbolikfürsOhr. - JohannWolfgang von Goethe: Lyrik und Musik, ed. HermannJung (Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 2002); Musik in GoethesWerk. Goethes Werkin der Musik, ed. AndreasBallstaedt(Ulrike Kienzle/Adolf Nowak (Schliengen:Argus, 2005); John Neubauer,'On Goethe'sTonlehre', in Music and GermanLiterature. TheirRelationship since the Middle

70 musical writings and collaborations, especially his Singspiele and his crucial influence 9 on composers, as well as his theoretical Tonlehre, but also his relationship with 10 musicians, such as the Weimar court singer Corona Schr6ter. Generally, music remainsa relatively unexploredfield in Goethestudies, which is especiallyinteresting with regard to a musical novel like Wilhelm Meister. The latter has been assessedas a literary archetype" and artistic statement,12 a milestone in German literature that defined the genre and heralded modernity. 13Several 14 studies have discussedMignon's songs, with a shift from shorter, text-centred studies

Ages, ed. James McGlathery (Columbia: Camden House, 1992); Udo Quak, Trost der Tbne: Musik und Musiker im Leben Goethes (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 200 1); Robert Spaethling, 'Music in Goethe's Thought and Writing', in The Romantic Tradition: German Literature and Music in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Gerald Chapple/Frederick Hall/Hans Schulte (Lanham/London: University Pressof America, 1992), pp. 113-32; Ganther Sasse,'Der Gesangals Medium der Sozialdisziplinierung in Goethes Roman Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre, GJB 118 (2001), 274-8 8. 9 Few German authors have been set to music so often and proved to be so inspirational for composersas Goethe, whose lieder arc among the most lyrical and musical in the German realm and who actively encouraged musicalizations of his poems. See Goethe-Handbuch, pp.726-27; Willi Schuh, Goethe- Vertonungen.Ein Verzeichnis (Zorich: Artemis-Verlag, 1955); Steven Paul Scher, 'Mignon in Music', Goethe in Italy, 1786-1986, ed. Gerhart Hoffmeister (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988), pp. 159-69. 10Peter Braun, Corona Schr6ler. Goethesheimliche Liebe (Dosseldorf/Zilrich: Artemis & Winkler Verlag, 2004). Corona Schr6ter (1751-1802): Singer, composer, actressand painter, Corona trained under Adam Hiller in Leipzig, where she met Goethe in 1766. Moving to Weimar in 1776 as a new Kammersdngerin and benefiting from the city's vibrant cultural life centred on the Musenhof, she became actively involved in the Liebhahertheater, acting, singing and providing some of the earliest musical adaptations of Goethe's poems. She withdrew from the Weimar court in 1788 and died of tuberculosis in 1802. 11 Ernst Behler, 'The Origins of the Romantic Literary Theory', Colloquia Germanica 1-2 (1968), 109- 126; Behler, 'Goethes Wilhelm Meister und die Romantheorie der Frahromantik', in Studien zur Romantik undzur idealistischen Philosophie 2, ed. Ernst Behler (Paderborn: Sch6ningh, 1993): pp. 157- 72. 12 HanneloreSchlaffer, Wilhelm Meister. Das Endeder Kunst und die Wiederkehrdes Mythos (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1980). 13 Hellmut Ammerlahn,Imagination und Wahrheit.Goethes Kanstler-Bildungsroman Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre.Struktur, Symbolik, Poetologie (WUrzburg: Konigshausen & Neumann,2003); Ibid., 'The Marriageof Artist Novel and Bildungsroman:Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, a Paradigmin Disguise',GLL, 59/1 (January2006), 2546; Karl Schlechta,Goethes Wilhelm Meister. (Frankfurt/Main: Klostermann, 1953). 14 HermanMeyer, 'Mignons Italienlied dasWesen der Verseinlageim Wilhelm Meister", und , Euphorion46 (1952),,149-69; Ibid, 'KennstDu dasHaus? Eine Studiezu GoethesPalladio-Erlebnis', Euphorion47 (1953),281-94; Werner Ross, 'Kennst Du dasLand, wo die Zitronenblflhn? Zur Vorgeschichteeiner Goethe-Strophe',GRM 33 (1951/52),172-88; Oskar Seidlin, 'Zur Mignon-Ballade', Euphorion45 (1950), 83-99.Paul Requadt, Die Bilderspracheder deutschenItalien-Dichlung von Goethebis Benn (Bern: Franke,1962); Arrid Bohm: ', 0 Vater, lassuns ziehn! ': A Mythological Backgroundto Mignon's Italian Song',MLN 100(1985), 651-60.

71 to more in-depthassessments of songwithin Goethe'saesthetics, 15 and articlestreating 16 musical aspects. Recentscholarship, reflecting the generaltrend in literary criticism, 17 has feminist issues, in Goethe's embraced suchas the representationof women work, 18 and questionsof femalespeech and silencing, which partly touch upon the very interesting aspect of Mignon's (and other female characters') vocality and loss thereof Studies on Mignon span a century of scholarship and thus embrace a variety of critical traditions.While the earlieststudies focus on the characterherself, offering rather general,biographical and psychopathologicalreadings, 19 later scholarship emphasizesMignon's aesthetics,her natureand function within the novel and within Goethe'sthought. A predominantline of thoughthas been the notion of 'genius' and the understandingof Mignon as a divine child of genius;20 thus, someimportant standard works haveoffered assessmentsof Mignon as sherelates to Goethe'saesthetics and his conceptof genius,21 an interestingline to pursuein the light of the aforementioned

15 Seechapter 1, n. 15.Although short andpoorly researched,there is a PhD thesison Mignon andher songsexclusively: Johanna Lienhard, Mignon und Are Lieder (ZUrich:Artemis, 1978). 16Reinhold Brinkmann, 'Kennst Du dasBuch? Oder: Die Vertreibungder Musiknotenaus, Wilhelm MeistersLehrjahren', GJB 118(2001), 289-303. Akio Mayeda,'Kennst du dasLand? ' Zur Musik der Dichtungund zur Poesieder Musik', in Musik in GoethesWerk GoethesWerk in der Musik, pp.234-63. 17Martha D. Helfer, 'Wilhelm Meister'sWomen', GYB, 11 (2002),229-55, Brigitte Kohn, 'Dennwer die Weiberhasst wie kann der leben?.- die Weiblichkeitskonzeptionin Goethes'Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahren'im Kontextvon Sprach-undAusdruckstheorie des ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts (Würzburg:Königshausen & Neumann,200 1); Anja May, WilhelmMeisters Schwestern: Bildungsromanevon Frauen im ausgehenden18. Jahrhundert (Königstein/Taunus: U. Helmer,2006); SabineGroß, 'Diskursregelungund Weiblichkeit:Mignon und ihre Schwestern',in Mignon und ihrer Schwestern,ed. GerhartHoffmeister (Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 1993),pp. 83-99. 18 Per Ohrgard,'Anmerkungen zum Redenund Schweigenin WilhelmMeisters Lehrjahren', GJB 118 (2001), 176-86;Ulrike Rainer,'A Questionof Silence:Goethc's Speechless Women', Mignon und ihre Schwestern,pp. 10 1- 112. 19Gustav Cohen, 'Mignon', JGG VI 1(1920), 132-5 3; Walter Wagner,'G oethesM ignon', GRM 21 (1933),401415; EugenWolf, Mignon: Ein Beitragzur Geschichtedes WilhelmMeister (München: Beck, 1909). 20 See Alfred Dornheim, 'GoethesMignon und ThomasManns Echo. Zwei Formendes göttlichen Kindes im deutschenRoman', Euphorion, 46 (1952), 315-47; Wilhelm Emrich, Symbolinterpretationund Mythenforschung.Möglichkeiten und Grenzeneines neuen Goetheverständnisses', Euphorion 47 (1953), 38- 67; Ibid, Die Symbolik von Faust II. - Sinn und Vorformen(Bonn: Athenäum, 1957). 21 See Hellmut Ammerlahn, 'Puppe-Tänzer-Dämon-Genius-Engel: Naturkind, Poesiekind und Kunstwerdung bei Goethe', GQU 54 (1981), 19-32; Ibid, 'Mignons nachgetrageneVorgeschichte und das Inzestmotiv: Zur Geneseund Symbolik der GoetheschenGeniusgestalten', Monatshefte 64 (1974), 15-25; * (1968), 89-116; Monika Fick, IbicL, 'Wilhelm Meisters Mignon - ein offenbares Rätsel', DVS 42 Das Scheitern des Genius (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1987); Ibid., 'Mignon - Psychologie und Morphologie der Geniusallegoresein Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahren', Sprachkunst 13 (1982), 3-49.

72 debateon the singeras a figure of femalegenius. While thesestudies suggest the importantlink betweenMignon and poetic genius,some argue that Mignon possesses no agencybut actsas a poetic symbol,complementing and mirroring the male protagonist'squest for and eventualdismissal of poetry.22 A centralissue in Mignon scholarship,the questionof her statusas a symbol or a characterin her own right not only addsto her enigma,but also addscomplexity to our discussionof her in termsof songideal and performance.The problemof classifyingMignon decidedlyimpacts on the questionof her genderand androgyny,a topic often commentedupon. 23 However, the questionof femininity and sexualityfor Mignon havetraditionally beenelided from the critical discussion,or predominantlyread through a psychoanalyticalapproach. 24 Be that as it may, recentstudies have attributed more importanceto Mignon as a character in her own right, openingup broader,comparative readings, 25 giving credit to Mignon's influenceas a pan-Europeancultural archetypein literature,music and art.26 On the whole, Goethescholarship has traditionally soughtto symbolizeMignon, blendingout

22 William Gilby, 'The Structural Significance of Mignon in Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre', Seminar 16.3 (1980), 136-50; Karin Keppel-Kriems, Mignon undHarfner in Goethes,Wilhelm Meister': eine geschichtsphilosophischeund kunsttheoretischeUntersuchung zu Begriff und Gestaltungdes Naiven (Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 1986). 23 See Marie Delcourt, 'Deux interprdtationsromanesques du mythe de Vandrogyne.Mignon et Sdraphita', RL V38 (1972), 228-40; 34047; Silke Horstkotte, 'Wilhelm Meisters Mignon und die Ambivalenz der Autorschaft', GLL 57.2 (April 2004), 143-57. 24 Ursula Mahlendorf, 'The Mystery of Mignon: Object Relations, Abandonment, Child Abuse and Narrative Structure', GYB 7 (1994), 23-40; Thomas W. Kniescher, 'Die psychoanalytische Rezeption von Mignon', Mignon und ihre Schwestern,pp. 61-8 1; Robert Tobin, 'The Medicinal ization of Mignon', in Mignon und ihre Schwestern,pp. 43 25 -60. See Rend Anglade, 'Mignons emanzipierte Schwester: Heines kleine Harfenistin und ihre Bedeutung', GRM41 (1991/3), 301-2 1; StefanieBach, 'Musical Gypsies and Anti-Classical Aesthetics: The Romantic Reception of Goethe's Mignon Character in Brentano's Die mehreren Wehinfiller und Ungarische Nationalgesichter', in Music andLiterature in GermanRomanticism, pp. 105-119;Roger Bauer, 'De Mignon A l'Invitation au voyage', PLC 237 (1986), 51-57; Ingrid Broszeit-Rieger, 'Practice and Theory of Dance in Goethe's Meister', Neophilologus 90.2 (April 2006), 303-20; Julia KOnig, Das Leben im Kunstwerk (Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 1991); FqJita Tonionao, 'Wilhelm Meister dans P(ruvre de Gdrardde Nerval', Kwansei Gakuin University Annual Studies41 (1992), 37-47; Patricia Zecevic, The speaking divine woman: L6pez de Obeda's 'Lapicara Justina'and Goethe's 'Wilhelm Meister'(Oxford: Lang, 200 1). 26 Jutta Assel /Georg Jager, Goethe-Motive aufPosikarten. Eine Dokumentation. Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, Mignon und der Har/her, Goethezeit-Portal, February 2004 [accessed29 May, 20081; Cordula Grewe, 'Mignon als Allegorie des Poetischen:Goetherezeption und Kunsttheoriein der deutschenMalerei der Sp9troniantik', in Goethe und das Zeitalter der Romantik, ed. Walter Hinderer (Wilrzburg: Konigshausen und Naumann, 2002): pp.30743; Erika Tunner, Vesprit de Mignon: Mignon-Bilder von der Klassik bis zur Gegenwart', GJB 106 (1989), 11-21.

73 the importantissues of genderand performancein the light of Mignon's defianceof traditional categories,and in consequenceneutralizing her as a meresymbol within Goethe'saesthetics, devoid of any true identity and agencyof her own. Looking back at chapters2 and 3,1 shall, after a brief outline of Goethe'ssong aesthetics, discuss to what extentMignon embracesthe ideal of songin the post-Rousseauesquesense as she commentson contemporarysong aesthetics and musicalculture, thus reuniting the potentially very symbolic quality of femalesong with its accessible,popular aspects. As we shall seein the following study,Mignon unleashesa surprisinglystrong, subversive potential beyondbinary categoriesof music and gender.

Born from Song: Mignon in the Context of Goethe's Lied Aesthetics

Mignon's songs, and thus her personality as a singer and performer have puzzled readers due to their mixture of simplicity and complexity. While there is certainly room for debate whether or not Mignon could be considered a typical woman singer (or a woman, for that matter), there has never been any doubt about the quality and exceptional nature of her songs, which came to define the character and play a central part in the responsesto her. As we shall see,Mignon's origin, though open to speculation, is clearly situated within Goethe's musical aesthetics,during a time in which he himself, a theatre director in Weimar and great admirer of song, developed specific views on music, poetry and genius. Key aspectsof these musical aesthetics resonate in Mignon and her songs. Although Goethe claimed that Mignon was entirely conceived as his own creation, it becomesevident that she contains an important and fertile element of 'female song' that we have discussedearlier, and which defies traditional views of gender and musical genius. To a certain extent, Mignon is one of the most accomplished variations of female song in Goethe's universe and in the musical-literary discourse of the time, pushing the boundaries of Goethe's own song aestheticsand the general discussion of woman and song much further, and setting up important key elements for later singer stories.

74 Against the backgroundof musicalculture and the feminizationof the musical- literary discourse,Goethe was no exceptionto the rule in that, as a knowledgeable dilettanteand artistic director, he respondedstrongly to contemporaryculture and its associatedmusical imagery,including song.His earliestventures into popularsong 27 occurredtogether with his sisterCornelia, who transcribedthe folk songshe had collectedin Strasbourg.His artistic collaborationwith the Weimarcourt singerCorona Schr6teris well-documented,as is his appraisalof women singerslike Wilhelmine Schr6der-Devrient(whose rendition of 'Erlk6nig' in 1830 finally warmedthe old Goetheto Schubert'ssetting of the poem)or HenrietteSontag, whom he affectionately called his little nightingale.From his childhoodmusic practiceto his semi-professional works at Weimar and beyond,Goethe remained immersed in a strongsong culture and very awareof the speciallink betweenpoetry and music. In his appraisalof the woman singerand his treatmentof the feminine imageryattached to art and music, Goethe producedsome fascinating poems like the homageto CoronaSchr6ter in which, consistentwith the contemporaryaesthetics discussed earlier, he aestheticizesthe belovedsinger into art:

Es gönntenihr die Musenjede Gunst. Und die Natur erschufin ihr die Kunst. So häuft sie willigjeden Reiz auf sich, Und selbstdein Nameziert, CORONA, dich.

Sie tritt herbei. Seht sie gefällig stehn! Nur absichtslos, doch wie mit Absicht schön. Und hocherstaunt seht ihr in ihr vereint Ein Ideal, das Künstlern nur erscheint.28

27 Somescholars have seen in both Corneliaand Coronapossible inspirations for Mignon, especially sincethe genesisof the novel coincideswith Comelia'sdeath in 1777,and Goethe's infatuation with Coronain Weimar.In his memoirs,Goethe described his sisteras musicallygifted, ill-married andat oddswith the world, 'ein indefiniblesWesen' (FA XIV, p.368). 28 'Auf MiedingsTod'. JohannMartin Mieding wasthe theatrecarpenter ('Hofebenist') andstage manager,close to Weimarartists, and Goethe in particular.By includingCorona in this homage,Goethe also payshis respectsto the Weimarartistic community.Written at the heightof their relationshipand Corona'sheyday in Weimar,the poemwas first publishedit in the TiefurterJournal 23 (March 1782). FA 1,p-367. My emphasis.

75 In this sublimationof the belovedwoman into art, Goethecertainly plays with contemporarystereotypes like the museimagery and the ideal of art springingdirectly from an unspoiled,natural context;but he also givesus cluesabout his own aesthetics of femaleartistry, and his vision of femalesong itself, which he describesas a direct communicationbetween the voice, soundand the heart: 'Sie Uffiet ihren Mund, und lieblich flieBt / Der weicheTon, der sich um's Herz ergieBt'.29 Though she had by no meansa grand,operatic voice, Coronaexcelled as a lied interpreter,capable of composingand transcribingsongs -a trait sheshares to someextent with Mignon, of whom Goethesays that '[sie] kann wohl ihrem Wesennach ein Lied, aberkeine Arie singen'.30 Both appearless as operaticdivas than as genuine,'natural' (i. e. untrained and unspoiled)singer-composers whose musicality is lessa craft in which they trained than an intrinsic gift they were born with andwhich they execute'naturally', in the spirit of 18'h-centuryideals pertaining to womenand music.Goethe was not opposedto grandopera, on the contrary,as his rapportwith Mozart's ceuvreand his open admirationfor the genreand its interpretersshows. Yet when it comesto vocal music, he showeda clear preferencefor a specifictype of 'natural' songthat directly stems from the innermostpart of the singer,creating the connectionbetween the humansoul and heartand the universe.As such,song becomes a sign of genius,which, despite being couchedin sometimesstereotypical descriptions of femininity, showsGoethe's admirationof Coronathe artist who combinesoriginal, artistic creativity with a noble, refined,purist femaleallure. Although Goethedraws on stereotypicalimages linked to femalesong, song itself constitutesa nobleprinciple for him, a carrier of poetic genius and completeness.Throughout his life, Goetheconsidered song as the privileged union of words and music,as a sign of original poetic utterancewhich, in the tradition of Rousseau'sthought and other earlier writers suchas Goethe'smentor Herder, goes back to the origin of humanexpression and the conceptof songas part of his poetic self and a way of poeticizing the personalexperience. From a very early point on, songoccupied a

29 Ibid., p.368. 30 SeeFA XY-XV], p.284. Goetheis reportedto havesaid this to the Bohemiancomposer Wenzel Tomaschekin responseto his adaptationof Mignon's songs.

76 placeof emotionalrelief and reconciliationof extremestates of mind for Goethe,a personaland poetic catharsisreferring to the grander,nobler principlesof human 31 existence:'Spät erklingt was früh erklang,Glück und Unglück wird Gesang'. Music transforms human speechinto something much stronger and more emotional, as well as something nobler. In this, Goethe is consistent with late 18th-centuryconcepts of song as 'heightened speech' and as the language of the human soul and heart:32 'Wie die Musik nichts ist ohne menschliche Stimme, so wäre mein Leben nichts ohne deine 33 Liebe'. Like the theoristsdiscussed in chapter3, Goetheprefers the humanvoice to the instrumentand affirms the intimate link betweenmusic andthe spokenword, betweenpoet and musician.Like many other authors,Goethe found accessto music throughpoetry, and in consequence,his musicalaesthetics are firmly tied to his understandingof poetry and the naturalinterdependence between music and words-a union he found perfectly embodiedin the Volkslied,for example. In terms of songaesthetics, however, Goethe goes further than Rousseauand other writers discussedearlier: In his Tonlehre,developed throughout his friendshipwith Zelter, Goethegrounds his musicalunderstanding on voice and song,and he furthermoreascribes both geniusand artistic agencyto singerand song,as part of the poetic sublimity and originality that both imply - an early signpostfor later Romantic paradigmsof music and poetic genius.In this, Goethetakes the 18'h-century'ideal song' further and conceptualizesit as the expressionof poetic geniusand a legitimate

This is how Goethe introduces the last authoritative edition of his poems, in which he included the Wilhelm Meister liedcr: Goethe's Werke. VollstdndigeAusgabe letzler Hand. Stuttgart; Cotta, 1827-30 1815 for the cited preamble]. FA 11,p. 11. 2 Seechapter 3. WhenGoethe has Wilhelm commentspecifically on Mignon's 'Melodie und Ausdruck', he rewritesa centralparadigm of musicalaesthetics (see also Tonlehre,MA IX, pp.923-26). Goethe clearly follows contemporaryideals of music as a languagebeyond (or before)actual language, an origin to which all humanexpression goes back, and from which poetrywas born. The basicmusicality is apparentin Goethe'spoetry, but also in his understandingof the moving body andthe musicalitythat surroundsthe humanbody and soul, which is againreminiscent of Rousseau'saesthetics: 'les sons annoncentle mouvemcnt;la voix annonceun 6tresensible; il n'y a quedes corps animds qui chantent' (Euvres V, p.420). Goethehas Wilhelm Meistercomment on the analogybetween music, words and the body's movementthus: 'Innerlich scheintmir oft ein geheimerGenius etwas Rhythmisches vorzuflüstern, so dassich mich beim WandernjedesMal im Takt bewegeund zugleichleise Töne zu vernehmenglaube, wodurchdenn irgendein Lied begleitetwird, dassich mir auf eineoder die andereWeise gefällig vergegenwärtigt'.(FA X, p.589). 33 Letter to Charlottevon Stein,dated early august1782, GA XVIII, p.684.

77 Ter Gesang artistic expression. ist völlig produktiv an sich.- Naturell desäußern und 34 Geniedes innem Sinneswerden durchaus gefordert'. Oneof his centralstatements on song,Goethe's commentary on the uniqueblend of seemingly'natural' exteriorand inherentgenius may well apply to a singerlike Corona,whom he characterizedby traits inAufMiedings similar Tod and whom he appreciatedfor theseexact qualities - or a singerlike Mignon who performsseemingly simplistic songs,lieder not arias,yet who hidesa deeplydisturbing and complexpoetic geniusunderneath these songs, all the while proving to be remarkablyautonomous and integralas an artist. Goethe remainsprofoundly fascinatedwith the poetic core of song,with a geniusthat is sublimein nature,yet channelledthrough human performance, and, superiorto mere speech,capable of expressingthe inexpressible.It is this quality of the 'natural sublime', so difficult to graspand rationalize,that Goetheappreciates in song,on a theoreticallevel but also in very concretecases like his attemptto poeticizeCorona's performanceas an embodimentof art, or Wilhelm's struggleto translateMignon's song in the novel. Songtranscription and rationalization constitute impossible endeavours sincefor Goethethe geniusof songrepresents an insolubleenigma, of which one catchesa glimpsethrough the singer'simmediate performance and, retrospectively, throughthe poet's attemptto poeticizeit. Like other contemporaries,Goethe draws on stereotypicalparadigms when aestheticizingthe womansinger, yet in contrastto the Rousseauesquecondemnation of femaleperformers, Goethe is able to seethe poetic quality and the geniusof songeven in professionalsingers. Nevertheless, he navigatesa fine line betweenthe listener's and onlooker's fascinationwith the idealizationand interpretationof songand the singer,and its counterpartof artistic agencywhich the singeraffirms throughher performanceand throughwhich shereveals a sublime, unspeakablegenius. Likewise, Goethe'sview on the ambivalenceof music that I have discussedearlier is lesstied to the femalemusician than expressedmore generally,as the ambivalenceof humannature itself, in all its genius.His understandingof songas

34 AM IX, p.924. Goethedescribes his vision of musicas 'eine Art Symbolik fürs Ohr, wodurchder Gegenstand[ ] ... wedernachgeahmt noch gemalt,sondern in der Imaginationauf eineganz eigene und unbegreiflicheWeise hervorgebracht wird, indemdas Bezeichnete mit demBezeichnenden in fast gar keinemVerhältnis zu stehenscheint' (AM XX. 1, p.226).

78 musical-poetic genius to a certain extent implies an unmediated, spontaneous, limitless pbtentially and chaotic poetic utterance. Music for Goethe is never mere but pleasure always linked to the higher purpose, to the sublime effect it has on the listener as well as to its inspirational power for the poet. To Goethe, music most often appearedas a soothing, cathartic principle, able to free his poetic spirit: 'Meine Seele löst sich nach und nach durch die lieblichen Töne aus den Banden der Protokolle und Acten'. 35In contrast to his theoretical writings on music and its rapport with poetic genius, we notice a much darker tone in his prose work. This may be another illustration Goethe's of need for poetic catharsis and his transformation of a personal state of mind through his writing, his musical need which he claimed helped him overcome his darker 36 moods. In his early novel Die Leiden desjungen Werthers, Goethe creates a very typical treatment of female song that wields its profoundly ambivalent potential, when Werther describes Lotte thus:

Sie ist heilig [ ] hat Melodie, die dem mir ... sie eine sie auf Klaviere spieletmit der Kraft einesEngels, Es ist ihr Leiblied [ j Kein Wort so simpel und so geistvoll! ... von der Zauberkraftder alten Musik ist mir unwahrscheinlich,wie mich der einfache Gesangangreift! Und wie sie ihn anzubringenweiß, oft zur Zeit, wo ich mir eineKugel vor den Kopf schießenmöchte! Die Irrung und Finsternismeiner Seele zerstreut sich, und ich atmewieder freier.37

A crucial examplefor the problematiclink betweenwoman and music, Werther establishesthe paradoxof songas a potentially soothing,cathartic experience, which neverthelessunleashes a destructive potential, if acting on a susceptible person. The singer Lotte is both sublimated and sensualisedthrough her Leiblied- a song which links the female body with the male protagonist's desire for and idealization of her, the paradigm which I discussed earlier as central to the motif of female song and musical ambiguity. The experience of the beloved woman's song is just as much an emotional and psychologicalideal as it is a visceral,physical experience, reflecting Werther's

35 Letter to Charlottevon Stein,22.02.1779 (FA IXXX, p. 157). 36 Goethefrequently remarked on the soothingeffect that musichad on him andhis affectionfor (see 37Fmusicians AM XX. 1, pp.74548). '4 VIII, p.79 (B).

79 contradictorystate of mind betweeneuphoria and suicidaldepression. It becomesclear that the soothing,cathartic effect of music implies a ratherdark counterpart,further fuelled by the glorification of Lotte's songand the intensityof the musical-poetic experience.In the light of Goethe'ssong aesthetics, Mignon occupiesa crucial thresholdposition betweenthe youngerGoethe's impetuosity and the matureauthor's needfor measureand reason,between the untamedgenius of the late 18th-centurylied and a rather complex preoccupation with disparate gender and performance models. Finally, incarnating Goethe's personal views on the musical experience, Mignon bridges the gap between a naturally-given genius and its potentially dark, subversive side.

Goethe'slater views on songeventually move away from extremepositions like Wertheror Mignon, in that he moderateshis views on songby emphasizingits social side,advocating communal vocal practiceas a tool for socializationand social integrationin WilhelmMeisters Wanderjahre:'Innig verschmolzenmit Musik heilt [die Dichtkunst] alle Seelenleidenaus dem Grunde,indem sie solchegewaltig anregt, hervorruft und in auflösendenSchmerzen verflüchtigt'. 38 Whether this rings true for Mignon remainsto be seenin the following discussion.

A Poetic Cipher? Mignon's Existence through Song

Synopsis

Following an unhappylove affair with the actressMariane, Wilhelm,a young manfrom a wealthybourgeois background undertakes an 'apprenticeship'journeyinto the world, pursuing his long-timewish to becomea professionaltheatre practitioner. En route, he joins a wanderingtheatre troupe and comesacross the mysteriousharpist Augustinand the orphanedchild-singer Mignon, who appearsandrogynous to Willhelmand the theatretroupe and dressesin boysclothes. He becomesdeeply attached to her and symbolicallyadopts Mignon who developsan increasinglyobsessive, pathological love for her newfather, accompanyinghim with her enigmaticsongs. Eventually, Wilhelm

38 FA X, P.475. Not unlike later writers like Hoffmann and Berlioz, Goethe develops ideas of social utopia based on music (FA X, pp. 518ff. )

80 distanceshimselffrom the world oftheatre,ftom Augustinand Mignon in order tofind his place as afully-fledged memberofsociety. He marries the aristocrat Natalie and recognizesFelix, his son with Mariane. Consumedby herpainful, melancholicinner state ofmind, Mignonfinally diesfrom a (symbolically)broken heart, just as Wilhelm confirmshis new statuswithin a rational, economicalsociety.

Mignon is an unusualsinger in that sheleads an existenceexclusively through her songs- as a narrativestructure, she is literally born throughher lieder. Shewould barely exist in the novel without them,and thoselieder surviveher long after the novel. Strangelyabsent from the main text, surfacingoccasionally and alwaysin a highly unusualfashion, the singercommunicates most intensivelythrough her four vocal performances,which structurethe novel and Mignon's relationshipwith Wilhelm who 39 hasadopted her as his 'child of the heart'. Yet Mignon is far from being one of those innocentdancers and singersconjured up by 18th-centuryideals of 'natural' song,who sing as they speakand vice versa.In contrastto contemporarysong ideals, Mignon appearsas the antithesisof the singeras a popularand social creature:neither a diva nor a dilettante,nor a cipher for sublimesong, she sings seemingly simplistic songswhich howeverare just as much a 'riddle' as the singerherself and underlinethe reader's difficulty in establishingwho Mignon truly is: a muse-likefigure or a poetic symbol, whosesongs constitute enigmatic depictions of poetic geniusjust as much as they imply a certaindegree of artistic agency.40 Goethe's lengthy redraftingprocess adds to the 41 complexity of the characterand her position within the novel. Liberatedby Wilhelm from an abusiveexistence as the memberof a wandering artist troupe,where sheis forcedto danceand perform tricks, Mignon becomesattached

39'dieses verlassene Wesen an Kindesstattseinem Herzen einzuverleiben' (FA IX, p.469); seeFick, 'Mignon', pp.II ff, Ammerlahn,'Wilhelm MeistersMignon', pp.I OOff. 40Goethe scholarship appears divided on the issue.Although the majority of studiescategorize Mignon as a symboliccharacter directly linked to Wilhelm, somestudies (especially Winter, KieB andLienhard) haveemphasized the individual quality of the characterand her songs.Interestingly, Mignon is the novel's only characterwho was so stronglyread as a fascinatingfigure in her own right. 41 Like Faust, WilhelmMeister was a projectthat occupiedGoethe throughout his lifetime. The coreof the Lehrjahre,the theatricalnovel WilhelmMeisters theatralische Sendung (discovered in 1911)that the authordrafted during his first decadein Weimar,is still apparentin the first five booksof the Lehriahre which describeWilhelm's life in the theatricalworld. The 6'1'book, an interspersedconfession of the 'beautiful soul' as well asthe 7h and 84books,which constitutethe 'Sozialroman'were added during the matureGoethe's redrafting process, after his personaland artistic rebirth in Italy. For a detailedanalysis of the genesisof the Meister project,see FA IX, pp.113 3 ff.

81 to the protagonist.It is with him and for him that shehenceforth presents her most beautiful, sublimesongs, in which shelays bareher emotionalstate. The intense, symbiotic relationshipbetween Mignon and Wilhelm hasbeen at the centreof most scholarlystudies, with the result that Mignon is traditionally perceivedas an extension and incarnationof Wilhelm's own psyche,his heartand soul. As a 'child of poetry', Mignon is equally the 'Herzenskind'for Wilhelm, whom he adoptsduring a time of extremeemotional distress, and whom he abandonsto her deathonce he hasfound his own, biological child Felix and regainedinner peaceof mind. Mignon is symbiotically closeto Wilhelm, and her development,her thriving as well as her untimely declineand deathare closely connectedto Wilhelm's own path towardsmaturity and social integration - it is within this tense,disparate frame of artistic autonomy,symbolism and poetic symbiosisthat Mignon must be understoodthroughout the novel. However, Mignon's deathis a prerequisitefor Wilhelm's full integrationinto society.While this is an importantobservation regarding Mignon who often appearsas a riddle andpoetic cipher lacking a social dimension,considering her merely a 'symbol' fails to graspher complexity and the author's ongoingpreoccupation with poetic genius,theatre, song, 42 educationand the conflict betweenthe individual and society. As I will argue,Mignon is a strikingly complexcharacter that bearsstrong symbolic and performative qualities, and whosecomplexity is reinforcedthrough Goethe's use of femalesong paradigms and his developmentof the characteralong the contrastinglines of songideals and performance. The most striking exampleof Mignon's paradoxicalnature occurs between the secondand third book, which describesher roadto adoptionas the child of Wilhelm's ailing heart.In a sceneboth suggestivelyerotic and symbolicallyabstract, Mignon experiencesa physical and emotionalseizure that seemsto springdirectly from her painful heart:

42 Somecritics like Hellmut Ammcrlahneven go as far asto claim a direct interdependence:'ohne Wilhelm keineMignon [ ] Mignon ist Person: ist Symbol'. gabees ... wenigerund mehrals sie vor allem (Ammerlahn,'Wilhelm MeistersMignon', p.90). Sincethese earlier studies, some scholars have come to morecomplex readings of Mignon, giving her credit as a characterbeyond the merefunction of poetic symbol.

82 Die Zuckungdauerte fort, die vom Herzensich den schlotterndenGliedern mitteilte; sie hing nur in seinenArmen. Er schlosssie an seinHerz, und benetztesie mit seinen Tränen.Auf einmal schiensie wieder angespannt,wie eins,das den höchsten körperlichenSchmerz erträgt; und bald mit einer neuenHeftigkeit wurdenalle ihre Glieder wieder lebendig,und sie warf sich ihm, wie ein Ressort,das zuschlägt, um den Hals, indem in ihrem Innerstenwie ein gewaltigerRiß geschah,und in dem Augenblickefloß ein Stromvon Tränenin seinenBusen. 43

I Mignon collapsesagainst Wilhelm's heart,the intenseconnection between the two and their respectivepsychological situations culminating in Wilhelm's adoptionof the girl. In the following chapters,they bond intenselyto the point that Mignon wastes away as soonas Wilhelm turns away from the realm of poetry which sheand the harpist embody-a realm deemedsick and asocial- in orderto gain his full placein society. However,in this two-fold adoptionprocess, Mignon also displaysa stunningdegree of poetic autonomy.In the scenefollowing her seizure,she performs the famous 'Italienlied' for her new-foundfather, a songwhich may be regardedas a poetic epiphanyand, in combinationwith her preceding'heart crisis' as a poetic catharsis, during which the transformedMignon revealsher inner self to Wilhelm and in which, for the first time, sheseems to offer an answerto her paradoxicalnature displayed so far in the text. For the first time in the novel, Mignon genuinely'speaks'. However, as much as the songappeals to Wilhelm, it confrontshim with yet anotherinsoluble riddle:

Melodie und Ausdruck gefielen unserm Freund besonders,ob er gleich die Worte nicht alle verstehen konnte. Er ließ sich die Strophen wiederholen und erklären, schrieb sie auf und übersetztesie ins Deutsche. Aber die Originalität der Wendungen konnte er nur von ferne nachahmen.Die kindliche Unschuld des Ausdrucks verschwand, indem die gebrochene Sprache übereinstimmend, das Unzusammenhängendeverbunden und 44 ward. Auch konnteder Reiz der Melodie mit nichtsverglichen werden.

Although clearly making an effort to understand,translate and transcribeMignon's Italy song,Wilhelm ultimately fails to graspthe girl's words and notesrationally - his sole accessto the songlies in Mignon's immediateperformance, present in the moment

43 FA IX, p. 498. 44F ,4 IX, p.504.

83 itself and only there- however,at the coreof this utterly enigmaticperformance lies the true poetic essenceof Mignon, who singsof nothing but herselfand her emotions, longing for a lost fatherland,home and for unspoilednature, a homewhich shecan only describein undecipherable,musical poetry. 45 Goethe contrasts Mignon's essence,her innermostself expressedthrough song, with Wilhelm's and the reader'sinability to grasp,conserve and replicatethe original natureof the song.This is a problemthe authorhimself encounterednumerous times as he attemptedto transcribethe genius,the 'natural sublime' of songinto a written account.What is more importantin this context is that the mysterious,inaccessible nature of Mignon's songprofoundly marksher as a foreign, non-prosaicelement within the novel. Singerand songremain inaccessible to rational languageand thus Mignon not only preservesthe symbolicalnature of the poetic genius,but safeguardsfor herselfa degreeof poetic autonomyand purity through her songs.The social and linguistic dimensionof songis presentedas a consciousact of rejection,as hersis a songthat is visibly there,written aspart of the novel yet ultimately, in its undisclosedmeaning, outside the narrativecontext (in the sensethat the literary transcriptionof her songremains approximate and unableto render 46 Mignon's 'true' languageand meaning beyond the prosecontext of the novel). Unlike most authorsof his generation,Goethe thus portraysvery accuratelythe fascinationof songas a form of Urspracheand original way of expressionthat precedes rational languageand remainsstrangely 'bodiless' when incorporatedinto the narrative.47 Confronted with the insolubleproblem of transcribingthe singer'ssong into prose,Goethe brilliantly avoidsthe problemby approximatingMignon's songex negativo,through Wilhelm's failed attemptsat understandingand transcribingit. At the sametime, Mignon makesa strongstatement for herselfand her gift, refusingany kind of appropriationby the listener.Rejecting attempts at objectification,she essentially maintainsthe position of indecipherablelyrical subject,and thus the 'unspeakable'core of her songs,until the very end.Although her transcribedsongs accompany Wilhelm

45 SeeSeidlin, pp. 83 ff, Meyer, 'Mignons Italienlied', pp.149ff, Bohm,pp. 65 I ff. 46See Winter, pp. 143ff; Fick, Das Scheitern,pp. I 82f. 47 See the Seidlin/Meyer debate (Euphorion 4547), especially Seidlin, pp. 88ff, RoB, pp. 186-87; Requadt, pp. I Off.

84 throughouthis variousstages and are subjectto narrativeanalysis and scrutiny,they lead any kind of definitive interpretationad absurdum.48 Mignon's secondsong, 'Sehnsucht', which is a duet with the harpist,seems to mirror Wilhelm's 49However, Wilhelm's failed own stateof reverieand nostalgia. after attempts at deciphering the Italy song, one remains suspicious as to the truthful, authentic transcription of the later songs. In what follows, Mignon's last two songs break mark a clear with her first two performances insofar as the narration more successfully alienates the singer from her performance. Mignon's third lied is in fact described as a 'poem' by the narrator, who consciously inserts it at the end of the fifth book, just when Wilhelm is about to leave Mignon behind, although the narration states that Mignon has recited the poem repeatedly, and much earlier. Bidding farewell to her adoptive father, Mignon again confirms her enigmatic nature and her central conflict of to her wanting communicate innermost self to Wilhelm -'ich m6chte dir mein ganzes Innre zeigen'50- yet being unable to do so, feeling the need to guard this essenceof herself. Mignon's 'credo' occurs at a central point in the novel as it becomesobvious that Wilhelm is slowly turning away from the realm of poetry, from Mignon and the harpist, and turning towards a different, bourgeois lifestyle that will seehim eventually marry into the aristocracy and lead an economical, rational life. The fact that this lied is not sungand transcribedretrospectively, but literally editedby the narratorindicates a definite weakeningof the singer'sstatus within the novel - or at leastthe conscious effort on the part of the narrationto presentMignon as a poetic mirror and accompanimentfor Wilhelm's evolution.The original charmof the Italy song,which was the closestWilhelm (andthe reader)ever got to Mignon's essenceas sheonly expressedit in song,is from now on lost.51 Yet in contrastto theseattempts at narrative framing, Mignon generallyappears as a strongpoet, whom the narratordescribes as

48 SeeKie3, pp.129ff. 49 6und wie einstimmend mit seinen Empfindungen war das Lied FA IX, p.603. 50 FA IX, p.726. 5' Be that as it may, Goethe significantly changed the status of this lied from the Sendungto the Lehrjahre. In the Sendung, Mignon recites this as her first lied, and it is not her own, since Wilhelm wrote it for her to recite. See FA IX, p. 167. In the Lehrjahre, Goethe places Mignon's crucial self-reflection in the moment of separation from Wilhelm, and he attributes the lines to Mignon only.

85 particularly suitedto the ode,thus linking her to one of the strongestgenres of the Sturm und Drang conceptof poetic genius.52 Mignon's last song,as well-known as her Italienlied, constitutesa final Performance of lyrical transcendence:'So lasstmich scheinenbis ich werde'.53 It confirms once more Mignon's exclusivestate as a geniusoutside narrative and social framesand expectations,which enablesher to underminethe attemptsby thosearound her to decipherher. The songis a highly lyrical descriptionof Mignon's hopefor transcendenceand reconciliationwith her poetic self, whosenatural conclusion can only lie in her physicaldeath and the abandonmentof all prosaic,earthly constraints. Disguisedas an angel,from a position high abovethe listeners,Mignon singsfor a birthday gatheringof children at the residenceof CountessNatalie (who eventually becomesWilhelm's wife). The centralmessage of her songyet againrelates to the essentialparadox of her nature,that of her 'being' as opposedto her 'appearance'and what sheseems to be (or what the narrationpresents her as).Through song, Mignon logical poetically prefiguresher physicaldeath - in this sense,it appears that this swansongis also the performancemost alienatedfrom the singer,since it is in fact Natalie who retrospectivelyrelates the girl's performanceto Wilhelm, further adding bias and interpretationto the songand appropriatingthe singer'sdiscourse, while the latter is silenced.54 What is more,by choosingNatalie as Mignon's 'interpreter' in this situation,Goethe juxtaposes two very different, antagonisticfemale characters, a constellationwe find repeatedlyin later narratives.Focussing once more on the central problem of Mignon in the novel, Natalie, a true representativeof the prosaicorder, blatantly misunderstandsthe girl's songperformance and consequentlyher true nature. While her environmentconsiders Mignon's angel-dressto be a meredisguise, the girl regardsher new clothesas an affirmation of her transcendentstate, a promiseof what is to come.To Natalie, who is stylizedas the 'true Amazon' and Wilhelm's ideal of

52 FA IX, p.650. See Herder's theory of the ode as the divine in nature. 'Von der Ode'. Werke in 10 Bdnden, I (Frahe Schriften 1764-1772), pp.57-9 1. 53 FA IX, pp. 894/895. 54 A similar silencing occurs at the end of Fischer's Justine, where the singer loses out against the more traditional type of femininity embodied by Sophie (see chapter 5).

86 femininity, the cross-dressing,androgynous girl seemsto havefinally accepteda more feminine allure, whereasfor Mignon herself,her angelicdress is but the last stage beforepassing on to a stateof divine genderlessnessthat abandonsearthly categoriesof gender,body and age.Thus, one of Mignon's most powerful songsis uncomfortably filtered throughthe most prosaicperspective of Natalie who is confidentthat shecan curethe young girl of her sorrow and androgyny.Mignon's claims to artistic and personalautonomy clashes with the increasingrationalization that is forcedupon her by societyin the novel's last two books,marked by the graduallypronounced rift between Mignon's poetic essenceand the way in which her surroundingsportray her. The doctor,though trying to assessher ailment,can only relatewhat hasalready become evidentthroughout the novel:

Die Natur des Kindes [ ] bestehtbeinahe tiefen sonderbare guten ... nur auseiner Sehnsucht;das Verlangen, ihr Vaterlandwieder zu sehen,und dasVerlangen nach Ihnen,mein Freund,ist, möchteich fast sagen,das einzige Irdische an ihr, beidesgreift nur in eine unendlicheFerne, beide Gegenstände liegen unerreichbar vor diesem einzigenGemüt. 55

Her eventualphysical deathoccurs almost as an afterthoughtto her 'true', poetic deathin the sceneof 'So lasstmich scheinen'.After losing to Felix during a playful race for Wilhelm's attention, Mignon's incommunicable heart, so far linked to Wilhelm, simply breaks, as the girl literally wills it to stop, exerting control even in this last moment: 'Laß es brechen! sagte Mignon, mit einem tiefen Seufzer, es schlägt schon zu lange'. 56

In conclusion,all Mignon's four lieder constitutea profoundconflict betweentheir enigmatic,poetic core and a distinct linguistic andperformative compromise forced defiance. upon them throughnarrative constraints -a conflict met by the singer'squiet Throughoutthe novel shebarely evolvesat all, unlesstowards a lessand lessprosaic naturethat underminesthe narrativecontext and eschewsall attemptsof her surroundingsto rationalizeand masterher. To Wilhelm's wish to seeher educatedand

55 FA IX, pp.901/902. 56FA IX, p.924.

87 integrated into society,she merely replies 'ich bin gebildetgenug urn zu liebenund zu 57 trauern'. On the one hand,as pure emotionand pure poetry, Mignon drawsher entire existencefrom and throughsong, which constitutesone of her few meansto engageand communicatewith her surroundingsand Wilhelm. As such,she remains true to herself and safeguardsher artistic integrity. On the other hand,this quality provesfatal for her, as the riddle that sheconstitutes can find no adequatetranslation in the novel's prose and its dogmaof bourgeoislife. However, the narrative constraints forced upon the singer and her songs never to destroy manage their original mystery and fascination - an aspect Goethe very consciously and strongly develops through the continuous confrontation between Mignon's poetic space and a prosaic world which does everything to translate and explain her, and literally put Mignon, and thus song, into words-58The lemon and orange trees from Mignon's Italy song reoccur as symbols of pathology and sickly 59 poetry, when the harpistdefends his incestuousrelationship with his sisterSperata (whosedaughter Mignon is finally revealedto be) with a similar choiceof words:

Begegnetuns unterjenenZypressen, die ihre ernsthaftenGipfel gen Himmel wenden, besuchtuns anjenen Spalieren,wo die Zitronenund Pomeranzenneben uns blühn,wo die zierliche Myrte uns ihre zartenBlumen darreicht, und dannwa f es,uns mit euren 6 trüben,grauen, von Menschengesponnenen Netzen zu ängstigen!

Nevertheless,these belated rational explanationsof Mignon's strangenessappear as somewhat arbitrary attempts at mastering Mignon through a retrospective 'explanation' as a child of incest, and her simultaneous transposition into a preserved art object during her funeral, which is carried out in a rational, scientific manner: 'Aber wenn.die Kunst den scheidendenGeist nicht zu fesseln vermochte; so hat sie alle ihre Mittel angewandt, den Körper [ [ Treten Sie Freunde, Sie das zu erhalten ... näher, meine und sehen

57 FA IX, p.866. 5' Likewise,this ongoingfascination with finding a 'rational' explanationfor Mignon andher songshas F1, ompted critics to interpret the character in psychoanalytical or medical terms. See n. 26. 9 SeeAmmerlahn, Imagination und Wahrheit, pp.3294 1. 60 FA IX, p.965.

88 Wunderder Kunst und Sorgfalt!961 Ultimately, the enigmaof singerand songremain unsolvedand within the higher, symbolic realm of poetic genius. From what hasbeen said so far, we can seehow Mignon setsup importantkey elementsfor future treatmentsof femalesong. Though Mignon is far from beingan operaticsinger (she in fact abhorsthe stageand, unlike in the TheatralischeSendung, 62 cannotbe convincedto perform in a theatricalproduction), sheportrays a very visible, poetic vision of song.As an untrainedand unspoiled'natural' singerwho capturesthe sublimeessence of music, Mignon comesclose to Goethe'sideal of the humansinging voice as an original, undecipherablelanguage, both unspoilt and divine. Although she cannotcommunicate her songswithin the prosaiccontext, Mignon is, in the narrative context,the authoritativeauthor of her songs,a statusshe maintains until her deathand which is further affirmed by her refusalto adapt,withdrawing from any social constraintsthrough physical death.Although Goethedraws on contemporarysong ideals,as well as the symbolic dimensionof music andpoetry as higher,all- encompassingprinciples, he takesthe discussionsignificantly further by dramatizing singerand songin rather dark tones,and by tying the aestheticquestion of song's emotivity and elusivenessto the existenceof the song'sperformer. Mignon's ambiguity derivesfrom her conceptualizationas both a poetic symbol and a highly individualistic, melancholicsinger who embodiesthe emotionaldepth and poetic geniusof song,yet who at no point gainssignificant comfort from her singing- contraryto Goetheto whom, at all times, music was a positive, soothingprinciple. As such,Mignon the singernot only appearsas 'anti-prosaic' within the novel's narrativeorder, but also as 'anti-song' in the sensethat shedisplays a more complex,paradoxical vision of musical aestheticsthan traditional notionsof singerand performancearound 1800,and which questionsthe fundamentalconflict of the artist in society,and the natureand validity of artistic performancelike the song.In that respect,Mignon prefiguresan important paradigmof later texts which dramatizethe singeras a specifickind of musicalgenius

61 FA IX, p.958. 62 FA IX, p. 650.

89 63 at oddswith social norms. In the wake of Rousseauand late 180'-century sentimentalistwriting, Mignon defiesthe simplistic idealismassociated with song- but more importantly, shedefies idealistnotions of femalesong and of womanas the embodimentof sublimesong, that we find in the theoriesand literary texts outlined earlier. Looking back at chapters2 and 3, it becomesevident that, althoughshe plays with stereotypicalimages associated with femalesong, Mignon doesnot servea binary readingof eitherprofessional performer or idealizedmuse, nor doesshe comply with the simplicity implied by 18'h-centurysong aesthetics but constitutesa very strongcase of poetic geniusexpressed through song. Drawing on the more interesting,darker aspectsof the theoriesrelating to the singingvoice, Goethecreates in Mignon a certain kind of pathological'completeness'; a complex,paradoxical human instrument, yet also 64 the potentially 'freest' and most powerful of all instruments. Mignon is indeeda symbol of poetry and art, in its inexpressible,sublime completeness - yet it is this poetic paradoxthat Goethechooses to catalysethrough the imageof the singerand her song,and the irreconcilability of Mignon's lyricism with the narrativecontext of the prosenovel. Yet how far can we discussMignon as a 'woman singer', especiallygiven her highly androgynousnature? In what sensecan shebe regardedas an important archetypewho setsthe tone for subsequenttreatments of specifically femalesong? In addition to the symbolismof her songs,Mignon displaysa ratherinteresting take on the questionof her genderas well as her performance,which accountfor Goethe's continuouswork on the characterand an indisputabledrive for complexity and subversion.As I havemade explicit in the abovediscussion of Mignon's songs,Goethe takesthe questionof woman and songfurther and hasMignon defy traditional notions of songand genderperformance.

61Madame de Stadlalready deals with this problem,as do the subsequentauthors in chapters5 to 7. 64 Hegelregards the singingvoice as 'das freiesteund seinemKiang nachvollstandigste Instrument'. (Asthetik,11, p. 291).

90 Gender and Performance

Goethedeliberately plays with Mignon's gender,in particularin the novel's first version,the TheatralischeSendung, where he refersto the characteras (grammatically) masculine,feminine or neuter.In the Lehrjahre,the grammaticalconfusion disappears, and the authorcrafts Mignon's androgynymore subtly, as part of her overall performanceand especiallyher rejectionof her environment.Although sheis consideredan archetypeof androgyny,it must be notedthat the later Mignon is referred to as femaleand that her interpretationoutside the novel hasalways been that of a femalecharacter. However, Goethe performs through her a uniquevision of gender, which is certainly emphasizedby his choiceto transformher from Wilhelm's mouthpiece(Sendung) into an autonomoussinger (Lehrjahre). Behind the purist, idealisedlyricism of her songsstands a highly controversialsinger who, androgynous, defiesclear, simplistic notionsof gender.Within the narrativeconstellations, it is importantto note that Mignon is juxtaposednot only with Natalie,to whom sheliterally losesher song,but most importantlywith the actressPhiline who embodiesa more traditional vision of femalesong with regardto contemporaryculture. An erotic, Venus- like figure, Philine representsthe light, almosttrivial sideof song,performing highly sensual,joyous lieder, and barely disguisingan overly developedsexuality which, in the contrastingcase of Mignon, is pathologicallysuppressed. On the only occasionthat Mignon seekssexual contact with Wilhelm, hopingto complementher consuminglove for him with the appropriatephysical expression, she is literally 'outrun' by Philine who, quicker,more sensualand more feminine, managesto get into Wilhelm's bed beforeher. This pivotal traumahastens Mignon's increasingdistance from Wilhelm as it confirms her statusas asocialand quasi-bodiless.Philine's songsconstitute positive counterpartsto the sombresongs of Mignon andthe harpist. Mignon doesnot embodyandrogyny in its ideal state,despite the fact that she containsthe idea(l) of completenessimplied by the androgynousand that the performanceof her songs,untranscribable and accompaniedby her lyre, doesconvey a

91 65 strong symbolic, sublime quality. Rather, longing for a lost utopia in her songs as well as for her true, genderlessexistence, she appearsas a troubled character, distanced from the idealism of the divine child, even more so as the author does gender her as female and develop her along the lines of troubled femininity and gender codes forced upon the character who is presumed to be female by everyone. A conscious effort of gendering Mignon according to traditional patterns of femininity is made by her surroundings, notably the Tower Society that tries to coax the girl into proper feminine socialization, dress and behaviour. Yet not only does Mignon violently reject female clothing and any form of identification as a girl, but she ultimately discards all signs of femininity, or general gendering, in her swansong. When the narrator contrasts her 'Frauengewande' and long, loose locks with the remark that the girl looks like an 'abgeschiedner Geist', he makes the rift between the rivalling stanceson Mignon's gender and her status within the novel quite clear.66 The apparently pacified, feminized Mignon who satisfies her surroundings (letting them believe in her final recovery), barely disguises a doomed creature whose physical rejection of earthly categories is imminent. Although it is not straightforward to pinpoint Mignon specifically as a 'woman singer' in the traditional, and later the professional senseof the term, due to the complexity of her lyrical and symbolical quality, the problem of her songs is intertwined with the problem of her gender and her status in the novel, even though any attempt at explaining either song or gender may fall short of the higher principle that Goethe alludes to through this character. Yet her symbolic quality and the mystery that surrounds her and her songs refer explicitly back to 18th-centuryideals of female song and Goethe's own fascination with it. Mignon's hard-to-classify performances are unlike traditional, contemporary depictions of the woman singer and starkly contradict traditional associationswith female song, as outlined earlier. Mignon is neither a dilettante performing in a salon setting, nor is she an operatic diva basking in self-glorification, or 'exuding'

15See Dornheim, pp. 320ff; Emrich,pp. 43ff; Delcourt,p. 228. Interestingly,Mignon is the only'female' Goethe's figures. 66of genius FA IX, p.905.

92 immorality. Her songperformance conveys a sublime,unmediated lyrical geniusthat expresseseverything the singerhas to sayto her audiencewithout actuallybeing able to communicatethis on the page.Thus, she appears as an incarnationof the ideal of song without, however,becoming truly objectifiedas eitherwoman-music or a stagedsinger by the listenerand onlooker,since she employs certain strategies in order to resist appropriationof herselfand her songby the prosaicenvironment. The mysterious, paradoxicalcore of her poetic messageis Mignon's measurefor self-protectionand preservation,rejecting rational attemptsat decipheringher as a poetic symbol. Secondly,rejection and self-preservationoccur on the pcrformativelevel, too, because Mignon's performanceunderlines the subversive,resisting force shedeploys through her music and words- quite literally, Mignon is alwaysmoving about,which makesit hard for her surroundingsactually to fix her into any kind of staticpose reminiscent of the 'woman with the lyre 67or the salonperformer, who is proneto being idealizedas the incarnationof femalemusic and songbut who lacksthe agencyof the autonomous singer.A glorification suchas Goethecreated for his museCorona is hardly imaginable for Mignon.

Throughoutthe novel, Mignon hardly everstands still. Sheis introducedto the readeras a jumping, dancingmember of wanderingartist troupes,who continuesher unusualmovements and tricks evenafter shehas been freed and adoptedby Wilhelm. Thoughpledging allegianceto Wilhelm, Mignon still comesand goesas shepleases, surfacingfrom nowhereand disappearingwithout a trace,jumping up and down staircasesand climbing onto high placeseffortlessly: 'In allem seinemTun und Lassen hattedas Kind etwassonderbares. Es ging die Treppeweder auf noch ab, sondern sprang;es stieg auf den Geländender Gängeweg, und eh' man sich's versah,saß es 68 obenauf dem Schranke,und blieb eine Weile ruhig'. Goethegoes as far as ascribing to her the physicality of a doll or marionette,which tendsto movemechanically,

67 See 3. 68 chapter FA IX, p.463.

93 disregardinghuman behaviour completely. 69 The famousscene of Mignon's Fandago performancesees her dancearound the eggsblindfolded, not at all in a graceful,soft and feminine manner,but rathermechanically, sober, strictly, like clockwork.70 In the similarly awkwardscene after the Hamletpremiere, Mignon assertsvarious stages of unorthodoxbehaviour, progressing from the stageof the 'puppet' to that of the wild, aggressivemaenad who can no longerbe controlledby societyand who finishesby biting Wilhelm's It is in Mignon's arm.71 only towardsthe end, swansong,that Goethe providesa more static and visual impressionof the singerthrough the bias of Natalie. Not surprisingly,this particular imageof Mignon as an angelsignificantly inspired I 9th_ centuryiconography and becamethe character's'lyre lady' moment.72 From the point of view of narrativeperformance, it is only then that Mignon becomesfixed in the pose of the angel,a posewhich is ironically brokenby her song'swords abouther true nature as opposed to her appearance.Likewise, it is towards her end that Mignon, anticipating her physical death, affirms outward stillness:

Mignon klettert und springtnicht mehr,und doch fühlt sie nochimmer die Begierde, überdie Gipfel der Bergewegzuspazieren, von einemHaus aufs andere,von einem Baumauf den andernzu schreiten.Wie beneidenswertsind die Vögel, besonderswenn sie so artig und vertraulichihre Nesterbauen. 73

Goetheelaborates the elementaryconflict of Mignon's absolutelyrical message with a body that defies human principles in the course of the character's development: as such, Mignon's contradictory singing body, her defiance of clichdd song posesand the onlooker's/listener's difficulty in coping with her performances undermine traditional, conservative models of female song while reinforcing the subversive, polemic potentialcontained in song,between poetic ideal and physicalperformance. As

69 Traditionally,Goethe scholars ascribe these characteristic traits to Mignon's functionas a symboland link to Wilhelm's past,his love for marionettetheatre, and for Mariane(see Fick, 'Mignon', pp.I Off; Ammerfahn,Imagination und Wahrheit,pp. 74-96). 7" 'Streng,scharf, trocken, heftig, und in sanftenStellungen mehr feierlich als angenehm,zeigte sie sich'. (FA IX, p.469). 71FA IX, pp.694-96. 72 SeeGrewe, pp. 312ff, Wilhelm von Schadowprovided perhaps the best-knownpainting of Mignon as a Romantic during her last (ibid., 73 allegory song pp.314ff. ). FA IX, p.908.

94 a femalesinger and a child of genius,Mignon setsthe tone for later literary treatments of the artist, like Stadl'sCorinne, Hoffmann's dissonantmusicians or the geniussingers of the July Monarchy,for instanceMarceline Desbordes-Valmore's Domenica. 74 One could arguethat Goetheprefigures in Mignon characteristicsof the Romantic Kiinstlerliebe,75 sinceher love for Wilhelm is expressedexclusively through song and poeticizedthrough the singer'sgenius, into the realm of art. Goethemay not have written Mignon specifically to portray the fate of a womansinger, but he certainly choseto transposethe problem of poetry and its inherentsymbolism onto a paradoxical artist figure like Mignon, reinforcing this problemthrough the useof song.Through his treatmentof poetic geniusalong the lines of songideals and genderdisputes, he created an archetypalblueprint for later texts. It is crucial to note that Goethenot only created in Mignon a poetic symbol, but was awareof her potentialfor a controversial, subversivegender performance and a body which defiessimplistic notionsof femininity. Like her proto-linguisticsongs, Mignon herselfappears as a genuineproto- type, beyondcategories of child or woman,neuter or gendered,genius or puppet,angel or daemon.Autonomous in her performance,this singer'spsychological, emotional and artistic stateof mind barely changesthroughout the novel, yet at the sametime, she delivers a highly fluid, shifting genderperformance at the handsof her author,who deliberatelyleaves doubt over both her musicaland femaleidentity. Mignon gaverise to some very direct critical and literary responsesby both German and French Romantics, who dramatized the female character as an incarnation of music and 76 77 poetry, an exotic child, or treated the messageof lyrical othernessthat Mignon

74 Seechapter 7. 75 Again, this conceptwill find a very strongexpression in later texts,especially in Hoffinann'swork. See chapter6. 76 For instance Novalis' Heinrich von Ofterdingen (1802) and Dorothea Schlegel's Florentin (1802). 77Such Mignon figures occur in Clemens Brentano's Die mehreren Wehmaller und Ungarische Nationalgesichter (1817), Caroline von Wolzogen's Agnes von Lilien (1798) or Immermann's Die Epigonen (1836). Mignon's exotism was equally appealing to non-German writers: Walter Scott, Peveril ofthe Peak (1822); Thdophile Gautier, Alherlus (1832), Le Capitaine Fracasse (1863). Gautier was especially enthusiastic about Mignon's 'gypsiness': 'Mignon, Fenella, Esmdralda, tour A tour caressdes par Goethe, Walter Scott et Victor Hugo prouvent ]'amour des Amespodtiques pour ce caractUe fier et libre qui donne tout au hasard et rdveille dans les esprits les mieux rdglds un sourd instinct d'inddpendance et de vie errante' (La Presse, 02.10.1843).

95 implied. Ratherinteresting and complextreatments of femalesong are to be found in Bettina Brentano'sappropriation of the Mignon figure for the creationof her own 79 lyrical self,78 or SophieMereau's exploration of professionalfemale artistry, yet Mignon was also trivialized in the spirit of the Harfenmddchen in certainGerman and Frenchtexts, 80 or in fine arts. Composersin particularresponded to Mignon's musical- poetic quality, and it is perhapsin music itself that the enigmaof Mignon receivedits most accurateexpression. If Mignon found her way posthumously into European folklore, the controversy of song and gender as developed through her set a particularly strong example for subsequentsinger narratives. What we shall see in the following discussion of Madame de Stael's Corinne, but also in the subsequentchapters, is that the fundamental contradiction which Goethe created through Mignon continues to resonatein later singer narratives and determine the literary reflection on the singer between song ideals, gender and performance issues.

78 Bettina Brentano von Arnim, GoethesBriefwechsel mit einem Kinde 0 835). 79 Seeher novellasMarie (1798),and Die Flucht nachder Hauptstadt(1806), both written under Mereau'simpression of WilhelmMeister. soFor examplein Eichendorffs writing, in Ary Scheffer'sseries of Mignon paintings(1836), Saint- Germain'spopular Mignon: ligende (1857)and Ambroise Tbomas' opera Mignon (1866).

96 A French Soul Mate? Madame de StaEland Corinne, ou IDalie

So viel wirst du mir zugeben, daß es der Mühe wert ist, sie zu kennen: denn man kann sich nur einen Begriff von ihr durch sich selbst machen, indem es ein so höchst merkwürdiges Individuum ist, bei dessen Schilderung man immer in Lob und Tadel das Maß verfehlt'. 81

The Genesisof a Female Myth

An important work which standsin the wake of Goethe's Bildungsroman and at the same time createsa very distinct vision of female song is Germaine de Stadl's Corinne, 82 ou 17talie, which may be regarded as the starting novel for French Romanticism, in particular the genre of artist novel. A long-time admirer of the famous 'auteur de Werther', Madame de Stadl, the woman of genius exiled under Napoleon, travelled to Weimar in late 1803.83Engaging in a vivid exchangewith the German intelligentsia, most notably Schiller and Goethe, as well as August Wilhelm Schlegel (who would become a constant companion), she became acquainted with and deeply enthusiastic about German aestheticsand the emerging ideals of Romanticism. It was equally in Weimar that Saalnix Singspiel in February 1804 she saw a representation of the '84one of the many popular adaptations of the siren myth. It is well known that this episode, as well as the inspiration she found in German culture and thought prompted her to write about a female artist at odds with the world: 'Hier j'ai fait un nouveau plan de roman en voyant une pi6ce d'imagination et de f6erie tout A fait remarquable. Singulier peuple ces

81Goethe's letter to Knebel,2.7.1808 (WA JV. 20, 106). 92 p. Corinne,ou l7talie, (EuvreslittiFraires, tome 111,ed. SimoneBalayd (Paris: Champion, 2000) (hereafter OL 111). " Oneof the famousand most illuminating contemporaryaccounts is Karl AugustB8ttiger's Literarische Zuständeund Zeitgenossen:Begegnungen und Gesprächeim klassischenWeimar, ed. Klaus Gerlach/RendSternke (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag,1998). 84 The genesisof Corinnehas been well-documented, due to the author'sown carnetsand letters as well asto very detailedstudies by the leadingStael scholar Simone Balayd. See her prefacesto the 2000 and 1985edition of Corinne; ibid, Les Carnetsde voyagede Madamede Stael,contribution a la genise de sesceuvres (Genýve: Droz, 1971), p.97; GeneviýveGerinari, Le Premiervoyage de Madamede Staelen Italie et la genise de Corinne(Paris: Boivin, 1947).

97 Allemandsqui, le plus naturellementdu monde,ont une imaginationtout A fait 85 romanesque'. The anecdoterelating to the genesisof Corinnein the Gennancontext of the Singspielpoints towardsan importantaspect of Madamede Stael'sItalian artist, who is from the beginningsituated within the realm of cultural and artistic hybridity, a topic of greatimportance to the author.With additionalinspiration taken from the siren 86 myth, Madamede Stadlcreates Corinne as a womanand an artist, and thus with a strongimplication of the doubleotherness of music and femininity. Corinneshares with Mignon the very pronouncedimaginary of song,femininity andthe struggleof the geniusartist in conflict with society.Like Goethe,Madame de Stadl(a Rousseauesque at heart)was partial to music and reflectedon the natureand statusof music and songas integral elementsof humanexpression and artistic genius,on speechand silence,poetry andperformance as well as the questionof gender.In her treatiseDe I'Allemagne,she providedpertinent remarks on music,yet it is throughCorinne, 'conceived' in Germany and carriedout in Italy that shecreated her most striking commenton femalegenius and music. While scholarshave never explicitly comparedMignon and Corinne,it is importantto note that Madamede Stadl,who did not appreciateWilhelm Meister as 87 such, was ratherenthusiastic about the Italian girl Mignon and found accessto the poetry of her lieder and to her psyche,which underits apparentsimplicity hides somethingmuch deeperand more disturbing:

85 Correspondance Ginirale, ed, Bdatrice W. Jasinski, 6 vols. (Paris: Pauvert, 1960-1993), V/1, p.215 (hereafter CG). The letter to her father JacquesNecker also tells of her already more advancedproject to write a book on Germany, which would eventually become De I'Allemagne, a crucial work for French Romanticism. 86 In Weimar, Madame de Stadl translates Goethe's poem Der Fischer, which is part of the Saalnix representation,twice, in a verse and prose version, and also refers to it in Corinne: 'Goethe a peint, dans une ddlicieuse romance, ce penchant que Pon dprouve pour les eaux, au milieu de ]a chaleur. La nymphe du fleuve vante au pecheur le charme de ses flots: elle Finvite a s'y rafraichir, et, sdduit par degrds,enfin il s'y prdcipite' (OL 111,p. 340). See Bottiger's remark on Madame de Stael's enthusiasmover the poem (?.366), as well as her Carnets (pp. 76-77) and discussion of the poem (DA 11,pp. ] 88-89). 8 'Goethem'a envoyd[... ] un romande lui, nommd'Willamsmeister' [sic]. Commeil dtait en allemand, je n'ai pu qu'admirerla reliure (et Benjaminassure entre nous queje suismieux partagdeque lui qui I'a NY. (letter to Henri Meister,22.04.1797, CG IV, p.59). In De I'Allemagne,Madame de Stadlbarely warmsup to the novel: 'mais si Pon se met A peindreles situationsromanesques avec le calmeimpartial d'Hom&e, le rdsultatne sauraitEtre trýs attachant.(DA 111,p. 258). Germanscholars in particularhave commentedon Stael'soverall misunderstandingof Goethe(see for exampleBernhard Bbschenstein, 'Madamede Stadl,Goethe und Rousseau',in GoethezeitStudien zur Erkenntnisund Rezeption Goethes und seinerZeitgenossen, ed. Gerhart Hoffmeister (MUnchen: Francke Verlag, 1981).

98 11y aje ne saisquelle simplicitd magiqueen elle qui supposedes abimes de pens6eset de sentiments;Von croit entendregronder Porage au fond de son&me, lors memequ'on ne sauraitcitcr ni uneF aroleni unecirconstance qui motive Pinqui6tudeinexprimable qu'elle fait dprouver.8

89 Humboldt compared the two characterspositively, while August Wilhelm Schlegel, almost echoing his brother Friedrich's commentary on the 'poetic' novel Wilhelm Meister, reviewed Corinne as a true incarnation of poetry and of the poetic 90 essence. Yet what strikes us most of all in Corinne is that, unlike many contemporary imitations of Mignon that eventually developed either a simplified or a clichdd version of the figure, by prioritizing traits like Mignon's exotism or the pose of the harp girl, Madame de Stadl, whether consciously drawing on Goethe's character or not, chose a different approach. Although clearly drawing on Rousseauesquemusical aesthetics,as well as dealing with a similar blend of woman and music to that found in Goethe, Stadl managesto create a character entirely unique and new, a strong statement of female musicality and artistic genius which constituted a provocatively strong stanceon such issuesas early as 1807. If Mignon's song continues to resonatein subsequentauthors, Madame de Stadl neverthelesstakes the question of the singer's performance and realism further than Goethe, setting the tone for the Romantic treatment of the woman singer, and inspiring a considerable number of male and female-authored texts that rewrote the Corinne myth throughout the 19'hcentury. In the following case study, we will see how exactly Madame de Stadl develops Corinne as a multi-faceted artistic genius and to what extent, in the wake of Goethe, she does Stadl createsa new female archetype for I 9th-century texts to come. How elaborate the dilemma of female musicality through the traits of Corinne?

88DA 111,p. 257. 89 SeeBalayd, Madame de Slael: Ecrire, lutter, vivre (Genýve:Droz, 1994),p. 252. Humboldtwrites to Stael 3.6.1807:Tai il huitjours A Corinne[ ] Je Wai fait depuis lire on requ ya peu pr&svotre ... que votre ouvrage'(cit. in Balayd,'Corinne et les amisde Madamede Stael', RHL, 1966,p. 140). 90Schlegel,'Une Etudecritique de Corinneou 17talie',CS (16.06.1973), pp. 58-59.

99 Existing Scholarship

Madamede Staelshares with Goethethe fact that scholarsrefrain from giving her any substantialcredit as a 'musical' writer who madean importantcontribution to musical- 91 literary aesthetics, though,as in Goethe'scase, it is in fact difficult to avoid talking aboutStadl and her works in the contextof the musical-literarydiscourse of the 1800s.92 The onsetof seriousStadl criticism sincethe 1960shas also engenderedmore detailed, thematicallyspecific studieson Corinneand her variousimplications, such as the questionof music and of the femalevoice. 93 A numberof studiesdeals with the central problemsof Stael'scharacter, notably the author'sconcept of femalegenius 94 as expressedthrough Corinne, or the motif of the womanpoet 95 and femaleperformer. 96 An alreadyexisting (but by no meansexhaustive) critical corpuson Madamede Stadl's

91 For studieson Stadland musicsee Fernand Baldensperger, Sensibilitj musicaleet romantisme(Paris: Paillart/LesPresses Franqaises, 1925); Jean Mdnard, 'Madame de Stadlet la musique.Avec des documentsinddits', RUO, 1961(31), 420-35;552-63. Marie Naudin,'Madame de Stadlprdcurseur de 1'esthdtiquemusicale romantique', RSH, 137(1970/1-3), 391400; NicolasPerot, Discours sur la a I'jpoque de Chateaubriand musique92 (Paris:PUF, 2000). Seechapter 1,0. 93Standard include: Un deuil iclatant de bonheur' Corinne IItalie. Madamede Stadl, works , ou ed. Jean-PierrePerchellet (Orldans: Paradigmes, 1999); 'Unemilodie intellectuelle': Corinneou l7talie de Germainede Slael, ed. ChristinePlantd/Christine Pouzoulet/Alain Vaillant (Montpellier:Centre d'dtude du XlXe si6cle,Universitd Paul-Valdry, 2000); TheNovel's Seductions.Stael's Corinne in Critical Enquiry, ed. KarynaSzrnuflo (Lewisburg: BUP; London:AUP, 1999);Studies focused specifically on music includeBalayd, Ta Forictionromanesque de la musiqueet dessons dans Corinne', Romantisme, 3 (1972), 16-32;Boon, 'Women PerformingMusic'; Anne Deneys-Tunney,'Corinne by Madamede Stadl: the Utopia of FeminineVoice as Music Within the Novel', DFS, XXVIII (1994),55-63. 94 ClaudineHerrmann, 'Corinne, femme de gdnie', CS,35 (1984-1),66-76; Claire Dehon,'Corinne, une artistehdroThe de roman',NFS, 9 (1980-81),1-9. Gayle Levy, 'A Geniusfor the modemArea: Madame de Stael'sCorinne, NFS, 30 (2002),242-53. 95 ChristinePlantd, 'Sur les improvisationsde Corinne', in 'Une milodie intellectuelle',pp. 61-79; MadelynGutwirth, 'Du silencede Corinneet de saparole', in 'Un deuil Jclatantde bonheur',pp. 171-80; ChristinePlantd, Te qui parle en moi vaut mieux quemoi-meme': improvisation et podsie',in Corinne. Madamede Stadl,Corinne ou IItalie: 'Ldme se m6lea tout'. ed. Josd-LuisDiaz (Paris:SEDES, 1999), 89-99. 96 CorneliaKlettke, 'Germainede Stadl:Corinne ou Htalie: Grenzilberschreitungund Verschmelzungder KIInsteim Sinneder frOhromantischenUniversalpoesie', in ROF, 1] 5/2 (2003), 171-93. Karyna Szmurlo,Te Jeuet le discoursf6minin: la dansede I'hdrolfnestadlienne", in 'Un deuil iclatant de bonheur',pp. 77-90; SimoneBalayd, 'Corinne en spectacle',Littdratures, 41 (Autumn 1999),97-109; FrangoisBrunet, Te Jeude Yacteurselon Madame de Stael:de CorinneA Talma', in 'Une m8odie intellecluelle': 81-106.Catriona Seth, 'A savoix, tout sur la terre sechange en podsie':les improvisations dansCorinne', in 'Un deuil iclatant de bonheur, 131-54.

100 97 rapportwith Germany hasbeen enriched in recentyears by variouscomparative studieson the authorand her work, which recognizeMadame de Stael'snow fixture literary undeniablestatus as a of the canonand key figure of early I 9th-century thought.98

Creating the Female Artist of Genius

En ce moment, il West question que de Corinne. Le duc en a fait venir un exemplaire sur la demandede Goethe, il Pa en mains depuis peu dejours et il parait en 6tre dmerveilld. 11loue cet ouvrage sansaucune rdserve et en est aussi enthousiasm6 que vous I'dtes vous-meme.99

Synopsis

Feelingresponsiblefor hisfather's suddendeath, the Scottishlord OswaldNelvil embarkson a journey to Italy in order to cure his melancholy.In Rome,he meetsthe mysteriousartist and proclaimedgenius Corinne andfalls in love with her. Curedthrough Corinne'sart and enthusiasm,Oswald is neverthelessdivided over his wish to marry her, as sheturns out to be the half-Italian daughterofhisfather'sfriend, deemedtoo artistic and liberal to become Oswald'swife and live in Englandwith him. Returningto Englandand giving in to thepaternal taboo, Oswaldfinally marries Corinne'syounger half-sister Lucile, leavingthe artist grief- strickenand slowly wastingawayfrom her betrayedlove. Yearslater, Oswaldand Lucile return to Italy with their daughterJuliette in order to cure Oswald'srecurring melancholia,and to be

97 Fernand Baldensperger, Goethe en France: etude de littirature comparje (Paris: Hachette, 1920); Ernst Behler, Frau von Stael in Weimar. Mit neuen Quellen und Dokumenten (Paderborn: Sch6ningh, 1992); Marie-Madeleine Martinet, Le Voyage d7talie dans les littiratures europiennes (Paris: PUF, 1996). "Linda Lewis, Germaine de Slael, George Sand, and the Victorian WomanArtist. (Columbia: UMP, 2003); Erica Cocke, 'Corinne and Consuelo: The Woman Artist in Dialogue with the World', in Le Siýcle de George Sand, ed. David Powell/Shira.Malkin (Amsterdam: Rodopi; 1998): 247-52. Virginie Wortmann-Lacouronne, Germaine de Stael und George Sand- eine inhaldiche Untersuchung fiber den Einfluss ihrer Frauenromane aufzeitgen6ssische deutscheA utorinnen (St. Ingbert: Rohrig, 1997); Jean Murait, 'Das Novalis-Bild der franzosischen Romantik von Madame de Stael bis Xavier Marmier', in Gallo-Germanica: Wechselwirkungen und Paralleten deutscher undfranz6sischer Liferatur (18.- 20. Jahrhundert), ed. E.Heftrich/J. -M. Valentin (Nancy: PUN, 1986); Martha Kaarsberg Wallach, 'George Sand und Germaine de Stael in Heines SpItwerk', HJB, 29 (1990), 29-53; Ellen Moers, 'Performing Heroism: The Myth of Corinne', in The Worlds of Victorian Fiction, ed. Jerome H. Buckley (Cambridge: Harvard English Studies, 1975), pp.319-50. " ChristineReinhard's letter to her mother,5.7.1807 (Une Femmede diplomate.Lettres de madame Reinhardii sa mýre 1798-1815,transi. /ed. Baronnede Wimpffen (Paris:Alphonse Picard, 1900), p. 333.

101 reconciledwith Corinne.Corinne symbolicallypasses on her gift to Juliette and, after a last performance,dies in Oswald'spresence.

As a distinctive type of femaleartistry which perfectsvarious gifts, the essenceof Corinnecan be tracedback to long-standingtraditions of femaleperformers while re- writing and critically reflecting on the position of the womanartist in the contextof the 1800s.Among the possibleinfluences on Corinneis the Greekclassical poet Corinnaas well as her modem counterpart,the Romanimprovisatrice Corilla Olimpica.100 Within the literary realm, scholarshave pointed towards Isabelle de Charri6re'sheroine CaUste and Madamede KrUdener'sValirielol as sourcesof inspiration- but it is mostpertinent in this contextto bearin mind the inspirationof Weimarand impressionssuch as Goethe'sMignon, the siren motif and the underlyingproblem of femalesong and of the womanartist as 'other' which resonatestrongly in Stadl'sprotagonist. As such,the authorcreates a femaleprotagonist, who appearsfamiliar yet at the sametime unique, andwho representsa striking display of femaleartistry.

The Doubts of Musical Utopia

Thoughsimilar to Mignon as an artistic geniussituated in the realm of musical-poetic otherness,Corinne initially presentsa ratherdifferent versionof femalemusicality, as we passfrom the 'albemes,zwitterhaftes Gesch6pf 102 to the most famousand acclaimed artist of Italy. In sharp contrast to Mignon's ambiguous body of song and to the proto-linguistic state of her lieder, Corinne appearsas a fully present character, poetic and sensual,multilingual and, rather than belonging nowhere and being unable to communicate properly, she clearly embracesdifferent nationalities, cultures, languages and art forms with an unrivalled capacity for communication and reconciliation of prose

100See Paola Giuli, 'Tracinga Sisterhood:Corilla Olimpica as Corinne's Unacknowledged Alter Ego',in TheNovel's Seductions, pp. 165-84. 101Madame de Stadl herself was very critical of thenovel, referring to it repeatedlyin negative terms duringher stay in Germany.See her letters to Hochet(17.1.1804, CG V/1, p. 195) and Necker (10.2.1804, CG102 V/1, p. 228). FA IX, p.553.

102 andpoetry. It seems,from the beginning,that Corinneis a fully valid femaleartist, both in termsof the validity of her poetic messageand the realismand legitimacyof her performance,yet also throughthe Rousseauesqueideal resonatingin Mignon, the ideal of songas humancommunication. Madame de StaElin fact crafts a femalegenius based on similar principles as Mignon; the mysteriousorigin of the artist (andof her art), a lack of musicaleducation and professional implication pairedwith naturalgenius and a very strong,overall musical-poeticquality. Like Mignon, Corinneis an artist whose geniusis focalisedthrough her voice and throughthose art forms that are closely connectedto vocality: Corinnerecites and improvisesand by doing so, displaysa naturally-given, sublimemusicality, which underpinsher entire character,linking her diverseartistic skills and marking her as a distinct literary embodimentof the 18th- centurymusical-literary ideals discussed in the previouschapter. Yet Staalalso widens Corinne'sartistic rangeand her performancepossibilities within the novel, as she equally altersthe perceptionof suchan unusualfemale character. Unlike Mignon, Corinneis presentedas perfectionherself, an early versionof the acclaimeddiva who embracesthe spotlight and the honourof being crownedRome's first and finest poet. The introductoryscene sees Corinne arrive at the Capitol in Rometo be crownedthe first poet of Italy. During the ceremony,she performs an improvisationon the glory of Italy, accompanyingherself on her harp.This constitutesa highly interestingchoice on the author'spart, sinceshe consciously presents her heroineas a hybrid artist of genius, who navigatesthe borderlinebetween music and speech,between instrument and humanvoice, posingas a genuinelyorphic figure who createsa utopianspace through her songand who, as sheasserts herself, confounds all aspectsof art and genius, gamour,religion, g6nie,et le soleil et les parfums,et la musiqueet la poesie'.103 Corinne is unanimouslyacclaimed for her uniquegift, and the difficulty in categorizingher and the unlimited admirationshine through in the public's reactionsto her:

L'un disait que sa voix dtait la plus touchanted'Italie, l'autre que personnenejouait la tragddiecomme elle, Pautrequ'elle dansaitcomme une nymphe,et qu'elle dessinait

103 OL 111,P. 262.

103 avecautant de grficeque d'invention; tous disaientqu'on navaitjamais derit ni improvisdd'aussi beaux vers, et que,dans la conversationhabituelle, elle avait tour A tour une grice et unedloquence qui channaienttous les esprits.104

Madame de Stadl at first presentsher as a versatile, multi-faceted artist whose improvisations are transcribed in the novel, and who moreover excels in the art forms of dance, theatre and song. In these, Corinne embracesmost performative gifts, from the most physical art of dance to acting and more poetic gifts like song and improvisation. The most notable difference from Mignon, which makes Corinne quite modem for her time, is the uncompromisingly positive connotation associatedwith her art practice, in terms of her own artistic identity and the public's reaction to her. August Wilhelm Schlegel famously commented on the unique artistic synaesthesiathat Corinne incamates:

Tel est le seul privil&gede la podsiede rdunir en un seulpersormage des qualitds que Pon a souventadmir6es s6par6ment, qui ne se contredisentpas, mais qui, au contraire se mettenten valeur mutuellementet qui peuvcntfort bien par une faveursp6ciale de la naturese trouver c6teA c6te.La. grice dont on est doudsoi-mEme invite A aimertout ce qui est beau;des dispositions pour la musique,la clanseet I'art dramatiquesont en dtroit rapportavec ce don d'improvisationsqui caractdrisel'inspiration podtique;celle-ci Watteintsa verve que lorsqu'elledmane des profondeurs de 1'espritet de I'ame et qu'elle sert d'expressiona Nlan d'un sentimentelev6.105

In fact, Corinne embodies a very ancient poetic spirit, similarly to Mignon's genius that is linked to the genius of the ode and the Sturm und Drang and to the Rousseauesque aesthetics of lost song - in Corinne's case, she appearsas an improvisatrice, a quintessentially orphic figure who embracesspeech and musicality, poetry and prose through the performance of her 'chants'. Madame de Stael emphasizes this characteristic through her heroine's trademark improvisations, of which three are transcribed within the novel, much like Mignon's lieder in Wilhelm Meister. Not surprisingly, Corinne echoes Mignon's utopian song in her first improvisation:

104 OL 111,p. 24. 105 Schlegel, 'Une Etude critique, p.59.

104 'Connaissez-vouscette terre ofj les orangersfleurissent? ' 106 It is in this first improvisation that Corinne(herself a utopian,female vision of Italy) chantsLa gloire et le honheurd7talie, a utopianvision directly createdthrough the womanpoet' voice. An interestingaspect of Corinne'simprovisations is their insertionwithin the main narrativebody -a phenomenonnot unlike Goethe'swork with songsin his writing, yet also an aspectfor which Madamede Stadlhas been severely criticized. 107 In contrastto Mignon, Corinne'sdoes not sing lieder, but improviseswhile accompanyingherself on 108 the harp. Much more so perhapsthan Mignon's Sturm und Drang geniusof songand the lieder shesings, Corinne's genius implies the lost art form idealizedby Rousseau and othersand alludesto the elusiveideal of an original union betweenmusic and speech,and the ideal stateof the humanvoice. On a different level, Stadlimplicitly alludesto suchancient models of femalesong like the lyrical poetsSappho and Corinna,from whom Corinnepartly takesinspiration. As such,Corinne's original expressionand melody cannotbe transcribedin the novel, which providesa merely approximativetranslation, from Italian verseinto Frenchprose, from the oral performanceinto the narrativediscourse, from pure music 109 to the written word. Music remainsa signifier for the sublime,but can only find written expressionex negativo:'ll semblequ'en 6coutantdes sons purs et delicieux, on estprdt a saisir le secretdu Crdateur,a pdndtrerle myst&rede la vie. Aucuneparole ne peut exprimercette impression, car les parolesse trainentapr&s les impressions primitives, commeles traducteursen prosesur les pas despo&tes'. 110

106 OL III, p.39. 107 Balzac,in his Illusionsperdues, speaks of 'ces improvisationsqui ddparentle romande Corinne' (La ComJdiehumaine, ed. Pierre-GeorgesCastex (Paris: Gallimard Pldiade, 1976-198 1, vol.V, p. 173).See Plantd,'Sur les improvisationsde Corinne', 61-79; ibid., "Ce qui parle en moi vaut mieux quemoi- mdme'.Improvisation et podsiedans Corinne', in Madamede Stael,Corinne ou I'llalie, I'dme se metea out', pp.89-99. " Corinne'simprovisation is certainlyclose to Homericsinging and Greek lyrical traditionsassociated with Sapphoand Corinna.See Toul iatos, 'The TraditionalRole', 111-23.Madame de Staellater caststhe eF9 onymous heroine with her harp in the play Sappho(1811). 1 Thereis clearly an attemptfrom Staela new genrein the tensionbetween prose and poetry. Seth ('A sa voix', pp.135 ff. ) remarkson the fact that the apparently'bad' translationof Corinne'sgenius strengthensthe artist's original sublimity ex negativo,by providing only a glimpseof what cannot Possiblybe translated.As have in Mignon's lieder. 110 we seen,a similar phenomenonoccurs OL 111,p. 238.

105 Clearly, Madame de Stadl' lyrical prowess does not match Goethe's refined use of lied in the Wilhelm Meister (which rightly inspired composersto set Mignon to music). Yet, it seemsthat Madame de Staal's objective is also a different one. In fact, what her makes lyrical insertions so remarkable is the experimentation with the novel's narrative conventions in order to mirror her heroine's hybridity and transcendenceof boundaries, and which may be able to (more or less approximatively) represent the richness of the poetic genius and her voice, as well as an underlying, omnipresent sense of musicality. Stadl was certainly aware of Friedrich Schlegel's remarks on the novel's inherent poetry and its potential Tieles zu einern zu verknOpfen,und die Verknilpfung zu einern unbedingt vollstandigen Ganzen zu vollenden'. 111As for August Wilhelm Schlegel, he called Corinne 'un dpanchementlyrique de forme libre, ' carried by an 112 'improvisatrice iddale, comme il n'y en a peut-8tre jamais eu'. It may therefore appear only logical that Madame de Stadl should present such an unusual performer, of whose art so little is known and whose transcription within prose must necessarily remain mysterious, as it does no justice to the 'immediate orality' of the character and her performance. The novel's deliberate richness and somewhat experimental nature seemsto support this reflection on a hybrid, multi-talented artist, whose most distinctive 113 trait is her inherent musicality and its most tangible expression her voice. Unlike Mignon's defective musicality, a sign of exclusion, Corinne's musicality appearsas all- embracing and integrative, which at least for a while creates an atmosphereof musical- poetic utopia within the novel. By far the most striking aspectof the novel's and its heroine'shybridity occurson the musical level. It is importantto this thesisbecause Madame de Stadlmakes ample useof music, as a characteristictrait of her heroine,yet also as a scoreand structural 111 KFSA,1, p. 296. Sainte-Beuvelater statesthat 'commeart, commepoýme, le romande Corinne,A lui seul,prdsenterait un monumentimmortel' (Oeuvres11, p. 1063).Madame de Stadl'sinfluence on the evolutionof thepoýme on prose remainsto be studiedin depth.See La Poisie enprose. Des Lumijres au Romantisme(1760-1820), pp. 118-19. 112 Schlegel,'Une Etudecritique', p.59. 113 Highly acclaimedin the Germanrealm, Corinne received a rathermixed receptionin France,where mostof the criticism was aimedat the authorherself and the novel's perceived'invraisemblance' (see for exampleFdletz' review in the Journal de VEmpire,07. /12.05.1807). See Balayd, 'Corinne et la presse parisiennede 1807', pp.245-63. It is much laterthat FrenchRomanticism comes back to the conceptof hybridity, as conceptualizedin Hugo's Priface de Cromwell.

106 114 elementof the text. Music underpinsthe entirenovel, creatingan intensebond with the novel's protagonistsand their inner states,accompanying Corinne's improvisations, while her voice itself is describedas pure music:115 'Mais Corinner6citait avecune varidt6de tons qui ne d6truisaitpas le charmesoutenu de Pharmonie;c'dtait commedes airsjouds tous par un instrumentcdleste'. 116 All sensualand intellectualperceptions are tied into the musical realm; architecturefor exampleis comparedto 'une musique 117 continuelleet fixde'. Most importantly,music is omnipresentin the perceptionof nature,again inviting comparisonwith Mignon's utopianpoetic space,when Corinne and Oswaldare struck by the perfumeof the lemontrees, which 'donne une disposition podtique,excite le talent et Fenivre de la natureY 18'Ainsi les chantsles plus purs se r6unissaientaux odeursles plus suaves;tous les charmesde la naturesattiraient 119 mutuellement'. Music correspondsto the immediate,spontaneous nature of her gifts, directly stemming from her soul - similarly to Mignon, the music Corinnecreates relatesto the Rousseauesqueconcept of unmediated,original musicalgenius. Thus, music seemsto reflect and link two sidesof Corinne'sgenius through which sheis able to createand uphold for a while the utopianspace of Italy, both for herselfand Oswald, and throughwhich sheis ableto bridgethe gapsof silencebetween them as well as their socio-culturaldifferences. 120 In this regard,Madame de Stadluses music, more than Goethein WilhelmMeister, as an integrative,healing force able to encompass everything and express the inexpressible of the artistic genius. But more importantly,

114 Balayddescribes music as a 'courbedramatique' (Ta Fonction',p. 2) for the novel, which passesfrom the crescendoto a decrescendo(p. 27) in tune with Corinne'sslow demise. 115 Not surprisingly,Madame de Stadlmakes use of the Aeolian harpin Corinne'sgardens to enhancethe bondbetween nature and music (OL 111,p. 216), and links musicdirectly to the humansoul: TAme vibre alorscomme un instrumenta l'unissonque briserait une harmonietrop parfaite'. (OL 111,p. 238) 116 OL 111,p. 42. On a different occasion,Corinne comments on the musicalessence of acting: '11West pas de languedans laquelle un grandacteur put montrerautant de talentsque dansla notre,car la mdlodiedes sonsajoute un nouveaucharme a la vdritd de I'accent:c'est unemusique continuelle qui se melea " expressiondes sentiments'. (OL 111,p. 175). 117Ibid., p.75. 1'a Ibid., p.273. 119Ibid., p.274. 120 SeeGoethe's letter to Zelter: 'Ich habedie Vermutung,dass allem undjedem Kunstsinnder Sinn für Musik beigeselltsein milsse'.(6.9.1827, AM YXI, p. 1036).Madame de Staelascribes to musicthe centralplace within the humanpsyche: JLa musiqueseule] s'adresse A la sourceintime de Vexistence' (OL 111,p. 237); and furtheronwards: 'Toutes les sensationsprdparent a la plus profondede toutes,celle que la musiquedoit produire'. (OL 111,p. 254). Seechapter 3.

107 when comparingthis vision of music and songwith the slightly more abstractaesthetic conceptsthat I haveoutlined earlier,Madame de Stadlclearly puts the abstractside of music into perspective,and appliesit very directly to the artist and her rapportwith her environment. The universal,integrative nature of Corinne'smusicality extendsto art forms like dance.Whereas Mignon's danceappears as a reclusive,unnatural performance further emphasizingher overall pathologyand the rupturebetween her poetic inner self andher narrativeperformance, Corinne performs her dancein public, in front of an admiring audiencethat seesno inappropriatenessin this physicaldisplay of femalegenius. During her Tarantelladance, Corinne not only connectsdirectly with the audience throughthe expressionof her own soul, but sheonce again demonstrates the synaesthesiaof arts, in a performanceboth poetic and physical:

Corinne, en dansant, faisait passerdans Nme des spectateursce qu'elle 6prouvait, comme si elle avait improvisd, comme si elle avaitjou6 de la lyre ou dessin6 quelques figures; tout dtait langage pour elle: les musiciens, en ]a rcgardant, s'animaient A mieux faire sentir le ginie de leur art; etje ne sais quellejoie passionn6e,quelle sensibilitd d'imagination dlectrisait a la fbis tous les t6moins de cette danse magique, et les transportait dans une existence Wale ou l'on r8ve un bonheur qui West pas de ce monde.121

Again, Corinne reconciles various aspectsof musical and poetic genius within a distinctively female femaleperformance - in this, Madamede Stadlcreates a conceptof artistic geniusboth uniqueand daring, as it contradictsthe tenor of aestheticpositions on femalemusicality and artistry which I havediscussed earlier, and usesthe female artist as a representativeof all-encompassingart, carriedby music and by the female voice without spatiallimitations. Corinnerightly appearsas a femalegenius, whose distinctive trait, musicality and vocality, reconcilesdifferent art forms and createsa temporaryperformance space for the femaleartist. In this quality of synaesthesia, Corinnereconciles opposing art concepts,such as the notion of geniusas exclusively male and the imageryof the femalesinger as transgressiveand hybrid, and to a certain

121 OL 111,p. 13 1.

108 extentandrogynous. What is more, Corinnebridges the extremepoles of poetic speech andphysical performance through her rendition of Shakespeare'sRomeo and Juliet, in yet anotherkey sceneexposing her broadartistic talents,as well as her statusas a hybrid artist reconciling geniusand perfannanceand claiming a public performance spacewithout punishment.However, while acting, Corinne,who like Mignon creates from her heartand her innermostself, alreadyloses the importantquality of artistic detachment,that which sheso famouslyparaphrases as a supernaturalquality, as the essenceof her own genius:Ue crois dprouveralors un enthousiasmesumaturel, etje 122 sensbien que ce qui parle en moi vaut mieux que moi-m8me'. As sheperforms Juliet's love lines towardsRomeo, she simultaneously addresses Oswald as herself,her own love nourishingher artistic expressionmore than her genius,and blurring the lines betweenart and reality. In consequence,her artistic expressionbecomes entangled with and compromisedby her feelingsfor the man shehas fallen in love with and shefails to in later differentiatebetween art and life - this dilemmawill becomecentral case studies. Any kind of art is accompaniedby music andpossesses an inherentmusical quality, and Madamede Stadlgives the symbiosisbetween Italy and its music increased attention:Ta natureadestind cefte musique pour ce climat: Fune est commeun reflet de Pautre'.123 As such,Italy actsas a utopianspace on the ScottishOswald, who is constantlyaccompanied by the soundsof natureand aboveall by the musicalityof Corinne'svoice, creatinga most complexvision of the protagonist'svoice between prosaicreason and poetic music as the most apt expressionof the unspeakable.A barely disguisedallegory of Italy (which is further suggestedby the novel's title), Corinne embodiesthe Italian spirit and proclaims,through her improvisationand through her personaldemeanour, a utopianattitude that goesas far as to transcendgender boundaries:

122 Ibid, 57. 123 p. Ibid., p.237.

109 Corinneest le lien de sesarnis entre eux; elle est le mouvement,Vintdret de notrevie; nouscomptons sur sa bontd;nous sommes fiers de song6nie; nous disons aux 6trangers:- regardez-1a,c'est l'image de notrebelle Italie; elle est ce quenous serions sansVignorance, Venvie, ]a discordeet Pindolenceauxquelles notre sort nousa condamn6s;- nousnous plaisons A la contemplercomme une admirable production de notre climat, de nos beaux-arts,comme un rejetondu pass6,comme une proph6tiede Pavenir;[ ] hommes femme, les hommes ... nousserions commeelle est si pouvaient commeles fernmesse cr6erun mondedans leur proprecceur, et si notregdnie, n6cessairementd6pendant des relations sociales et descirconstances extdrieures, pouvait s'allumer tout entierau seul flambeaude la podsie.124

While this passageabounds in praiseand admirationof Corinne,it also implies an ambiguous poetic quality that already occurred with Mignon and which establishesthe problem of the artist from the start: regardlessof her artistic genius, and despite her more solid anchoring within a benevolent environment, Corinne is just as much prone to the dangers of a poetic existence and its utopian, hypothetically non-prosaic character. Corinne is what her friends would aspire to be, and what Italy could be if only hypothesis circumstances were different - as such, Corinne embodies a state of and potential which leaves us to question her present state as a woman and artist. As a true woman poet, Corinne creates a world out of her own heart and within her own heart, intimately linked interiority to her genius - yet this state of and auto-genesisthrough poetry also brings Corinne dangerously close to the exclusive state of Mignon, who, defying the narrative context, is all but her heart, and exclusively 'sings out' her heart. Thus, from the beginning, the extremes of poetic genius and vulnerability are present in Corinne, and it is this dichotomy that will characterize her evolution, her doomed love for Oswald and eventual demise within the novel. In a conflict between her artistic nature and its reception by a more or less benevolent exterior Corinne has the choice of either altering her artistic identity or retreating to a Mignon-like state of exclusive (and reclusive) genius. Initially, despite her acclaimed existence in Rome, she appearsmuch closer to the mysterious, quasi-inhuman genius which has no place in a prosaic environment. It equally seemsto bode ill from the start that, as a true artistic genius,

124Ibid, p.3 1.This emphasis on theitalianiti, andits impliedremark on thedifference between North andSouth, in termsof climate,character, art andgenius will befurther developed in Stael'sDe I'Allemagne.

110 Corinne's origins remainmysterious, as sheseems to haveemerged out of nowhereinto 125 the spotlight. Gradually,as the poetic child in Meister is explainedand appropriated by a prosaicenvironment, so doesCorinne compromise her gift underthe effect of her love for Oswald.Although her voice continuesto win Oswaldover, shediscloses her pastto him in writing (anotherinsertion into the novel entitled 'Histoire de Corinne'), and it is that past, in written form, which makestheir union impossible,and which createsa fundamentalconflict within the womanartist, betweenthe utopia shecreates throughher art in the present,and the pastcatching up with her and compromisingthis poetic utopia. As such,Corinne has to negotiatedifferent idealsand ideasof body andvoice, divine geniusand earthly attachments.She may at the startbe strongerthan Mignon, morepresent and more asserted;yet her dilemmaeventually becomes the samestruggle betweenpoetics and performance.However, it is striking to note to what extentthe authoruses difficult areaslike danceand theatreas part of Corinne'soverall poetics. Corinneis neitherafille dopira nor an actrice, the latter placing a stigmaon Madame de Charri&e's protagonistCaliste, despite a similar gift of musicalincarnation. 126 Seeminglyfree of the constraintsand the ambiguityplaced upon femalemusicality and performancethat I have discussedin the previoustwo chapters,Corinne, across all genres,appears entirely poetic and noble in her performances.Unlike Mignon, her genderis clearly defined,and the authorpresents the womanartist as a figure of genius capableof reconciling disparatefemale art forms regardlessof their connotationsor stigmata.This rings evenmore true with regardto the idealsand pragmatics of song.

125 'Son nom de famille dtait ignord.Son premier ouvrage avait parucinq ansauparavant, et portait seulementle nom de Corinne.Personne ne savaitoa elle avait vdcu,ni cc qu'elle avait dtdavant cette 6F6 oque' (OL 111,p. 24). I sPai toujourstrouvd qu'elle jouait et chantaitcomme on parle ou commeon devraitparler, et comme elle parlait elle-m6me'(Charri6re, ffuvres compl&esVIII, p. 192).

III From Improvisation to Opera: The Ambivalence of the Artist's Voice

Corinne'sgenius becomes most pronouncedwhenever she speaks, more precisely,in the variousways in which, throughher voice, sheconveys the ideaof poetry - in this poeticity, shecovers a very broadvocal range,from improvisationto opera,passing throughdifferent types of songsand lieder, suchas Scottishromances and Venetian 127 barcarolles, as well as closely associatedart forms like danceand theatre.Thus, Madamede Stadlemphasizes her heroine'sdistinct vocality as a hybrid, all- encompassinggift which shinesregardless of genreand performancecontext. Corinne is not easily classifiedaccording to songideals or performancespaces outlined in the previouschapters. Much more than Mignon, in whom Goethedramatizes the problem of poetic genius,Corinne challenges traditional limits of poetry and of performance, from musical speechand simple songto operaticarias, between the privacy of her salon andthe publicity of the Romanstage or the Venetianopera house. Looking back at the musical-literarydiscourse of the time, especiallythe dogmaof idealizedfemale song and the rift betweenthe musical-feminineideal and the singerper se showsto what extentCorinne, though drawing on certainmusical aesthetics, questions them as far as focalised heroine's the woman singeris concerned-a critical questioning throughthe own voice. It is this voice, in its genius,integrative and synaestheticpower which becomes most affectedthrough Corinne'srelationship with Oswald,marked by the artist's increasingstruggle between her poetic self and the pragmaticexpectations placed upon her, a strugglewhich graduallycauses her to compromiseher artistic gift and eventually losethe voice that bestexpressed this gift. 128 Ta podsiede Corinneest une melodieintellectuelle'. This is perhapsone. of the most striking sentencesthat the authoruses to describethe unorthodoxnature of her heroine'svocality and the evolution shegoes through. More than a mereperformer and poetic vessel,Corinne appears to fully own her performanceand her words,as she

127 OL III, p. 405 128 bid.,p. 30.

112 repeatedlyengages in analytical,rational conversationsover her art. Thus, Corinne reconcilesmale and femalediscourse, as well as two disparateconcepts of female musicality, and of 'natural' and 'intellectual' art concepts,since she appears both as an incarnationof music (and of Italy, in itself musical),and as the owner of the musical discourseand performance.Thus, she claims the statusof the poet as subject(a position genderedmale) - in mythologicalterms, Corinne reunites the position of the sirensand Odysseus/Homer.Corinne 29 of confidently saysof herself Ue suispo6te 11 - navigating the line betweenthe immediate,oral natureof her lyrical performanceand rational agency,Corinne gradually evolvesinto a different type of poet: As her relationshipwith Oswalddeteriorates and her artistic identity becomesincreasingly compromised throughher emotions,a rift occursin her ability to embraceand reconcile the oral and physicalquality of her performanceswith her rational,narrative faculties. She loses her gift for improvisationand performing,regressing into personalisolation and developing a more pronouncedwritten identity, trying to copewith her fate throughwriting. However,the written 'je lyrique' betraysthe extentof her suffering on the borderlineof 130 madness. Howeverdramatic her loss of original geniusmay appearin the novel, Corinnehas the advantageover Mignon of being able to rationalizeher gifts and,to a certainextent, blend into the narrativediscourse. In an ironic twist, the authorpresents Corinne at her boldestvocally and in termsof performanceas sheis aboutto lose Oswaldforever, realizing the impossibility of reconciling social expectationsof femininity with her own poetic self.13 1 During a stay in Venice,Corinne is askedto perform the lead role of the Amazonqueen in Gozzi's opdra-comiqueLafille de Pair, a role which againplays with genderstereotypes and emphasizesCorinne's status beyond binary gendercategories. Due to the unique characterof the operademanding both musicaland theatricaltalent, Corinneis able to

129 Ihid., p.57 130 cLa 'chute' dansNcrit laissecarri6re a son ceuvrede ruine' (FlorenceLotterie, 'La puissanced'aimer: progr6set sensibilitd dansCorinne ou I'llalie, in 'Une milodie intellectuelle',p. 124).Both Lotterieand Plantd('Sur les improvisations')remark on Corinne'simportant transition from a predominantlyoral to a written existence. 131 The authoraptly entitiesbook XVI, the beginningof the Veniceepisode 'Le d6partet Pabsence'(OL 111,p. 404).

113 shineand employ her talent for improvisation.Interestingly, she is reluctantto show Oswaldthis facet of her gift, the comedicside and her ability to perform on stageas if shetruly was a professionalopera singer. It is evidentthat Madamede Stadlis well awareof the implications of the femaleopera performance. Nevertheless, her portrayal of Corinne'sperformance positively emphasizesCorinne's ability to embracepopular art with nobility, sinceher geniusand uniquestatus place her outsidesocial and performancesnorms and the eventualstigma associated with opera:'Ses gestes, accompagndspar la musique,dtaient corniques et noblestout A la fois; elle faisait fire sanscesser d'Etre imposante,et sonr8le et son talent dominaientles acteurset les spectateurs,en se moquantavec grAce des uns et desautres'. 132 Though Corinne is able still to mock her colleagueson stageand the audience'sexpectations, the comicaltone of the operafuels the irony of a basicallytragic scenein which Corinneis ableto upholdher professionalperformance only until the curtaincall:

Ce momentdtait peut-Etrecclui de sa,vie ou la craintcde la douleuravait W le plus loin d'ellc; maistout A coup elle vit Oswaldqui, ne pouvantplus se contenir,cachait sa tete dansses mains pour d6roberses larmes. A Vinstantelle se troubla,ct la toile n'6tait pas encorebaissde, descendantde tr6ne ddjAfuneste, dansla que,133 ce elle se prdcipita chambrevoisine.

Corinnefails as a woman in the momentof her utmosttriumph as an artist, sincethe operascene is cut short by Oswald'sdeparture to Englandand the de facto separationof the two lovers. Few scholarshave paid attentionto the implicationsof Corinne's musicality and vocal performancein this pivotal sceneof the novel, but the precariousnessof Corinne'spublic operaperformance, in the socio-culturaland 134 aestheticcontext that I havemade explicit in chapters2 and 3, cannotbe ignored. In the operascene, Madame de Staelplays with suchstereotypes relating to geniusand femaleperformance, pushing her protagonistto the limits of acceptanceand cutting her triumph outsidesocial norms short with the failure in the one domainthat she

132 OL III, 407 133 p. Ibid., p.408. 134 Boon rightfully points out the problem of Corinne's performance in the context of the time (pp.4849).

114 henceforthaspires to; reconciling geniuswith her desireto marry Oswald.The problem of the femaleopera singer and her statusas social pariah,which impedeson her wish for love and marriagewill becomea main issuein later texts. Thus,Madame de Stadl dramatizesan archetypalparadigm of the singer,whose art in all its geniusand integrativeforce cannotbut be disruptivefor the womanbehind the artist, who inevitably hasto answerto certainsocial constraintswhen love is involved. Technically speakinga dilettante(since she does not needto earnmoney from art), Corinne neverthelessrepresents the impossiblemusical sublime just as much as sheis, in this specific situation,a professionalperformer on stagestruggling to reconcilelove and art. In this complexity of the femaleartist, Madamede Stadlvery distinctively bridgesthe gapbetween the earlier visions of idealizedfemale song and later literary treatmentsof the professionalsinger who, in addition to the questionof aestheticsand genius,will haveto answerto society. Elaboratingon the paradigmof music's ambiguity,Madame de Stadluses it to show her heroine'sgradual personal and vocal decline,which eventuallyresults in the death of artist and woman.However utopian, music retainsits statusas an ambiguousart in the novel, capableof soothingOswald's melancholia, yet also capableof reinforcing negativemoods and generallyacting lessas catharsisthan as a catalysisfor Corinne's otherworldliness,as the episodeof Holy Week shows,where Oswald seeks out Corinne in the Sistinechapel, only to find the artist entirely transfixedby the musical-religious ceremony:'Oswald lui-m6medisparut A sesyeux. 11lui semblaitque c'etait dansun tel d'exaltation [ ] tout A moment qu'on aimeraitmourir, ... si coup un angevenait enlever sur sesailes le sentimentet la pensde,etincelles divines qui retourneraientvers leur source:la mort ne seraitpour ainsi dire qu'un actespontand du c(rur, qu'une pri&e plus ardenteet mieux exaucde'.135 Likewise, the Scottishromances that Corinneperforms for Oswalddo nothing to improve eitherprotagonist's melancholia. Rather, in a similar way to Werther's and Lotte's Ossianconsumption, music hereserves to catalyzethe characters'melancholia and confirm music's contributionto Corinne'sdecline and

135 OL 111,p. 255.

115 136 eventual death. If Music can be regarded as a constant score to the novel, it increasingly exerts its potential for ambiguity and reinforces the female artist's downfall. The paternal taboo that weighs on her relationship with Oswald is equally markedby a verdict on her musicalperformance, since she reminds Oswald's father of 'une de bellesGrecques ces qui enchantaientet subjuguaientle monde' -a remark which leavespainfully openthe questionof whetheror not Oswald'sfather refers to the Greeklyrical poetsor the professionalhigh-class prostitutes (the hetaera)and which refersback to the problematicdouble-bind of femalemusicality. Startingwith Corinne'sfirst improvisation,the utopia of her voice graduallyfades as doesthe enticing natureof music which was usedto underpinthe experienceof Oswaldand Corinnein a utopianItaly. In her first improvisationalready, she adapts her words to the presenceof the melancholicOswald, thus passingfrom a universalartistic claim to a more personalperformance, and thus compromisingher artistic geniusearly 137 on in the novel. Nevertheless,the first improvisationstill representsa type of ideal vocal performance,evocative of original, lyrical geniusand an unspeakableunion of music and words. It is herewhere the union betweenideal and performance,between music and femininity is most stronglydeveloped, where the ideal of 'musical feminine' blendswith the femalemusician and purveys an imageof femaleartistic empowerment. Corinnedisplays various forms of this musicalhybridity, throughher dance performanceand her acting,which not only seeher compromiseher artistic geniusmore (in an effort to pleaseOswald), but which also increasethe rupturebetween body and voice, music and words.Her most genuineform of expression,her improvisation,is her own, spontaneouscreation, reuniting the power of music and voice with her geniusand imagination.None of her otherperformances is ableto reproducethe originality and sublimity of the original womanperformer, but are much morejust performancesof works alreadywritten - eventhough Corinne makes these works her own throughher performance.Thus, if shecontinues to display variousforms of artistic geniusup until her final, written swansong,she loses the integrativequality of her vocality and the

136 See FA VIII, pp. 23046; OL 111,pp. 226-27. 137 See OL 111,p. 40.

116 blend ability to genius,voice andperformance. Unsurprisingly, her most accomplished performanceas a singeroccurs within operaand coincideswith her utter failure as a woman - the turning point in the novel. The Venice episode concludes tellingly with Corinne, who used to appear as music incarnate, as no longer able to bear the profound effects that music has on her: 'la musique ne lui causait qu'un tressaillement douloureux'. 138

'06 donc est votre belle Italie? ' The Possibility of Artistic Reconciliation

In conclusion,it may look as if evena geniuslike Corinnedid not escapethe ambiguity and dangerassociated with femalemusicality and that, following her operatictriumph and the loss of her lover, shecommences a slow degradationinto silenceand death. Oswaldeventually marries the femalecharacter without a propervoice, Corinne's taciturn half-sisterLucile who, diametricallyopposed to her artistic sister,practises only domesticactivities, amongwhich music hasbeen firmly banned.139 Corinne'suniversal genius deteriorates in the light of her auto-fixationon her suffering,as the music of her voice turns into cacophony:Vdtait le cri de ]a douleur,cri monotoneA la longue,comme celui desoiseaux de la nuit; il y avait trop d'ardeurdans les expressions,trop d'impdtuositd,trop peu de nuances:c'dtait le malheur,mais ce 140 n'dtait plus le talent'. Whereasmusic usedto be the integrativeforce of Corinne,able to embraceall art forms and createa realistic scenariofor the femaleartist, it eventually unleashesits ambiguouspotential onto Corinne,fuelling her loss of talent and

139 Ibid., P.436. 139 Lucile can be regardedas a suitablerepresentative of the Scottishclimate in the sameway that her sisterrepresents the geniusof the South.Nevertheless, Lucile showssome affinity with the arts,since it is throughthe tabooof musicthat shebest remembers and mournsCorinne who taughther somemusic despiteher step-mother'sprohibition: 'Ma belle-m6rene voulut pasqu'elle sOtla musique'.(OL 111, p.354). As Simone Balayd remarks, the reception of the diametrically opposed sisters Corinne and Lucile was typical of the time, as most readers felt strong admiration, and a kind of Romantic love for the artist Corinne, while at the same time accepting Lucile's and Oswald's marriage of convenience as the norm and the only possible constellation with regard to socio-culltural norms (Torinne et les amis', p. 145). 140 OL 111,p. 473.

117 subsequentdepression as well as hasteningthe disintegrationof an artist who, similarly to Mignon's prefigurementof her transcendence,becomes increasingly detached from her physical form.,The womanpoet attemptsto fixate her thoughtsin writing, in the 'Fragmentsdes pensdes de Corinne, which howevermakes the loss of her original gift and her own transition from oral to written discourse,and from acclaimedwoman poet to 'fragmented' writer evenmore blatant:

Quelquefbis, quand j'entends la musique, elle me retrace les talents que j'avais; le chant, la danse et la podsie; il me prend alors envie de me d6gager du malheur, de reprendre A lajoie: mais tout A coup un sentiment int6rieur me fait frissonner; on dirait queje suis une ombre qui veut encore rester sur la terre, quand les rayons dujour, quand Papproche des vivants, la forcent A disparaltre.141

As Mignon's swansongwas the most compromisedin termsof the narrativeframe and alienationbetween song and singer,so Corinne'slast improvisation,entitled Dernier chant de Corinne, is her most disembodiedand alienatedperformance; she no longer improvisesherself but silently sits hiddenbehind a dark veil, while a young actress,dressed in white, performsher lines, for the first time written down, a mere echoof the actualperformance that could not be preserved:'Rappelez-vous quelquefois mesvers, mon dmey est empreinte'.142 Corinne regrets her talent andher identity. Prefiguringher departurefrom the world in which her heartis no longerat home,she also acknowledgesher own part in consciouslyabandoning the exclusivity of her genius for the suffering sheexperienced as a woman:Taurais rempli ma destinde,j'aurais dt6 digne desbienfaits du ciel, si j'avais consacrdma lyre retentissantea cdldbrerla bontd divine manifestdepar l'univers'. 143 At the sametime, this transposedperformance of the womanpoet's chantde cygne refersto an importantaspect that Madamede Stadldevelops alongside her heroine's increasingsilence. In the face of her own death,Corinne turns towardsother female characters,passing on her geniusand her gifts, thus creatinga visible femaleartistic

141 Ihid., 475. 142 p. ibid., p.524. 143 Ibid., p.523. There is an interestingcorrelation between Stael's compromised genius Corinne and later July Monarchytreatments of the topic, suchas GeorgeSand's novella La Prima Donna (seechapter 7).

118 legacyand filiation. The most striking examplebecomes her nieceJuliette, the daughter of Oswaldand Lucile who, a far cry from her mother'sblond, pale allure looks like a young replica of her famousaunt, constantly reminding her father of his failure and regret:

Cettepetite ressemblaitA Corinne:Virnagination de Lucile avait W fort occup6edu souvenirde sa sceurpendant sa grossesse;et Juliette,c'dtait ainsi qu'elle se nommait, avait les cheveuxet les yeux de Corinne.Lord Nelvil le remarquaet en fut trouble; il la prit dansses bras, et la serracontre son cceur avec tendrcsse. Lucile ne vit dansce mouvementqu'un souvenirde Corinne,et d&scet instantelle nejouit pas,sans m6lange,de I'affection que lord Nelvil t6moignaitA Juliette'. 144

Juliette is a most interestingcharacter, as shecan be readin a ratherpositive way - as a good genius,almost like Mignon, sherepresents her father's and mother's externalizedfeelings and preoccupationwith Corinne.Not surprisingly,her name echoesShakespeare's play, which Corinneperformed for Oswaldand which stoodas a symbol of the womanartist's failure to reconcileart and love. To a certainextent, Julietterealizes this reconciliation,leading her parentstowards Italy and towardsa reunionwith Corinne.The little girl representsa new, potential Corinne,who, upon her arrival, is promptly introducedto her famousaunt who teachesher everythingshe knows in the short period beforeher death:

Oswaldvoulut au moins queCorinne vit sa fille, et il ordonnasecr&ement A sa bonne de la conduirechez elle. 11alla au-devantde 1'enfantcomme elle revenait,et lui demandasi elle avait dtdcontente de sa visite. Juliettelui rdponditpar une phrase italienne,ct, sa prononciation,qui ressemblaitA celle de Corinne,fit tressaillir Oswald.- Qui vous a appriscela, ma fille? dit-il. - La damequeje viensde voir, rdpondit- [ ] Et dame, f lord Nelvil. Beaucoup, elle. ... vous plait-elle, cette ma ille? continua - rdponditJuliette; j'y veux aller tous lesjours. Elle m'a promis de m'apprendretout ce qu'elle sait. Elle dit qu'clle veut queje ressemblei Corinne.145

Most importantly, Corinneinstructs her niecein music,teaching her songsthat she herselfused to perform in front of Oswald,and that Juliette is to play to her father every

144 Ibid., pp.491-92. 145 Ibid., pp. 5 17-18.

119 year, in remembranceof Corinne.Likewise, Corinneis reconciledwith her sisterLucile on whom shebestows part of her own personality:'ll faut que vous soyezvous et moi 146 tout A ]a fois'. The questionof whetheror not thesetranspositions of Corinneon her sisterand nieceare valid, or evenvaluable actions, exceed the scopeof the novel, and aredifficult to answer.Madame de Stael'sobjective, however, is quite clear,as she consciouslycrafts a tradition of femaleartistry, by enablingCorinne to passon her geniusonto the next generationof women.Though her own voice is silenced,she neverthelesspasses it on, with the hopethat especiallyJuliette might be ableto perform this type of femalegenius to the fullest andthat the potentialof the femaleartist may be fulfilled in subsequentgenerations. With this femalefiliation, Madamede SWI addressesa very importanttopic concerningthe womansinger and by doing so, prefiguresan essentialmotif of later texts. As I haveexplained in the previouschapter, the singer's statusas a biological femaleis problematicdue to the ensuingconflict betweenfeminine idealsand femalemusicality, andher challengingthe normsof marriageand motherhood,which potentially puts her in a position of social isolation and otherness.Corinne's bond with Juliettemay then be describedas a symbolicform of motherhood,through which the artist is ableto passon her craft, while at the same time contributingto a continuoushistory of femalemusicality and aestheticsand creatingan alternativeto the dogmaof femalebiology. More importantly,Juliette constitutesa case-in-pointfor femaleartistic education,another point in which Madame de Stadlproves to be innovative,as shealso takesthe imageof the singerfurther away from the ideal of musical femininetowards a vision of femalegenius through training and supportby a sisterhoodof artists.Corinne's genius, her voice andmusicality remain a mysterythroughout the novel, whereasJuliette's artistry, althoughthe readerdoes not ultimately know how it will develop,can alwaysbe tracedback to Corinne'sgenius and teaching.This bond betweenlike mindedartists and the blend of femalegenius with educationand professionalismwill becomea strongmotif in later texts. But it is Madamede Stadlwho first articulatesthis femalepotential as a shift of paradigmsthat,

146 ihid., p.520.

120 while not entirely discardingthe ideal of the musicalfeminine, critically addressesthe questionsof femaleartistic empowerment. As we have seen,Madame de Stadlpresents us a very complexvision of female musicality as a potentialutopia that doesnot yet exist, and which negotiatesand struggleswith very disparateviews on woman,music and genius.In the wake of Mignon and late 181h_century ideals of femalesong, Corinne accomplishes two importantsteps; not only is shea much more realistic performerthan Goethe's character,who transformssong ideals into a socio-culturalutopia, as the novel's title suggest;but moreover,she is a performerwho, while perfectly embodyingthe original essenceof woman-music,at the sametime owns the discourseon music andpresents herselfas a performerin charge,until sheis facedwith the dilemmaof her love. This fact is emphasizedby Madamede Stael'svery broad useof songideals, and a quite controversialhybridity that sheascribes to her heroine;musically, poetically, socially and culturally. Critics of the time may certainlyhave felt overwhelmedby this challengingnew aestheticand genderperformance and perhaps could only misunderstand,and eventuallydismiss Stael's novel. What is most importantin the case of Corinne,is that her authordid not merely createher as an ideal, poetic variant of the 6womanpoet', but as a complex,multi-faceted performer, who embracesand owns all vocal art forms as a woman,and the respectiveperformance spaces that derive from them, from the most idealizedstance of the womanpoet to the utterly scandalouspose of the operaperformer. There are few texts, either male- or female-authored,that go as far in their dramatizationof the femalevoice and of the taboothat weighedon woman, voice and performance.At the sametime, Madamede Stadl,like Goethe,does not serve stereotypesor conventionalideals of woman-music,and this is what makesboth Mignon and Corinnesuch unique, strong cases of femalesong. What both figures manageto accomplishin termsof femaleagency, is that they actively challengethe staticpose of the womanwith the lyre, who is looked at ratherthan heard,and who is a lyrical object ratherthan a narrativesubject in chargeof her performance.As potentially strongartist figures, both charactersthus defy, to different extents,the clichd of the

121 femalesongbird, as well.as certainstereotypes associated with femalesong and musical aesthetics. Goetheand Madamede Stadlinaugurate a crucial debateon femalevoice and song as a carrier of a proper femalegenius and artistic liberation,which authorsof subsequentgenerations in Franceand Germanytook back up, developingthe figure's potential,yet also engagingwith the problematicissues of the singeras they relateto the ongoingdiscourse on music,poetry and femininity during the I 9thcentury. Of all Romanticartists, the singermay well be the one most susceptibleto the paradoxical discussionrevolving aroundfemale musicality- and eventuallya properfemale expressionof the Romanticartist per se.The continuity of the motif accountsfor this ongoingfascination, as will be shownby our discussionof singerand songin the following casestudies.

122 Chapter 5

Beyond the Canon: Singing Strategies in the Works of Caroline Aueuste Fischer (1808-18181

In my discussionof Mignon and Corinneas two powerful literary casesin point for the motif of singerand song,I showedto what extent both characters,although partly compliant with contemporaryaesthetics of femalemusicality, defy literary and cultural commonplacesof femalesong, and how they negotiatethe dichotomy of the musical feminine and the femaleperforming body. Both Mignon and Corinne exhibit a striking potential for femaleartistic empowerment,catalysed through their voices and through the art form of music and song. As archetypesof femalesong, both characterswere highly inspirationalfor later authors,some of whom I have briefly mentionedas part of Mignon's legacy. However, the literary treatmentof the female singer in the period between1800 and 1820varies greatly with regardto the disputedissues of femaleartistic genius, legitimacy and professionalism,juxtaposed with the highly symbolic, stylized and idealized imagery attachedto music and femininity. GermanRomantic imagery rangesfrom the highly poetic, as found in Novalis' treatmentof song(embodied in such charactersas Zulima, Fabeland Mathilde in Heinrich von Ofterdingen),to SophieMereau's strong argumentfor women performersand finally Hoffmann's vision of musical literature,which I will discussin chapter6. One author who occupiesa thresholdposition in the highly diverseand heteroclite landscapeof GermanRomanticism and who has in recentyears been rediscoveredas a possiblekey figure in writing the Romanticwoman artist, is Caroline Auguste Fischer.In the context of this thesis,Fischer occupies the problematicposition (as do someof the authorsdiscussed in chapter7) of a non- canonicalwriter whoseworks were read during her lifetime but who essentially remainedexcluded from the major literary discourseof the time and who hassince beenforgotten. Fischer's namemay thus seemless important than that of Goethe,

123 Stadl or Balzac, and a discussionof femalesong in male-authoredworks of German Romanticism(those for exampleof Novalis, Brentanoor Eichendorff) might appear the more obvious choice in this chapter.Nevertheless, Fischer's case is particularly interestingand relevant becauseof her position on the marginsof Germanliterature, a position which addsto the author's unusual,striking treatmentof idealspertaining to femininity and to stereotypesof femalesong and the musical feminine. As I will argue,Fischer's unique position as an outsiderwithin Germanliterature in fact makesher discussionof the singeras a carrier of femaleand musical otherness, transgressionand marginalizationextremely pertinent, and much more relevantto my discussionof the motif, than that of more canonicalauthors. In what follows, I shall discussto what extent her treatmentof femalesong, which sheformulated from a marginalizedperspective, undermines predominant ideals regarding music and femininity and constitutesa critique of traditional conceptsof the musical feminine, by looking at three of her key texts: Der Gfinstling,Margarethe and Justine.

Piecing Together a 'Woman of Letters'

Caroline Auguste Fischershares with many other women authorsaround 1800the problem of accessingthe male-dominatedliterary discourseof the time, of being able to publish and be acknowledgedby their peersand, finally, of belongingto the literary canon,which few women managedto accomplish.The discrepancybetween women Romantics' statusas wives, mothersand collaboratorsand their actual contribution to the literary discourseof their time and, thus, their place in literary history, persiststo this day, and, in the eyesof somescholars, prevents an adequate assessmentof the Romanticepoch. ' As I arguedin chapter 1, it can be misleadingto discussliterary texts along the strict lines of 'male' and 'female' writing traditions, and scholarshipshould assesseach literary text in its own right and context,while re-assessingthe traditional canonand the aestheticsthrough which this canonis

1 SeeRenate von Heydebrarfd,Kanon, Macht, Kultur.- theoretische,historische und sozialeAspekte ästhetischerKanonbildung (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1998).

124 constructedby balancingmale- and female-authoredtexts. In fact, the useof traditional writing paradigmsfor her own purposesmight havebeen part of a woman writer's strategyto subvertand deconstructthese paradigms in her writing, as we shall seein the caseof the author in this chapter. Caroline Auguste Fischerhas beenlargely ignoredby literary scholarship. Although her nameas well as her works havestarted to soundfamiliar to some specialistscholars of GermanRomanticism, she remains on the margins,if not outsidethe current literary canon.While the women authorsI have briefly mentionedso far are familiar evento non-specialists,the nameof Caroline Auguste Fischer is literally forgottentoday. The main reasonfor this seemsto havebeen that, despiteher considerablesuccess as an author, Fischerwas neither a literarypersona in her own right through her parentageor her marriageto a well-known poet, nor did shehold a salon or mingle with any of the literary groupsthat shapedthe culture of early I 91h-century Germany.Thus, eventhough her literary works receivedvery favourablereviews during her lifetime, lack of supportand vital connectionsin the literary world exacerbatedher battle againstliterary insignificanceand oblivion. As a non-canonicalauthor, Fischerposes the double challengeof a literary case study for the motif of the singerand her song,and of an authorwhose writings and aesthetics,in the eyesof the few scholarswho haveworked on her, merit a re- discourse. assessmentand re-appraisalwithin I 9th-century musical-literary In contrast to other well-known women of Romanticism, little is known about Fischer's biography and circumstances apart from the fact that she was born into a Braunschweig artist-musician family in 1764, and that her career as a writer was marked by life-long financial and personal struggles. A two-time divorcee who lost custody of her children, Fischer eventually declined into mental illness, and probably died in a Frankfurt asylum in 1842. A close study of her ccuvre, however, reveals a sharp intellect and somewhat radical views, proof of what must have been a sound education,2 with a definite knowledge of the aesthetic and intellectual tendencies and debates of her time as well as a distinct awareness of her own artistic agenda, which makes her ccuvre appear so radically different from other texts of the

2 ChristineTouaillon, Der deutscheFrauenroman des I& Jahrhunderts(Wien/Leipzig: W. BraumUller,1919), p. 580. Touaillon argued that Fischer probably received a solidmusical education within herfamily.

125 3 sameepoch. Quite tellingly, her literary debut,Gustavs Verirrungen (180 1), a critical take on the Bildungsromangenre, was publishedaround the sametime as her then husbandChristian August Fischer'sgender polemic, the infamoussequel to 4 Karoline von Wobeser'sElisa, oder das Weibwie es seynsollte. Whereasher husbandsided with the predominantgender theorists whose views of womanhoodI discussedin chapters2 and 3, Caroline becameknown for her argumentagainst pre- conceivedcharacters and roles: 'Man erz5hItuns oft was die Menschensind, man beschreibt uns noch öfter - vielleicht ein wenig zu oft - was sie seynsollen; aber man sagt uns, wie mich dünkt, noch immer nicht oft genug:aufwelche Weisesie das werden,was sie sind. 5 As we shall seein the following discussionof selectedFischer texts, the discrepancybetween what is proclaimedthe 'natural' stateof a humanbeing and a person'sevolution and motivation (in other words the how of humanbehaviour) is a central motif in Fischer's works, if not a barely disguisedcritique of the contemporarydiscourse on gender.As discussedearlier, the proclaimed'natural' (i. e. untrainedand 'unspoiled') stateof woman and the unalterablecharacteristics of femininity, geniusand art are problematicassumptions which underpinnedclichdd imagesof female song.6 Writing during the heydayof genderdichotomy, Fischer aims to discussthe conditionsand circumstancesof a humanbeing's psychological developmentand behaviour,which implies her questioningthe rapport between conceptsof femininity, as voiced through the genderdichotomy and through theoriesand fiction of her time, and her own treatmentof the femalevoice in fiction. Throughouther works, Fischerdevelops her critique into a rather direct, at times evenaggressive, discourse against patriarchal paradigms of her time and their consequencesfor women,emphasising her overall purposethrough the useof traditional genresand motifs, suchas the angelicmuse-figure or thefemmefatale.

3 Fischerwas undoubtedlywell-read with regardto major writers (like Goethe,Schiller, Lessingand Richardson)and literary tendencies,such as the epistolaryand the sentimentalistnovel (seeAnita Runge,Liferarische Praxis von Frauen um 1800.Briefroman, Autobiographie, Mdrchen (flildesheim: Olms-Weidmann,1997), p. 34. 4 Christian August Fischer, Ober den Uingangder Weibermit den Mdnnern. Ein nothwendiger 4nhangzu der bekannienSchrifl: Visa. oder das WeibWe esseyn sollie'(Lcipzig: H. Grdff, 1799). ,5 Guslavs Verirrungen,Gesammelle Werke, 6 Bdnde,ed. Anita Runge(Hildeshcim: Georg Olms Verlag, 19871T.), vol V, preface;my emphasis(hereafter Gff). 6 Seechapters 2 and 3.

126 Fischer'stexts usuallyjuxtapose two antagonistictypes of women (and sometimes men), aroundwhom shedevelops her narrativetreatment of women within a patriarchalsystem of valuesand stagingcertain types of femininity. By doing so, shedissects the paradigmsof the proclaimed'natural' stateof woman as opposedto the character'smotivation, evolution and possibleescape routes into personal freedomand self-expression.As an authorwho drawson contemporaryaesthetics, Fischerstages her femalecharacters either as certaintypes conforming to idealsof late 180'-centuryaesthetics or as counter-figuresto theseideals. Not coincidentally, the key works discussedin this chapterwere publishedaround the sametime as a number of rather idealistic, stereotypicaltreatments of femalesong. 7 Thus, Fischer's charactersappear quite complex,and eventhe most angelic, muse-likefigure evolvesand undergoessome kind of changeas the plot unfolds, sometimesbreaking with stereotypesor emphasisingthem to the point of derision.This style makes Fischerunusual among women writers of the 1800s.' The issueof strong femalecharacters, and in consequenceof strong female artists, in relationshipto Fischer's questioningof contemporaryideals of womanand is dramatic music, a focal point in Fischer'swriting - in fact it is directly tied to her questioningof the circumstancesand reasonsfor a person's ideals,characteristics and behaviour,as well as to her questioningof femaleroles, positionsand life choices.In her most developedartist novel, Margarethe,Fischer sums up this standpointin a single sentence,advocating total personaland artistic freedomfor the female subjeet:'Was du darfst, kann niemandbesser wissen, als du selbst'. In consequence,although little is known about Fischer's later yearsand literary production,her contribution to the literary discoursedid not go unnoticedas, in addition to positive reviews, shewas included in Carl Schindel'sdictionary of Germanwomen writers, the earliestaccount of writers of Fischer'sgeneration, and the only one to be written during her lifetime.9 Schindel in fact dedicatedmore pagesto Fischerthan to Friedrich Schlegel's wife Dorothea,and put her in a categorycomparable to Caroline de la Motte Fouqud

7These include Heinrich von Ofterdingen aswell as Eichendorfrs muse figures in DieZauberei im Herbste(1808) and Das Marmorbild (1818). 1See Touaillon, 593/603. 9 pp. Carl Wilhelm Otto August von Schindel,Die deutschenSchrifilstellerinnen des neumehnten Jahrhunderts(Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus,1823-1825).

127 and JohannaSchopenhauer, both of whom had at the time producedan impressive muvre in addition to their statusas literary celebritiesand salon hostesses.Against this background,Schindel's attention to Fischerdeserves mention: crediting her as Ieine wegen ihreri Schicksalesehr interessanteFrau und verdienstvolle Schiftstellerin',10 he discussedher difficult personaland financial situation as well her as strugglesto establishherself as a writer - Fischerwrote for a living and must have publishedunder extremedifficulties and Schindelapplauded the authorwho used'ihre ausgezeichnetenTalente zur Abfassungverschiedener Schriften und Beiträge in Zeitschriften, ohne sich zu nennen'." At the time of writing Schindel was able to report that Fischerwas conceptualisinga substantialwork on women's condition: 'Seit 18 Jahrensammelt sie nicht fremde,sondern eigene Gedanken zu einem Werke über die Weiber; wenn und ob es erscheinenwird, vermagsie bei ihren Verhdltnissennicht zu bestimmen'.12 This work by Fischernever saw the light of day and by the time Schindelwrote his appraisalthe author had ceasedpublishing altogether.After a seriesof storiesand novellasbetween 1817 and 1820,nothing else is known of the author exceptthat shecertainly lived in financial and probably personaldistress to the point that shewas no longer able to pursueany literary projects.13 The latter circumstancesof Fischer's life ironically sum up the author's life-long struggleand her non-conformismas a woman and a writer.

Rediscovering a Phenomenon: Fischer's Recent Critical Appraisal

After the entry in Schindel'smanual of Germanwomen authors,the nameof Caroline Auguste Fischerfell into oblivion, whetherbecause she was never associatedwith a prominentname who could havesecured her a place in literary manualsor becauseof her position outsidethe relevantliterary and intellectual circles and schoolsof thought. 14To this day, standardworks on Germanliterature

10 Aid, p. 128. 11 fbid, p. 129. 12 Ibid, p. 130. 13See Mid, p. 129. 14Two works mention Fischerbriefly: Gocdeke,Grundriss der deutschenDichiung, 2nd revised edition by EdmundGoetze, VI (Leipzig: Ehlermann,1898); Pathaky, Lexicon deuischerFrauen der

128 of the 1800smention her, if at all, in a few lines,15 and it was not until the rediscoveryby Christine Touaillon that Fischcr receivedcredit as 'einc Schriftstellerin [ ] durch ihre Eigenart, durch die ihrer ... welche Kraft Empfindung Darstellung und alle anderen deutschen Frauen des 18. Jahrhunderts weit Obertrifft'. 16 Touaillon's groundbreaking study remained the only one of its kind for the major part of the 20'h century. Since the republication of Fischer's (ruvre in the late 1980s,17 a considerable number of scholarly studies have helped to re-assessher within the context of German Romanticism, the gender polemic of the 1800s and issues of women's " More 19 writing. specific studies treat the author's short stories, as well as male 20 representation in Fischer's novelS. A number of scholars have either contributed articles on selectaspects of Fischer's writing or includedher in studieswithin the wider scopeof women's writing around 1800,21exploring the difficulties of women

Feder. Eine Zusammenstellungder seitdem Jahre 1840 erschienenenWerke weiblicherAutoren, nebstBiographien der lebendenundeinem Verzeichnisder Pseudonyme(Berlin: Pathaky, 1898). 15 The Oxford Companionto GermanLiterature doesnot mention her, and the Feminist Encyclopaediaof GermanLiterature only briefly alludesto one of her stories.A recentbook to include Fischeris A History of Women'sWriting in Germany,Austria andSwitzerland,ed. Jo Catling (Cambridge:CUP, 2000), anotheris the CambridgeHistory of GermanLiterature, which confirms Fischer'sposition outsidegender stereotypes. 16 Touaillon, p.578. 17 The GesammelleWerke contain the texts by Fischerthat are available.Schindel and Touaillon discussother works that could not be located.A novel announcedby Fischer,Clemenfina, was a parently never seenthrough. 1p' . The leading Fischerscholar Anita Rungehas provided severalstandard works: Literarische Praxis von Frauen um,1800. Briefroman, Autobiographle, Marchen (Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann,1997); 'Wenn Schillers Geist weibliche Kbrper belebt:Emanzipation und k0nstlerischesSelbstverst5ndnis in den Romanenund ErzlihlungenCaroline Auguste Fischers', in Untersuchungenzum Romanvon Frauen um 1800,ed. Helga Gallas/MagdaleneHeuser (Tabingen: Niemeyer; 1990),pp. 184-202; 'Die Dramatik weiblicher Selbstverständigungin den BriefromanenCaroline Auguste Fischers',in Die Frau im Dialog.- Studienzu Theorieund Geschichtedes Briefes, cd. Anita Runge/Lieselotte SteinbrUgge(Stuttgart: Metzler; 1991),pp. 93-114; ClementineKOgler, Caroline AugusteFischer (1764-1842).Eine Werkbiographie(unpublished doctoral thesis, FU Berlin, 1989);Judith Purver, 'Caroline Auguste Fischer:An Introduction', in WomenWriters of the Age of Goethe,IV, ed. MargaretIves (Lancaster:Lancaster University, 1991),pp. 3-30; Purver, ", Zufrieden mit stillerem Ruhme"?Reflections on the Placeof Women Writers in the Literary Spectrumof the Late Eighteenth and Early NineteenthCenturies, Publications of the English GoetheSociety, 64-65 (1996), 72-93. 19Ibid., 'Die ErzählungenCarol ine Auguste Fischersim Kontext ihrer Zeit', in Schnittpunkt Romantik.- Text- und Quellenstudienzur Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Wolfgang Bunzel/KonradFeilchenfeldtlWalter Schmitz (Tilbingen: Niemeyer; 1997),pp. 59-68. 20 Ibid., 'Passion,Possession, Patriarchy: Images of Men in the Novels and Short Storiesof Caroline Auguste Fischer(1764-1842)1, Neophilologus, 79.4 (10/1995),619-28. 21 Eva Kammler, ZwischenProfessionalisierung undDilettantismus. Romane undihre Autorinnen um 1800 (Opladen:Westdeutscher Verlag, 1992);Sigrun Schmid,Der 'Selbstverschuldeten UninfindigkeiVentkommen:Perspektiven bargerlicher Frauenliteratur ; dargestelftan RomanbeispedenSophie von La Roches,Therese Hubers, Friederike Helene Ungers,Caroline

129 writers in terms of authorshipand publication,22 as well as their contribution to the genreof the artist novel.23 Fischer's novelsDie Honigmonatheand Margarelhe have attractedparticular attention from Germanscholars, whereas her short story William der Neger has had greaterexposure in the English-speakingworld. 24 The few scholarsthat have worked on CarolineAuguste Fischer unanimously agree that this author has beenunjustly forgottenand that shenot only deservesa re-appraisalbut that she should be a fixed part of the Germanliterary canon.

Writing Music, Writing Difference?

In contrastto the Romanticstereotype of the prolific woman author,Fischer's ceuvre appearsmodest. Despite positive first reviews,25 she only managedto publish four novels in her short career,Gustavs Verirrungen (180 1), Die Honigmonale(1802) and Der Gfinstling (1808); and Margarethe in 1812,as well as severalshorter prose works before 1820. Unlike contemporaries,such as Schlegel,Mereau and Brentano,Fischer is an author whoseocuvre appears closely to reflect her difficult life circumstances. Fischerdid not write to supplementher husband'swork; shewrote againstthe very notion of woman that her husbandpropagated. Nor did shemass-produce nor

AugusteFischers, Johanna Schopenhauers undSophie Bernhardis (Warzburg: Konigshausen& Neumann, 1999);Michaela Krug, Aufder Suchenach dem eigenenRaum: Topographiendes Weiblichenim Romanvon A utorinnen um 1800 (WOrzburg,Germany: K6nigshausen & Neumann; 2004). 22 Carola Hilmes, 'Namenlos.Ober die Verfasserinvon 'GustavsVerirrungen", in Spurensuchein Sprach- und Geschichislandschaften.Festschrifilffir Ernst Erich Met--ner,ed. Andrea Hohmeyer/JasminRohl/Ingo Wintermezer(Monster: Lit Verlag, 2003), pp.265-76. 23 Although her remarksare not entirely accurate,Judith Martin proposesa surveyof female-authored artist novels, in which she includesFischer: 'Between Exaltation and Melancholy: Corinne and the FemaleArtist Novel in Ninetecnth-CenturyGermany', JAISA, Spring 2000,29-50. 24 'William the Negro', transi, SusanZantop, in Bitter Healing: German WomenWrifersfrom 1700- 1830.-An Anthology, ed. JeannineBlackwell/Susanne Zantol) (Lincoln: University of NebraskaPress, 1990),pp. 354-67; SusanZantop, 'Karoline Auguste FernandineFischer', German Writers in the Age of Goethe:Sturm und Drang to Classicism,ed. JamesHardin/Christoph Schweitzer (Detroit: Gale; 1990),pp. 31-36; DaraghDownes, 'Alterity: SameDifferenceT, in Das schwierigeneumehnte Jahrhundert,ed. JorgenBarkhoff/Gilbert Carr/RogerPaulin (TObingen:Niemeyer; 2000), pp.488-96; Roger Little, 'From Taboo to Totem: Black Man, White Woman,in Caroline AugusteFischer and SophieDoin', MLR, 93 (October 1998),948-60. 25 ALZ, 3.198 (09.06.1801),p. 75. The reviewer emphasizesthe literary quality of Gustav,sign of a promising new author (who, at the time, is assumedto be male). Fischersigned most subsequent publicationsas 'Verfasser(in) von GustavsVerirrungen', and later on simply as CarolineAuguste.

130 engagein theoreticaldebates on music or genderof her time - both of which would have requiredher to haveaccess to literary circles and to a better supportsystem. To put it bluntly, Fischer's life was difflcult and frustrating,and her writing echoes thesecircumstances, reading like a dramaticscript of the author's struggleas a woman and artist who, despitedrawing on contemporarystyles and aesthetics,did not sugar-coather literary treatmentbut questionedcontemporary gender models directly and trenchantly- exposing,even accusing, pre-conceived models of femininity and of the rapportbetween the sexes,including male-authoredconcepts of art. As such,her useof traditional forms suchas the Bildungsroman,or clichdd imagery of femaleartistry underlinesthe subversivequality of her style. Shenever publishedany theoreticaltexts that specifically commentedon the musical-literary discourseor took a position with regardto (male-dominated)concepts of femininity and art, but rather,comparable to a writer like Hoffmann who conceptualizedmusic in his fiction, formulatedthese issues in her writing and put forward quite new ideas, which were certainly fosteredby her bitter life experiencesyet which clearly surpassedthe biographicaldimension through the aestheticsand the quality of her work, making her standout amongwomen Romantics. More than other texts of the time, Fischer's ceuvremight imply a writing of difference,because not only did shewrite from an isolatedposition, which comes through in the senseof isolation and difference surroundingher heroines,but her writing style and the mannerin which shepresents her ideassignificantly differ from those of other authors.Fischer dramatizes contemporary models of both masculinity and femininity, of art and artists in her writings and, in doing so, draws on contemporaryaesthetics while negotiatingthese topics with a senseof freedom and radicalism that dominatesher ceuvre.Her writing standsout as subversive, showing remarkablewit and irony in exposingtraditional genderideals, a quality matchedby few other writers of the era, and which makesthe discrepancybetween the importanceof Fischer'swork and her vanishingfrom the collective memory disturbing.26 Thus, althougharguing for a 'writing of difference' when speaking about a woman author is a slippery road to follow, one cannot ignore Fischer's exceptionalstatus both as a woman author who produceddifferently, i.e. outsidethe

26See Runge, 'Wenn Schillers Geist', p 193.

131 traditional canon,and as the author of a literary discoursewhich, althoughbased upon and indebtedto contemporaryaesthetics (and major works of literature from which Fischerpossibly drew inspiration),27 adopted a different view on them. Fischer's potentially polemic treatmentof the woman artist, of music and song, is amongthe most striking of 19"'-centuryliterature and incorporatesboth aesthetic questioningand the ironically bitter voice of the woman author who rarely depicts momentsof contentment,let alone happinessfor the woman artist, but who neverthelessraises important questionsconcerning the ideal of woman and music. In that regard,Fischer's use of music and songin her texts is just as interesting. Perhapsdespite her own upbringing, Fischerdid not specifically write music novellas,but usedmusic pragmatically,almost sparsely,tying the art form itself, as well as the poetic ideals it purveyed,closely to her overall purposesin writing: when shewrites the woman singer,she does so as part of her questioningof the idealsof music and femininity as opposedto femaleagency, liberation, self-expressionand th fulfilment. Although clearly rooted in late 18 -centurymusical aestheticsand referencingspecific imagesof femalesong in her work, Fischerdoes not accumulate musical scenesin her texts, nor doesshe stage mysterious singers, be they geniuses, sirens,or divas, in the middle of her novels.Nor doesshe create an artistic utopia linked to music, song and the femalevoice, as do Goetheand Stadl.Displaying a refined knowledgeof musical imagery,Fischer rather alludesto traditional, poeticizedparadigms of songand femininity as we find them in prosetexts of the period, all the while playing with theseparadigms, twisting them as part of her questioningof the stereotypeand ideal of woman-music.As we shall see,her critical treatmentof the muse-figurenevertheless coincides with her integrationof female song into the questfor female liberation, self-expressionand artistic accomplishment.Fischer uses musical imagery subtly, suchas in her first major work Die Honigmonale(1802), but sheuses it pertinently as part of her overalI polemic againstdichotomist, patriarchal gender models and their ensuing consequencesfor men and women alike. Fischerdramatizes music not as an ideal but as an illusion and potential trap for women, who find themselvesfixed in the passivepose of the museunder a male gaze,devoid of any agencyor artistic

27 See n.3.

132 significance.This central polemic underpinsFischer's entire ocuvre,especially since the author contrastssuch traditional musical-feminineideals with her heroines' questsfor viable female artistic and personalself-expression and agency.

Playing the Harp Until Death Do Them Part: Der Gfinsding (1808)

Synopsis

The Tsarina Ivanova hasfallen in love with andpursuesher minion, the statesman Alexander, who neither can nor wants to requite the sovereign'slove, since he considersher to be unwomanlybecause ofher powerful statusand demeanour. Avoiding court life, Alexandersubsequentlyfalls in love with hisfoster-daughter, Maria, an angelic incarnation of idealfemininity. Although Maria has a thirstfor knowledgeand embarkson a musical apprenticeship,she eventually cedes to Alexander's desirefor her and the Iwo arefinally married However,the embittered and vengeful Tsarina has the newlyweds'bedpoisonedand the novel concludeswith Maria's swansong,which shesings during her weddingnight, shortly beforeher andAlexander's death.

Grim as it may be in its outcome,the novel portraysnot only a fascinating power strugglebetween woman and man, soverIeign and subordinate,but also questionstraditional conceptsof masculinity and femininity through the useof stereotypicalimagery. Maria appearsas the pawn betweenAlexander and Ivanova: an epitome of the angelic, innocentchild-woman, a young girl with an avid thirst for knowledgeand a particular gift for music, shebecomes Alexander's muse,the canvason to which he projectshis idea of the perfect woman and wife. However, Maria also implicitly questionsthe archetypeof the musethrough her potential for educationand her subsequentpersonal and artistic evolution in the courseof the novel. Hers is an apprenticeshipgone wrong, a sort of Bildungsromanex negativo, which seesher progressfrom the stateof the harp-girl, Alexander's muse,to that of an educated,knowledgeable singer and artist, only to then regressinto the stateof the harp-girl as Alexander's wife. In this novel, Fischerraises the questionof femaleeducation as a crucial female aspectof femaleagency - in this, she is stunningly progressive,implying a character'spotential through education,especially in music, in a way few other

133 authorsdid. Educationbecomes a focal point for Maria's evolution. At the same time, the author questionsideals of femalemusicality, suchas the harp-girl, subtly, but unmistakably.Although Alexanderat first seemsto refusethe ideal of the Rousseauesquegirl charminghim with a peasanttune, 28 he is ultimately unableto differentiate betweenreality and illusion, sincehe falls for exactly the sametype of ideal woman, whom he seesin his foster-daughterMaria. Maria is madeto fit the mould of Alexander's ideal woman and is set up as Ivanova's direct antagonist, which reinforcesthe artificiality of the feminine ideal through the male gaze,all the while amplifying the role of the Tsarinaas an imminent threat to Alexander's happinesswith Maria. The narrativeperspective plays a crucial role here,as the epistolary novel is entirely told from the male protagonist'spoint of view. However, it is preciselythrough this male perspectivethat Fischeris able to subvertthe stereotypeand questionthe male gazeupon woman,a male gazewhich interprets and idealizesfemininity and makesit fit the male protagonist'swishes and idealS. 29 It is againstthese gender schemes and idealsthat Maria's failed attemptat an individual, independentlife as an artist must be read,and that the girl's ultimate confinementto the static, passivepose of the harp-girl becomeseven more ironic, and rather cynical. This being.said, the lack of a femalepoint of view makesit difficult to assessthe reasonswhy Maria agreesto marry Alexanderand abandon her pursuitsas a singer and musicianand leavesthe questionas to why sheabandons her art studiesunanswered. To begin with, the 'romance' betweenMaria and Alexanderstarts out with the archetypal gaze of the male protagonist who, despite his betterjudgment, falls for his ideal of womanhood, the perfectly innocent and pure Maria: 'Die schOnste, Jungfrau ist Ihr Ich ihr' 30HiS reinste, seelenvollste mein. erstaunt. erstaune, wie . obsession with the ideal feminine becomes more pronounced as well as more profane as soon as Maria takes up music lessons. In that aspect, the narration develops the archetypal ambivalence of woman-music, of female musicality as experienced through the male subject: Maria as an ideal merges with the performing

28Tas Mädchenschien, besonders in seineridealisch-ländlichen Kleidung, ein überirdischesWesen, dasBild derreinsten, vollendetsten Weiblichkeit; doch wahrlich meinem lierzen blieb es fremd. Ich fühltemich - leidermöcht' ich sagen- gezwungen,den Schein sogleich von der Wirklichkeit zu trennen'(GWIV, p.25). 29 Seealso Anita Runge's afterword in Der Gfinsiling, p. 199.

134 body of the woman musician,setting the tone for both a highly sensualand pleasurableexperience on the part of Alexanderwatching and listening, and the latent threat of the underlying eroticism of the woman singer:

Sie wollte fast alle für sie schicklichenInstrumente lernen, spielt jetzt wirklich das Clavier, die Harfe, die Laute mit seltnerFertigkeit und mit unbeschreiblichem Ausdruck. Ihre seelenvolle,himmelreine Stimme übertriM dasAlles. Seh' ich sie Clavier, [ ] ja dann ich denn droht 31 am ... wend' mich ab; meiner Ruhe Gefahr.

This is a highly interestingmoment in the story, as it focusesclosely on Alexander's ambivalentattitude towardsMaria, towardsthe feminine ideal and reality through the musical experience,connecting the poetic sublimity of songwith the eroticism of its performance.32 While he listensin raptureto the girl's soulful and heavenlypure voice, which constitutesa truly poetic experience,Alexander cannothelp but watch the performing girl, that is the female body for all its sensuality,which causeshis unease.The seeminglypoetic allure of the scenebarely disguisesthe erotic tension underlying the male gaze.The relationshipbetween Alexander and Maria evolvesaround the man's paradigmaticambivalence towards female musicality: in a narrativeand aestheticinterplay, the authorjuxtaposes Maria's passionfor music and knowledgein generaland her ensuingeducational endeavourswith Alexander's growing passionin a worldly sense,which evolves from a platonic adorationtowards a more bodily, humanneed and increasedfeelings of male possessiveness.In this aspect,Fischer both drawson the clichd of ambivalent,poetic-erotic female musicality and takes it further: if the music educationhas the potential of developingMaria's personalityand identity, it also her reinforces appealas a museto Alexander- in a sense,Alexander's angelic muse, the unattainableideal, receivesa sensualbody through her musical and vocal training. Thus, she becomeseven more attractiveas an object of both poetic and carnal desirefor Alexander,whose claim on Maria is presentedin the seemingly generous,altruistic poseof the father who only wants the best for his daughterand who cannotrefuse any of her wishes- this howeverrather adds to the overall creepinessof his attitude. Alexander loves the imageof the musical Maria, the

30 GW IV, 32. 31 p. Ibid, pp.47-48. 32 Seechapter 3 for my discussionof the ambivalenceof femalemusicality.

135 object sheconstitutes for him when shemakes music and especiallywhen shesings, the effect that her voice hason him and the pleasureof watching her perform. In accordancewith the aestheticsof femalesong outlined earlier, music makesMaria more beautiful and desirableas a woman,poetically and sexually, as it links her song performanceto male rapture- moreover,in this case,the idealizationthrough music hasdisturbing fetishist undertoneswhich reinforcethe ambivalenceof Maria's sublimity through music. Alexandercomplies with all Maria's artistic requests,but in reality doesso only in order to dwell on his own idealizationof her and to further his claims to makeher his wife: 'Wer darf mir wehren,for die Bildung diesesherrlichen Mädchensalles zu thun? Ihr Wohl als dasMeinige zu betrachten?So lange sie selbstmir bleiben will, wer darf sie mir rauben?933 Alexander's growing obsessionwith his foster-daughterinevitably implies a constrainton her artistic persona,namely the requirementof domesticmusic-making and its ensuingconflict for the singeras a public performer.While shenever actually treadsa theatrical stagenor cams her money as a singer,Maria is definedas a potentially professionalmusician, with music constitutingthe realm in which she displaysan extraordinarytalent and exists as an individual, an independentand accomplishedperson. She is not a ready-mademusical genius,but actually builds on a pre-existingtalent in order to reachfull artistic expertise.While sheshows stunningtalent, her foster father actually doesnot understandthis potential, nor does he truly encourageher in her pursuitsbut considersher thirst for learningrather strangeand an obstacleto the 'true love' that sheshould learn with h iM.3" In reality, Alexander's seeminglyproactive and progressiveattitude vis-a-vis his daughter's educationand musical apprenticeshiptranslates as a quintessentialpatriarchal paradigmof the cultural discoursediscussed in chapters2 and 3. Songand music constituteenhancements of Maria's beautyand charm for the sole purposeof Alexander's pleasure,whereas both the artistic and the individual natureand developmentof the performeras well as the poetic quality of song become redundant.This fundamentalconflict betweenthe male-authoredideal of songand Maria's potential as an artist underpinher apprenticeshipas shegenuinely strives to

33GWIV, p.35. 34lbid, p.47.

136 achieve the highest level of artistic expertise; the omission of Maria's viewpoint and the irony pervading the narration's staging of Alexander's artistic ignorance reinforces the discrepancy between ideal and reality and makes the girl's artistic dilemma even more dramatic, as her endeavours are focalised through Alexander's point of view: Alexander rather casually refers to the girl's obsession with old art masters, and with the lives of other artists which is in fact a pertinent and important issue especially for woman artiStS.35 As we have seenin the caseof Corinne, the questionof an artistic tradition into which the perfon-nermay inscribe her own accomplishments,while in turn creating artistic legacyand posteriority, are crucial issuesfor Maria and attestto her heightenedartistic consciousness:what doesartistic geniusentail, and what is the legacy of earlier great artists?Does genius entail looking back to the old mastersor doesit imply rather creativeoriginality - and if so, would it be at all possible?What is Maria's own contribution to the artistic discourseand where doesher geniuslie? Theseconstitute important thoughtsfor the budding artist Maria and are quite striking given the socio-culturaland aestheticdiscourse of the time which, in theory, from I have 36To precludeswoman the geniusquestion, as explainedearlier . what extent Maria's intentionsare professionalor not remainsdistorted through Alexander's viewpoint, the latter depicting Maria's apprenticeshipas rather disturbing and interfering with his own motivations- in fact, art standsbetween him and Maria, who seemsto spendher time with him solely for the purposeof her craft: 'Ein schönesLied, ein anziehendesGemälde, eine großein der Geschichte aufgefundeneHandlung, die sie mit leuchtendemAuge, mit glühenderWange 37 erzählt: das ist es, weswegensie meine Ankunft mit Sehnsuchterwartet'. However, as an artist, Maria fails just as much as Alexander to differentiate between ideal and reality, when she pushes her music studies further and moves from domestic music-making to opera. Occupying the central part of the novel, this personal and artistic apprenticeship marks the turning point in Maria's regression from accomplished artist to the passive stance of Alexander's muse at the end of the novel. What makes this scene even more interesting is the way in which it plays with

35Aid, 54. 36 p. See chapter 3. 37 GW IV, p. 54.

137 the subjectof illusion, which underpinsthe entire novel and its problematicgender ideals.Similarly to Alexanderand his ideal feminine, Maria falls for the illusion of music and her own song ideals.She becomes obsessed with her teacher,the actor and performerThibaldy, studyingall availableopera scores and his arias in particular, revelling in the art form and developingan infatuationwith the tenor through the music they perform together.While shedwells on the abstract, Romantic,concept of love and sublimemusic, Thibaldy developsmere human feelings for the girl. Although Maria eventuallyrealizes that her understandingof song is not sharedby Tbibaldy (who, like Alexander,tries to appropriateher for himself exclusively), her misunderstandingof the musical ideal triggers her regressionto the position of Alexander's muse.Maria's love for music and for a specific form of high music remainsto a certainextent in the realm of musical ideals,since she is not able to differentiatethe professionalperformance from the ideal of music. While performing her songswith Tbibaldy sheremains naTve and innocent,loving the idea(l) of her songsand taking Thibaldy's acting for real heroism.The narration plays with imagesof illusion and ideals,namely the unviable idealsof love and art, which are both dismantledas abstractconcepts that have nothing to do with real-life passionand performance.While music for Maria constitutesa spiritual ideal, for Thibaldy it is merely a professionin which, as a performer,he adoptsvarious roles. His love is directedat Maria as the woman performer in the flesh, whereasAlexander continues to clothe his inappropriatelove and desirefor Maria in romantic imageryof the ideal feminine. Maria is lost amid stereotypicalextremes of femalemusicality that do not offer her the ultimate truth as they are irreconcilablewith her own idealism in art and love. Her options for the perfectmodel for her own life, life in the conventor life as an artist, her questfor artistic geniusand the illusion of the musical performance, haveall proven illusory and unsatisfying.As a singer,she remains attached to the stereotypicalideals of sublime songand femininity, unableto bridge the gap betweenmusic as an ideal and music as a realistic, professionalchoice which, inevitably, would break with the ideal of femalesong and exposethe idealized singerto the 'mundane' realm of the performing artist, and to physical love - at least the narration suggeststhis as Maria's view. Going beyondthe stereotypicalimagery

138 of woman and art seenfrom a male perspective,the author dramatizesMaria's dilemma as that of not finding her own identity either as a woman or as an artist - an identity and a life that could be real and lasting, beyondideals. " By failing to do so, either out of disillusionmentor discouragement,or plain confusion,she falls back into patriarchaldiscourse in that sheturns to her foster-fatheras the focus of her life. Incapableof deciding who shewants to be as a person,as a woman,Maria designatesAlexander the only constantin her life, deriving her existencefrom him, and, literally, conforming herself to the poseof museand wife. This patriarchal gendermodel is further poeticizedand presentedin Romantic imagerythrough Maria's dream,in which she is united with Alexander in heaven,surrounded by 39 heavenlymusic - Maria slips back into traditional Romanticfemininity. Ironically, it is the unwomanlyTsarina who cunningly puts an end to Alexander's and Maria's love dilemma by poisoningAlexander with a love potion. When the potion fails to work, Alexander is nursedback to health by Maria. Through her caring and focus on Alexander,Maria gradually retreatsinto a passive, into 40The formerly muse-like stanceand the stereotypeof the caring woman. place occupiedby her educationand music, her thirst for knowledge,is now taken up by her devotion and care for Alexander.While the latter is ill and unconscious,Maria keepssinging a single, simple tune that shecomposed in order to speedhis recovery.

Besondersschien Mariens Spiel und Gesangwunderbar auf mich zu wirken; doch konnte sie mir nur immer durch ein und dasselbeLied ein Lächelnabzwingen. Bey allen Anderen verrieth ich, obwohl beruhigt,minder oder mehr schmerzhafte Empfindungen.Sie hatte es kurz vor unsererentscheidenden Unterredung gedichtet, ich her. [ ] Sie und setzees Euch seinerEinfalt und Herzlichkeit wegen ... sang diesesLied zu ihrer Laute, nach einer alten, herzerschütterndenMelodie. Oft - sagt habe ich Wilhelm - habenThränen ihre Stimme erstickt. Dann - sonderbargenug - mich unwillig von ihr abgewandtund die Augen geschlossen.Endlich aber vermochtesie es, das Lied ohne Thränenzu singen,und bewirkte dadurch,selbst " nach dem Zeugnissedes Arztes, meine Genesungaugenscheinlich.

38Ibid, p. 114. 39Ibid, pp.124-25. 40See Runge, Literarische Praxis, pp.55-56; BarbaraDuden, 'Das schöneEigentum: Zur Herausbildungdes bürgerlichen Frauenbildes an der Wendevom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert',Kursbuch 47 (1977), 125-40(pp. 137-40). 41GW IV, pp.150-5 1.

139 Sacrificing herselfto Alexander's obsessionwith her and his absolutewill to possessher as his wife, Maria losesher poetic quality and musical integrity. The musicalgesture as expressed through the basiclied becomesrepetitive and monotonous,simple and non-thrcatening, turning Maria away from boththe high art andthe performativeillusion that is operaand into the stereotypeof the singing harp-girl- only to personifyAlexander's illusion about gender roles and the re- establishmentof the 'naturalorder'. Maria's music is no longerself-sufficient but attunedto Alexander.She sings what pleases and cures him, notwhat pleases her, thusexposing the illusionthat is the Romanticmuse as the malesubject's mouthpiece.As a singer,Maria losesher artistic agency and turns into a clichdof Romanticfemale musicality: it is Alexanderwho decideswhich song she should sing,so that shebecomes literally fixed in the poseof performingthe samepiece repetitively.The lied whichMaria sings to hastenAlexander's recovery remains her only musicuntil herdeath and constitutes the lastact beforeshe dies. In theend, at the momentof death,Maria finds herself reduced to a Mignon-pastiche,harping and singingthe same,simplistic tune for herhusband. The lied's simpleallure and rhyme patternemphasise Maria's final fixation on her husbandand, to a certain extent,her complete isolation and reductionas a woman and artist. A far cry from Maria's ambitious studies,her swansongappears as a quasi-mechanical,repetitive and fragmentedlast glimpse of what remainsof the musicianMaria, who finishes her life as Alexander's ideal and with whom the stereotypeof Romantic love evaporatesliterally into the sky - the narrationbreaks off the girl's simplistic tune while the artificially Romantictone of the novel's last lines only reinforce the gruesomenessof the couple's death: 'in der sch6nstenNacht des irdischenLebens erhobensich ihre Geisterzu den Sternen.'Du bist bey mir, ich bin bey Dir/Bis an mein LebensEnde'. So sangMaria noch zu ihrer Laute, eine Stundevor der ewigen Vereinigung mit Alexander'.42 In Der Gfinstling, Caroline AugusteFischer dramatizes common concepts of femalesong as an ideal object of desireand sublimity seenfrom the perspectiveof the male subject.Maria's budding artistic identity is not only misunderstoodand brushedaside by her foster-fatherbut in a way sabotagedand smotheredin his

42 Ibid, p. 173.

140 attemptto make her his wife, beforeMaria is able to find somesort of artistic 43 identity. Femalesong is first and foremostdismissed as a male-construedillusion and a dangerous,wrong ideal of musical femininity that, literally, leaveslittle or no spacefor the female voice per se and as a sign of female self-expression.On the other hand,Fischer does not let her femaleprotagonist off easily either. Maria clearly fails to break free from her own idealizedmisconceptions regarding art and love, and eventually prefersthe statusas a museto the uncertaintyand the realismof the woman performer.T'hus, Fischer leaves the questionof who is to blame in the development tragic of the story unanswered- the only answerto this questioncould lie in the critical dismantlementof the false idealsof art, love and femininity within discourse the gendered of late 18th-and I 9th-century aesthetics. Fischer's treatment of the romantic ideal of love and the femalemuse is extremely interestingin this novel as she subtly deconstructsthe moti of the angelic, innocentyoung girl with ,f the stunningtalent in musicwho endsup sacrificingeverything, including her life, for her loveand marriage to Alexander.By debatingthis motif, the authorironically criticizescontemporary ideals of art andlove, due to whichthe woman ends up sacrificingherself, ceasing to learn,to growand develop both personality and artistic agency,whereas the male protagonistuses his museto complementhis own persona,his masculinity.Fischer's dramatization of the femalecharacter's silence, her lack of a true perspectiveand failure to acquirean identity for herselftestifies to the difficulties of women in escapingthe dogmaof ideal femininity madeworse through the fantasyof musical sublimity and ambivalence.This constitutesa leitmotival conflict in Fischer's ceuvrewhich she focalizesthrough the plight of the artistically gifted woman - Maria's Mignon-pasticheis thus a bitterly ironic view on the crucial issueof female self-expression.

43 When Maria ceasesher operastudies, Alexander comments rather matter-of-factlyon the considerableloss for the artistic world, implying that this loss is not only insignificant, but that Maria will far better fulfil the naturally appropriaterole as his wife.

141 Anything But Music: Margarethe (1812)

Fischer's last novel Margarethe is not specifically a singer's novel, yet femalesong fulfils a key function in the novel's narrativeaesthetics and characterdevelopments. Togetherwith Germainede Statl's Corinne and Caroline Pichler's Frauenwarde 44 (1818), Margarethe is the only substantialfemale contribution to the artist novel genreof the early I 9thcentury, addressingissues of artistic agencyand femaleself- expressionin their interdependencewith Romanticconcepts of love and art. Margarethe is the most accomplishedof all of Fischer'snovels, as shedevelops particularly daring and liberatedfemale characters well beforeother Germanwomen writers followed suit, which hasprompted critics to classify Margarethe as not only radically unique but as the true femalereply to early Romanticartist novelswritten 45 by men, as well as their implied art concepts.46 As we shall see,Fischer continues the critical view on 'ideal femininity' as expressedthrough music and songthat she developedin Der Gfinsiling, and takesthe stereotypeof the harp-girl to a different level by developingescape routes away from the static stanceof the museand from male expectations,towards autonomy and femaleself-expression.

Synopsis

The painter Stephani, who has come to Florence to seek a career, falls in love with the dancer Rosamunde, in whom he believes he hasfound his muse, but who rejects him. He subsequently turns his desire towards Mar arethe, an innocent, angelic girl 47 whom he immortalizesin hispaintings. Gretchen, as she is known, is wooedby both Stephaniand the Prince ofFlorence; however,she rejects both menand retreats into a secular conventwhich shefoundedhersel(in order to carry out charitableprojects. Rosamundedies the untimelydeath of the artist, whereas Slephanispends his life chasingthefeminine ideal and eventuallydies ofa venereal

44 Caroline Pichler, Frauenwfirde,Samiliche Werke,60 vol. (Wien: Pichler, 1828-1844),11. 4' The critic of the Leipziger Literaturzeitung remarkedupon the novel's uniquenessand outstanding quality: 'Wer Gustav's Verirrungengelesen hat, wird von diesemneuen Romane nichts Gewöhnlicheserwarten, und sich in seinenErwartungen keineswegs getäuscht sehen' (LLZ 321 (24.12.1812),pp. 2567-68). 46 SeeRunge, I Wenn Schillers Geist', p. 193. 47 The Goetheallusion is evident in Margarethe, both through the heroine's Faustianname and her through depiction as the archetypalbeautiful soul of WilhelmMeister - Margarethetherefore embodiestwo important types of femininity from the Goetheera.

142 disease: 'LeidenschaftlicheLiebefür die Kunst wiefür die Weiber,grub sein frühzeitiges Grab.948

As Stephani'sfate tellingly implies, the novel centreson the topoi of love and art and their interconnectionthrough the three main characters,Margarethe, Stephani and Rosamunde.The dramaarises out of the women's claim to personaland artistic agencyas opposedto the male artist's needto appropriateeither woman as his muse and make her immortal through his painting - here,Fischer discusses fundamental issuesof the discourseon art: is male artistic procreativity more importantthan a woman's wish for personaland artistic independence?Can a woman claim agency or can sheonly exist as part of the universal,male sphere?As distinct from Maria, both Gretchenand Rosamundereject theseconcepts as they reject Stephaniand the Prince in order to securetheir own personaland/or artistic self-sufficiency. Although not professionalsingers in the strict sense,both heroinesare confrontedwith the ideal of femalemusicality and its implications as a male fantasy, the dismantlementof which constitutesan important stepping-stonein their emancipation.As shebecomes a musefor Stephaniand the prince, it is not surprisingto seethat at certain points in the novel, Gretchenappears in the garb and poseof the angelic musewith her harp. She is initially presentedto both men as the archetypalMignon-angel, wearing a long silvery dressand her hair down - the irony of the motif becomesapparent in the contrastbetween Gretchen's embarrassment over her silly appearanceand Stephani'srapture when gazing upon her as though shewere a heaven-sentmuse:

Ich habeeine himmlische Erscheinung gehabt, und in meineganz umdüsterte Seele ist belebenderLichtstrahl [ ] Ich Wunder ein gefallen. ... tretenäher, sehe ein unvergleichlicherSchönheit, eine Jungfrau im höchstenSinne des Worts. Meine Knie wollensich beugen. [... ] Ich erkennedas himmlische Kind, wasmir im Fieber einstTrank reichte. Aber die göttlicheErscheinung wendet sich von mir und verschwindet.`

4'GWIII, p.351. 49Ibid, pp.152-54.

143 The Prince, who is infatuated by the girl's angelic allure, similarly to 50 Alexander's obsession with Maria, encourages Gretchen in girling, seeing to her overall education and musical instruction, as would seem fit for a girl of a background respectable -a sign of his favour for her, this specific education would normally not be accessible to Gretchen, since she comes from a modest background. However there is no doubt that Gretchen's education does not serve the purpose of personal or artistic maturity but rather what I have discussed as the irrelevant, bourgeois female upbringing intertwined with the ideal of female song in chapters 2 and 3: 'Und du wirstjetzt eine ordentliche vornehme Dame, und sollst Clavier und Harfe spielen, und Singen und Zeichnen lernen, und gar nicht mehr für die Leute nAhen'.51 Gretchencomplies with the cultivation of this type of feminine ideal for a short while, embracingher educationand the musical practiceout of gratitudeas well as out of her own artistic inclination, while being entirely oblivious of the social implications of her training, which aims to makerher a suitablespouse for the Prince.

Ich kann nur die Händefallen, und manchmalauf das Clavier, und manchmalauf die Harfe blicken. Und dann kann ich das Weinennicht lassen,denn ich bin gar zu der herrlicheTag, ich lernenwerde, steht mir vor selig, und52 ganze wo so viel Augen.

However, her contentmentdoes not last. In order to pleasethe prince, who grows more and more infatuatedwith her, Gretchensings a songto him, in an innocent naYvekind of way, oblivious of both the prince's and Stephani'strue feelingsand desiresfor her.53 Here, the author oncemore usesthe imageof the musical offer of the singing girl to her male mentor. In a scenereminiscent of Mignon's Italienlied and her swansong,So lasst mich scheinen,as well as of Maria's singing to Alexander, Gretchentakes up her place outsidethe prince's chamber,clad in a white dresswith belt, readyto sing and play the harp (a stereotypicalimage which

50See chapter 2. 51GW 111,pp. 146-47. 52Ibid., p. 166. 53Ibid, p. 175.

144 emphasizesthe girl's static musepose); a posewhich provesdifficult for the girl to assume:

Der Herr Präsidentließ mich auf das Schlossfahren, und meine Harfe wurde mir bis in das Vorzimmer gebracht.Als ich aberan des FürstenZimmer treten sollte, wurde mir bange,und ich dachte:ach, die Harfe ist so schwer! Wie ungeschicktwirst du damit hineinkommen!Aber esging besser,als ich dachte. Dicht nebender Tür ist eine Erhöhung,auf diesekniete ich, und setztedie Harfe etwastiefer vor mir nieder.Ich sagtenichts, sondernfing gleich an zu spielenund zu singen.Es überraschteden Fürstenaußerordentlich, und gefiel ihm Oberdie Maßen;denn er kam in großer Bewegungauf mich zu, und sagte:was kniest du Engel? Steh' aufl Ich aber blieb immer noch liegen,und spielte das Lied erst ganz aus,und sangdie letzten Verse,welche die schönstensind, viel besserals die ersten.Die große Freude,dass ich ihm mit so schönenWorten dankenkonnte, trieb alle Angst von mir weg, und die Harfe klang, wie im Traume. Er abernahm sie mir ausdem Arme, und sagtewiederum: 0, steh' aufl Wer kann dich so sehen!"

Fischer sabotagesthe muse-figuresubtly but unambiguously.Similarly to Maria's musical apprenticeship,Gretchen's musical practiceis compromisedby the male gaze,through which she finds herself in the position of the angelic muse,an incarnationof sublime music as well as an object of male desire- the imageof the harp-playingmuse is dismantledas pretenceto allow the prince to approachthe girl. Whereasin WilhelmMeister, Mignon's songswere objectsof poetic disputeand very complex expressionsof the poetic girl's psyche,what counts in Gretchen's sceneis the girl's image,dressed as an angel and holding the harp. What's more, Gretchensuffers from this static stance,experiencing her instrumentas heavy, although herjoy in playing it and singing her beautiful song initially outweighsher doubts.The prince is pursuingentirely different aims, as is renderedthrough his adorationof the 'angel' and his taking Gretchen'sharp away. The emptinessof the muse figure becomesapparent, as Gretchen'smusic is not at all important;what mattersis the prince's reactionto her, and his symbolical appropriationof the girl by taking away her instrument.Women's sublimity in music appearsrather degrading in reality, illustrating the musical double-bindof sublime ideal and carrial desire. Nevertheless,the narrationdevelops autonomous energies in Gretchen'smusical practice,as we are confrontedwith her own perspectiveon music and on her

54Ibid, pp.176-77. My emphasis.

145 musical practice.Despite her kind natureand her will to pleaseand thank the prince for his patronage,she is clearly not at ease.The poseof the harp girl is a burden more than a pleasure;although it constitutesone possiblemodel of female musicality, and complieswith the ideal of female songoutlined previously, it is gearedtowards a male perspective,binding the female singer into a fixed posture with a specific repertoireof femalecharacteristics and the objective of enhancing her sexualattractiveness. However, Gretchen liberates herself from this poseand, in doing so, from any male claims on her - the soundof the harp which she initially experiencedlike a (bad) dreamduring her performancefor the prince becomespart of a new musical language,which is a part of her dreamsand of the imaginary:

Mir ist, als wäre ich in den Himmel gekommen.Des Nachts träum' ich auch immer von Engeln,träume, dass ich schondie Harfe und das Klavier spielenkönnte, und dasssie mir zuhörten.Die Harfe, die mir immer etwas schwervorkommt, und mich manchmal,weil ich sie noch nicht recht zu haltenverstehe, ein wenig drückt, ist mir im Traume ganz leicht. Ja, ich schwebemit ihr frei in der Luft, singeaus voller Brust Lieder, die ich in meinemLeben nicht hörte, greife voll Zuversicht in die 55 Saiten,und bebevon unaussprechlicherWonne wenn sie ertönen.

Gretchen'sdream prefigures what shewill eventually become:a sublime creature,but on her own terms, living and working within the convent.The musical gesturebecomes a cipher for her higher vocation,as the imageof divine harmony becomessynonymous with her finding a vocation in life for the sakeof a higher cause,which implies refusing both Stephaniand the Prince, for whom sheceases to play. Where Maria complied with paradigmspertaining to the musical feminine through her dreamedexperience of music as part of her entire focus on Alexander, it is the exact oppositein Margarethe'sdream of music. Singing becomeskey to her understandingof a higher order, a divine harmonyto which shewants to vow her existenceand in which shealone exists, independentlyof a male partner: 'Singen konnt' ich es, und sing es auch, wenn ich allein bin. 0 Mutter, es antwortetmir! - Ist dasGott? -0 geliebteMutter! Ich glaube,das ist Gott! 956 The key to her existencelies in this divine music, which brings her into harmony with her surroundings,showing a transformationfrom the musefigure making

5$lbid, pp.165-66. 56Ibid, pp.298-99.

146 music for the pleasureof the prince to that of an independentwoman experiencing her female own agencyas music - her raptureand sublimity in musical termsand images.Music becomesa personalexperience and ceasesto be directedat a male listener or spectator,or channelledthrough the performanceof the muse.Thus, she may not remain a 'singer' in the proper senseof the term, or, in this case,in compliancewith the ideal associatedwith the woman singer; but the motif of song, and of female music doesemphasize her empowermentand autonomy. With Margarethe, Caroline AugusteFischer may have indeedgiven a female th reply to the late 18 - and early I 9th-century ideal of the poetic self in music, but she may equally havetaken inspiration from Stael'streatment of femaleperformance and discoursein Corinne. In Margarethe, music is no longer a male-authoredpoetic concept,but becomesa liberation from the emptinessof the musefigure, and in turn a carrier of femaleagency and independence,through which the protagonistrealizes her purposeas a human being. The harmlessgirling and harpinghave indeed becomea song of triumph for the female subject.

Mir war, als sey diesehimmlische Wahrheit erstjetzt gefunden,die Menschenauf ewig durch sie geadelt,und ihres göttlichen Ursprungesvergewissert. Sie klingen mir, wie Triumphgesang.So ruf' ich sie Morgensder Sonneentgegen, so wiederhol' ich sie, wenn die Sterne mir leuchten. Mein ganzes Dasein enträthseln sie mir, und ich brauche nichts mehr, als sie, um Alles zu begreifen, was mir dunkel war. 37

As in all her novels, Fischerdiametrically opposestwo types of femininity: Margarethe'santagonist is Rosamunde,the dancerStephani loves and woos in vain at the beginningof the novel. In Rosamunde'scase, the useof music is summedup in a few sentences,although it is perhaps,in the light of the presentdiscussion, the most interestinguse of music so far and deservesa closer look. A contrastingfigure to Gretchen'spose as sublimemuse and harp-girl, the dancerRosamunde is a strong, independentwoman who has no illusions about men's interestin women and, in the caseof Stephani,the male appropriationof the femalebody through the idealisationof the eternalfeminine and for the sakeof his own art. Rosamundehas no interestin becominganybody's muse,which would

57GWIII, p.326.

147 equal a regressioninto the passivestate of inspiration for a male artist, and the status his of wife at best- somethingwhich she is urgedto consider,but which is unlikely given her social status.As an artist, Rosamundehas taken a double risk: a dancer, shepractices a volatile art form which, contrary to Stephani'spaintings, does not last but exists only in the momentof performance.The Princeconfronts Rosamunde with this fact, reproachingher selfishnessin refusingto accommodateStephani's obsessionand acceptthe honour of becominghis lover and art object. The Prince urgesRosamunde to rememberher place as a woman within societyand art, and to respecther 'natural' femininity; her purposeshould be to servethe male artist and complementhim, sacrificing her love and beautyfor the sakeof Stephani'sartistic procreation:

Sie habennur Gefühl für Ihren eigenenWerth. Doch stirbt Ihre Kunst mit Ihnen. Nicht so bei ihm! Er wird von ihr überlebt.Nach Jahrhundertenwerden seine Bilder ergötzen,und Menschenüber Erdennotherheben. Ein unvergänglichesDenkmal könnten Sie sich stiften, wenn Sie sein Lebenverlängerten. "

In defianceof patriarchalart conceptsRosamunde remains intact as an artist who standsher own ground, evenopenly criticizing both Stephani'sand the Prince's unrealistic,egocentric claims about ideal femininity. From the dancer'sperspective, a woman belongsfirst foremost herself, to 59Going the and to and no man. against poseof the harp-girl, and literally against'posing' for Stephani,the dancer Rosamundetransposes music into the movementsof her body and into true sensations.Her choice of professionwas born out of silenceand out of the fact that sheretreated as a child into her own world, where shecould calmly voice her own thoughtsand put her ideasinto art. Rosamundeexplains her artistic choice as follows:

Tief lag es als Ahnung in meiner Seele,dass dieses der geheimeSinn aller Künste, und der Grund aller Gewalt sey, welche sie an den Menschenüben. Ich hatte beweisengesehen, dass Töne Gestaltenhervorbringen, und diesehohe Bedeutung würde mich zur Musik hingezogenhaben, hätte sie mich nicht zu gewaltsam ergriffen; so dassich meine Empfindung durch Tanz ausdrücken,oder untergehen

58 Ibid, pp. 126-27. 59 Ibid, p. 128.

148 musste.So war mir dann das Räthselmeiner Jugendgelöst, und der Entschluss,als tragischeTänzerin aufzutreten,befestigt. 'o

Rosamundemoves as far away from the passivestance of the musefigure as possible,leading a financially and artistically independentlife, avoiding the poseof the singer,who, among possibleimages of femaleartistry, appearsdrawn to passivity and to appropriationby a male-authoreddiscourse on music and woman. As we haveseen in the discussionof the musical-literarydiscourse, the danceris indeeda volatile, a moving, figure, the attractionof the femaledancer lying in her unique rapport with music, which shetranslates into bodily, sensualmovement, while at the sametime escapingthe fixed poseof the muse-singer.61 In fact, as a counter-image,she is the exact oppositeof the harp girl, especially as she could never be the ideal woman with the harp who singsto either the Prince or Stephani,due to the social implications of her profession.While the dancer's social issuesare not explicitly elaboratedin the novel, I have briefly touchedupon the polemic debatesurrounding women as performing artists and the ambivalent connotationsattached to the stageperformer's singing, acting or dancing,as opposedto more noble artistic endeavourssuch as writing, or painting. It becomes clear from the Prince's remarksthat, in his view, a dancercan be no artistic match for a painter, whosecraft belongsto high art and to the realm of poetry, whereasthe dancerbelongs to the group of 'popular' artists and performers,and is therefore clearly associatedwith immorality and prostitution.62 While Stephaniis obsessed with her, Rosamundeis the subjectnot only of the prince's contempt(because she daresto questionhim), but also of the public's volatile mood and slander.At one point, alluding to her social inappropriateness,onlookers cynically deplorethe fact that Rosamundeis merely a dancer:'Schade, dass sie nicht Schauspielerinist - rief letzt ein unerträglicherMensch. Gott seYgelobt, dasssie nicht Schauspielerinist! - rief ich mit glühendenWangen. Der dummehässliche Mensch schien auf eine spitzige Antwort zu sinnen'.63

60jbid, pp.85-86. 61 SeeSmith, 'Chordgraphie', p.8. Fischeruses dance less poetically than Stadldoes in Corinne, but in the equally interestingway of implying artistic movementand subversion,comparable to Mignon's restlessness, 62 See pp. 33ff; Runge, 'Wenn Schillers Geist', p. 196. 6' GWIII, p.25.

149 Again, one may arguefor an intertextual link betweenRosamunde and Corinne, given the overwhelmingreception of Stadl's novel in Germanand the likelihood of Fischer's soundreading culture. 64 Be that as it may, Fischer'streatment of the dramatic danceras well as her role in the novel is quite different from Corinne, whoseTarantella is one facet of her overall, inherentmusicality which embracesall art forms. While in both cases,the implications of femalecorporeality and sensuality are crucial, the dancerRosamunde is, insofar as her musicality and voice are concerned,Corinne's exact opposite,since she decides against music as it is embodiedin songand singer,and insteadpursues a careeras a dancer.Corinne never decidesagainst music - on the contrary,as explainedin the previouschapter, Stadlgrounds her entire being in musicality and the integrative,synaesthetic power of her voice. In Fischer's novel, though, Rosamundeconsciously decides against song as the most Romantic of all art forms, as a possibleand ratheraccessible career choice for women yet as part of the problematicdiscourse on woman and music, proneto male idealizationand appropriation.Instead, she has chosenone of the most daring professions for a woman around that time: that of a dramatic dancer. By going down the route of the most extreme form of female corporeality, Rosamunde reaches a state of personal and artistic freedom unmatched by other female characters discussed so far and which underlines my argument about female song and the singer as a type of artistry that shows a very ambiguous potential for both female agency and the male-authorcd muse-figure, especially in Early Romanticism. In a way, Rosamunde avoids the poetic and performative ambiguity of singer and song by going straight for the more outrageously physical profession of the dancer, and thus, she reaches personal and artistic freedom. She experiences herself as an autonomous, professional artistic subject and claims artistic relevance for her profession, wanting to be a part of and to shape the socio-cultural discourse of her time. 65

Gretchen,who refusesthe poseof the harp-playingmuse, claims this personal freedomand socio-culturalrelevance in a different manner,finding her 'song'

64Runge makes the assumption ('Wenn Schillers Geist', p. 194). 65 GWIII, p. 82.

150 through her renunciation of and her dedication to charity, which is her take on heavenly music and constitutes her own song of triumph. Both women retain their autonomy until their death. Rosamunde, who the narration implies suffers from tuberculosis, follows a path of radical autonomy by not only rejecting Stephani (to the point of making herself unhappy), but also almost consciously willing her own death out of spite and bitterness about women's fate in society and the wrongdoings of men against women: 'Ich will die Schmach dieses schändlich misshandelten Geschlechts nicht länger mit ansehen. Ich bin dem Tod geweiht, will es seyn, wer darf es mir wehren? 966 Although seeingGrete's sublimity triggers her agonyand untimely death,she hasno illusions either aboutthe fate of the museor aboutthe possibility for artistic collaborationbetween male and femaleartists. 67 Unmasking the ideal behindthe sublime feminine, the dancerhas no regretsabout her own firm refusalto be incorporatedinto a male-authoredwork of art:

Diejenige, welcher erjetzt huldigt, wird nun aucheine gewisseCelebrität erhalten. Ihr Bild ist zu einem Altarblatte bestimmt.Nur auf diese,oder auf eine ähnliche Weise, ist es möglich, dasseben diese Berühmtheit, zu welcher sie durch ihn gelangt,ihr nichts bei ihm schade.Denn so weit ich die Männer kenne,ist die Berühmtheit,nächst dem Alter, der Hässlichkeitund der Kränklichkeit, derjenige Fehler, welchen sie am empfindlichstenrächen, und vielleicht hat es, seit Männer leben, kaum zehngegeben, welche wahrhaft groß genugwaren, eine großeFrau zu ertragen."

As a dramaticdancer, not as a harp girl or professionalsinger, Rosamunde remainsintact in the double senseof the word, defying socio-culturalparadigms as well as aestheticconcepts, both as a woman artist and as a dancerwho doesnot compromiseher art. Shemay not sing in the proper senseof the term, yet she possessesa clear, distinct, emancipatedvoice of her own which resonatesstrongly throughoutthe novel and which voicesthe possibility of the autonomous,female artist, who becomesa part of and shapessocio-cultural discourse.

66 Ibid, p. 133. 67See Runge, Tie Dramatik', p. 109. 68 GW 111,p. 23 1.

151 Both Margaretheand Rosamundefind ways of rejecting the ideal of musical femininity, which is exposedas an illusion, tied to the male sub ect's desiresand fantasies.Tbrough sucha rejection,both women are able to realize for themselves someform of valid, empoweringfemale art practice.By proposingan artistic novel which doesnot centreon music, and femalecharacters who chooseto go beyondthe image of the musical feminine, Fischernot only plays with and undermines patriarchalconcepts of femalesong in Early Romantictexts, but she standsout amongother writers of the time who madeuse of femalesong, often to purvey the clich6 of the musical feminine and of the ideal of femininity as expressedthrough song, but not to convey true, real femaleartistry. Fischer'sstaging of the woman artist is thereforenot so much a poetically abstractconcept as ratheran attemptto explore possiblefemaleartistry as part of female life, and as a viable route for women to achievepersonal and artistic autonomy- this gives Fischer'sprotagonists a very humanquality, beyondtraditional genderparadigms.

152 A Song of Freedom? Justine (1818)

Although Fischer's short storieshave not beenstudied in detail so far, they form an important aspectof understandingthis author's work, sincethey succinctly sum up her key statementson the blend of genderand art ideologies,and their implications and consequencesfor women. In the following case,these are explicitly catalysed through the fate of the woman singer.Justine, one of Fischer's last piecesto have beenpreserved, may well be her most remarkablestatement on femalemusical practice.

Synopsis

Upon her 18'hbirthday, Justine,a well-bred girl, faces herfather's expectationto take up her proper place in societyand marry Walter, herfather's assistantand confidant ofmany years, on whom he wishesto bestowhisfortune. However,Justine refusesherfalher's plan and its underlyingconcept of bourgeoismarriage, exposing it as an illusion on 1hepart of both womenand men. Quoting her late mother,the girl denouncesmarriage as a patriarchal prisonfor womenwho only pretend to be loving wives and mothers-a thoughtwhich naturally upsetsJustine 'sfather, who always thought of his wife as the most angelic and devotedofall womenand mothers.In whatfollows, Justineputs her radical thoughtsinto practice, by studying to becomea singer and thus emancipatehersetf. After herfather's deathshe goes on to havea brilliant singing career in England.Returning to Germanyafew years later, shecomesface to face with Walter, his wife Sophieand their son, and thus with the domesticideal. The encounterleaves Justine broken-heartedand soon afterwards,she dies.

By all accounts,Justine is a striking model of femininity, both in termsof her emancipationand her artistic vocation. With the novella moving at a fast pace, Justine's polemicsand her subsequentactions are condensedand to the point: the dramaunfolds quickly and reachesa prompt, tragic end. From her mereappearance just as much as from her argumentwith her father, it becomesclear that Justine standsoutside traditional valuesand modelsand that shemust follow a specialpath beyondthe confinesof her bourgeoisupbringing. A transgressoras artist and woman, she appearsas a hybrid creaturewith the strangelymixed colouring of 'dark-eyed blonde', an aberrationof natureto which her father ascribesher rebelliousness:'Doch ist theseBlondschwarze, Gott sey gelobt! Eine Art

153 Naturmerkwürdigkeit.Was würde ausuns werden,wenn es einige Millionen ihres Gleichen gäbe!"' Her exceptionalcharacter becomes especially evident during the polemical disputewith her father that dominatesthe middle part of the story. Justinedoes not want to comply with her father's plansand marry Walter, directly questioning traditional models of femininity and bourgeoislife as a wife and mother, as well as the generalpower hierarchiesand discrepanciesbetween men and women. th Addressingthe areasof dispute in 18 - and 19th-centurywritings on women's education,Justine identifies one of the main causesof the inequality betweenmen and women in the lack of adequateeducation for women who, if they were only given the chance,could actually outshinemen: 'Ebenfalls ist es unleugbar,daB alle Schwestern,die mit ihren Brüdem gleichenUnterricht erhielten,diese in kurzem weit hinter sich ließen'." Picking up on her mother's radical thoughtsand thus inscribing herself in a feminist tradition, Justinecalls for more female autonomy,which can only be brought about by women themselves,through education,independence and their own impact on history. Very much in the imageof Mary Wollstonecraftor Isabelle de Charrifte, Fischer showsintellectual allegiance to 18th-centuryand post- Rousseauesqueideals, yet raisesthe questionof genderedhistory writing, and male dominancein the literary canon:

Lies die Geschichteunsers bedauernswerten Geschlechts, eine Geschichtenicht von Weibern, sondernvon Männerngeschrieben, [... ] aberan einer vollständigenund gut geschriebenenGeschichte des weiblichen Geschlechtsfehlt es (wahrscheinlich aus guten Gründen)bis diesenAugenblick, und ich kann dir nur eine sehr mittelmäßigeund fragmentarischeempfehlen. 7'

Justine's argumentwith her father is direct and aggressive,showing a very progressivestate of mind with regardto women's emancipationand the equationof women's rights with humanrights, a central issueof the FrenchRevolution ferniniStS. 72

69 GWII, p. 302. 70 Aid, p.286. 71 Ibid, pp.288-89. 72 jbid, p.29 1.

154 Justineis a protagonistin the spirit of Fischer's initial statementin Gustavs Vefirrungen,who through logic and reasondemolishes her father's patriarchal argumentson the unalterablenature of women and femininity, and arguesagainst the traditional genderdoctrines discussed earlier. Whereasher father stateswhat a 'natural' be, how good, woman should sheshould talk and think - Tiese Denkungsartist 03 nicht weiblich - Justine,through her argumentsand logical thinking, discoversthe falsenessof theseclaims and traditions and the potential for change.Justine follows in the footstepsof Fischer'sother heroineslike Rosamunde or Margaretheby insisting on friendship and equality as the only valid basisof marriage:

Daß ich keinen Herrn heirathe,sondern einen Freund.Daß ich gegendie Anmaßung des erstendie von meiner Mutter angerathenenMittel nicht gebrauchenwill, weil ich halte, [ ] Mein Vater! Ich heirathe sie meiner unwürdig ... nicht, und musste, redlich zu seyn,so gegenWalthern zu handeln,um ihm alle Hoffnung zu benehmen."

Ultimately, Justine'srational thinking enablesher to breakfree from preconceivedmodels of female life in order to claim an identity of her own, independentyet with the claim for social integration.Refusing domestic life and the role of wife and mother, sheundergoes a strictly personalevolution, finding both that personalfreedom and the educationshe considers quintessential for female autonomy in music - in the disputewith her father,Justine had hinted at the arts as a possibleescape route for women who did not conform to society's idealsof female beautyand domesticity: 'Alles was ihnen, ihr Unglück zu mildem, übrig bleibt, ist, sich von Künstenund (aberja recht heimlich) so viel von Wissenschaften zuzueignen,als m6glich iSt'.75 As a singer,Justine undergoes a development comparableto Maria in Der Gfinstling, with the crucial differencethat, contrary to Maria who endsher days as a harpist muse,Justine accesses a liberatedand accomplishedexistence through her successfulsinging career,which implies her performing in front of an audience.From the archetypalgirling at the beginningof

73 Aid, p.301. 74 Ibid, pp.299/300. 75 Ibid, p.285. This is an interestingreply which standsin stark contrastto the ideal of femalebeauty developedaround 1800and outlined earlier.

155 the is story- she making music with Walter on her birthday - she graduatesto being a celebratedsinger abroad,taking the potential, but also the polemicsof female musicality all the way from the domesticsalon to the public stage.The girling at the story's opening is naturally tied to Walter, the prospectivehusband Justine rejects, just as she refusesdomesticity and a pre-conceivedgender role for the sakeof her personaland artistic freedom:

Die kleine Gesellschaftist gebeten,und alles so angeordnet,wie Sie es befohlen. Wir trinken Thee in meinemZimmer und essendiesen Abend im Garten.Walther und ich habendas Duett so oft wiederholt, dasssie gewisszufrieden seyn werden. Wird er es auch seyn?76

Justinerealizes that music is her true vocation and dedicatesherself completely to the art form. Music is a consciouschoice (betweenmusic and painting for both of which shehas talent and inclination), her reasonsbeing economicas well as artistic: 'welche ihr die sichersteStütze werden und von welcher sie hoffen könne,sie auf den möglichstenGrad der Vollkommenheit zu bringen'.77 Although shedoes not elaboratefurther, the narratorimplicitly draws on music's poetic ideal and sublime natureand links it to the more secularand performativeaspect of singing as a potential careerchoice for women and a meansto make money and maintain themselves.In this, Fischergoes further than previousauthors, and adoptsa rare position in the literature of the time, where the social implications of the woman singer are either not voiced directly, becauseof the paradigmaticconflict between songas ideal femininity and the issuesof the woman performer,or because,more generally,song is an expressionof the abstractmusical ideal. Fischerties in the feminine ideal with its realist implications however,and combinesthe poetic quality of songwith its economicand performativedimension, presentingthe woman singer as a complete,dignified and autonomousnoble artist. All seemsfor the bestwhen Justinebecomes a brilliant singerwho can make even her father proud:

Sie sah bald, daß diesesnur die Musik seyn könne, und widmete sich ihr mit einem so leidenschaftlichenErnste, dass ihre Fortschritteden Vater wie die Lehrer bald in

7' Ibid, p.259. 77 Ibid, p.303. This is consistentwith the socio-culturaldimension of women singers(see chapter 2).

156 das höchsteErstaunen versetzten. Eine so silberreine,starke und biegsameStimme, einen so edeln, von aller Manier so entferntenVortrag erinnertensich Kennernicht gehört zu haben.Bald wurde Justinenicht allein der Stolz ihres Vaters,sondern ihrer sehr bedeutendenVaterstadt, die Verzweiflung der durchreisenden und 78 Künstler und besondersder Künstlerinnen.

Her artistic maturity coincideswith her personalindependence when, upon her father's death,she realizesthat shemust becomethe provider for herself,a based realization upon which shestarts a completelynew life - her rebirth as a woman and an artist is symbolically fuelled by her selling her mother'sjewels in order to finance her emigrationto England,'wo sie als eine der erstenSAngerinnen 79 auftrat'. Again, Fischeruses very interestingimagery here in that sheemphasizes the importanceof the protagonist'ssymbolic rebirth as a singer.Not only is Justine regardedas the first singer of England,aprima donnaassoluta, but, evenmore importantly, as a morally and artistically perfectand pure creature,of whom nothing negativeis ever said, either as a singer or as a woman.In contrastto Madamede Stadl,Caroline Fischerdepicts England not as an oppressivecountry, but as the utopia and ultimatejustice for the femaleartist: 'So fing sie dann an, das Volk, welchesihr so vollkommeneGerechtigkeit widerfahren ließ, mit Vorliebe und ihr tief gesunkenesVaterland mit Widerwillen zu betrachten'.80 With such an ideal evocation of female artistry, especially in its socio-cultural implications, one almost expects Fischer to introduce a twist to the story. Indeed, Justine's happiness as a woman and artist is short-lived, her downfall related in a few pages, which almost prompts the suspicion that Fischer wants the utopian image of the singer to disintegrate quite quickly. Justine's return to Germany immediately confronts her with the patriarchal values she rejected so vehemently. Upon her confrontation with Walter's family life, Justine loses consciousness,a prefiguration of her death- as we have seenin the two previouscase studies, the physical demise is a key narrativeelement in the depiction of the singeras a physically damaged, because'unnatural' woman,who defies biological and social dogmasof marriage

7' GWII, pp.303-04. 79Mid, p.305. so Ibid, p.305. This is indeedan interestinggeo-cultural implication since Fischerdisplaces her protagonistaway from Germany,the country of music, to England,a relative no-man's land in terms of music.

157 and motherhood,while at the sametime making a claim for the impossible reconciliation betweenthe sublime ideal of songand the femaleperforming body. Thus, the end of the story almost resemblesa post scriplum to Justine's breakdown,and echoessimilar rupturesbetween the poetic and physical self as seen in Mignon and Corinne. Fischerstages a last confrontationbetween Justine's and Walter's life styles as a purgatoryfor the singer,before her actual death,in which she is confrontedwith the ideal imageof family life, embodiedby Walter's wife Sophieand their son Fritz. This confrontationproves to be Justine'sundoing, as it servesthe double purposeof classifying Justineas an outcastfrom the bourgeois order while at the sametime clarifying Walther's feelings and relationshiptowards the singer. Suffering from his unrequitedlove for Justine,Walter (an emotionally and psychologically unstablecharacter) found refuge in the arms of his ideal wife Sophie- it is no coincidencethat her namerecalls the ideal woman whom Rousseau intendedfor histmile. Sophiecompletes Walter as his 'schatzenderGen iusq. 8' The male protagonist'sinability to engagein a relationshipwith the woman artist results in the bourgeois,safe and respectableunion with a more appropriateand complementingfemale character(although in Justine'scase she consciously refused Walter as a husband).Justine's final downfall is brought about by her conversation with Sophiewho tries to impressupon the singerthe traditional valuesof marriage and motherhood.According to Sophie,a woman without love which expressesitself through marriageand parenthood,is incompleteas a human being as well as in her role in society, as she lacks 'den wesentlichenBestandteil der Weiblichkeit: die Liebe'. 82

The difference betweenthe two women could not be more apparent:where Justineis an open,aggressive fighter againstwomen's suppressionand enslavement, Sophieargues for the femalevirtues of passivemanipulation, amiability and patience,since she is convincedthat women shouldnot free themselvesfrom the chainsof patriarchy,but rather wait for men to take off the chains,which would be the only appropriateand 'naturally' feminine attitude: g' GW I I, p.309. A term which evokesnot only the image of the muse,but possibly also Mignon who, throughoutthe novel, acts as a protectiveforce for Wilhelm, a function which is eventuallytaken over by his biological child Felix. 8' Aid, pp.311-12.

158 In vielenGegenden des Erdbodens sind überdies unsre Ketten nur noch Theaterketten,welche von denSchauspielern, statt ihnen angeschmiedet zu sein,nur mit denHänden gehalten werden und hinter den Theaterwänden abfallen. Bald werdendie Männersie uns lächelnd auf offenerBühne abnehmen und sie als überflüssigenTand hinter sich werfen. Wie schön,wie weiblich,wenn wir das schweigendabwarten! "

Interestingly, Sophieuses theatrical allegory in her argumentby calling women's oppressiona stagedand theatrical illusion, which implicitly questions Justine'schoice of a careerin the theatreand the 'realism' of her life on stage. Justine'sexistence as a singerand women's oppressionare thus both situatedwithin the realm of theatrical,staged illusions. Sophieultimately dismissesand disqualifies Justine'sexistence as an artist as an excuseand an escaperoute for 'hal3liche Frauen', women who are not beautiful in the traditional sensethrough their nature and function for men, and so haveto renouncea happy life of marriage,motherhood and love. Nevertheless,after Justine'sdeparture, Sophie tells Walther that the singer still loves him and that, should sheherself die, only 'ihre groBeSeele, nur ihr 84 schönerund gebildeterGeist könntedich trösten'. Fleeing to Italy, Justinedies shortly after her encounterwith Walther." As a singer and a woman artist with her own agenda,she is markedas a transgressive, hybrid woman who is unableto embracetraditional modelsof social behaviour, 86 motherhood,marriage, domesticity: 'Sie stirbt keinesnatorlichen Todes! Justine joins the ranks of other singerswho die strange,unnatural deaths, a fact which, while it alludesto the stagingof female songand of the singer as a sublimity, points towardsthe more dramatic implications of the imageof the woman singerthat I have madeexplicit in chapters2 and 3: a hybrid woman and transgressorof seemingly'natural' and social orders,the singer,neither wife nor mother,constitutes a biological, cultural and poetic taboo and thus cannotgo on living. The deathof the woman singer implies the fundamentalconflict betweenbody, voice and songand

83 Ibid, p.315. SeeDuden, pp. 127-37. 84 GWII, p.325. " After having situatedJustine's emancipation in England,Fischer here makesan obvious reference to Italy as the country of art and geniusestablished through StaVs Corinne. However, Fischerdoes not allow her heroineto experienceartistic fulfillment but cuts the utopian vista short through Justine'sdeath. 86GW 11,p. 326.

159 reflects on the problem and polemic which surroundsthe figure of the singeras an unnaturalwoman in the 18th and 19thcentury. Like Madamede Stadl,Fischer develops the potential of a femalecharacter who both embodiesthe ideal of songand is able to reflect on it rationally. Yet in both cases,the singer is not able to sustainthe potential of femaleagency, her identity and spaceas an artist outsidesocial norms.More than other authorsof her generation,Caroline AugusteFischer critically discussesthe illusion of femalesong as part of a musical and feminine ideal that constitutesan inherqntpart of musical- literary discourse.Juxtaposing the fantasyattached to femalesong with the struggle for female artistic empowerment Fischercontinuously weighs the ideal of the musical feminine againstwomen's possibility to live and realize a viable form of Ih artistic and personalagency. Thus, althoughshe was indebtedto 18 - and I 9th_ century paradigmsof singerand song,as well as earlier archetypesdeveloped by Goetheand Stadl,Fischer moved further in her negotiationof female song(and on a broaderlevel, of the woman as artist) as a realist concept.As we move on to the works of E.T. A. Hoffmann and FrenchWriters of the July Monarchy,we shall see whether the figure of the singer is actually capableof purveying successfulexamples of femaleartistry, and to what extentthe conflict betweenthe ideal of the musical feminine and female musical performancecan be resolved.

160 Chapter 6

French-German Entarenzuna:

The Singer in the Works of E. T. A. Hoffmann, Honori de Balzae and Hector Berlioz (1814-1844)

In the last two chaptersI investigatedthe womansinger in fiction againstthe backgroundof contemporarysong ideals and practices, and I haveshown that, starting th with early archetypesof song,such as Mignon and Corinne,late 18 -centuryideals of music and femininity, as outlined in chapters2 and 3, are questionedand subvertedby writers who discussthe artist as a paradoxical,conflictual character,at oddswith the inherentdiscrepancy between song and performanceand expressingthe possibility of femaleartistic empowermentand agency.In contrastto the predominantpoetic conceptualisationof femalesong in GermanRomanticism, Caroline Auguste Fischer polemicisedthe idealsattached to the musicalfeminine, but surprisingly,her unusual treatmentof femalesong also finds a male-authoredmatch in a muchmore canonical, but equally controversial,author: E. T. A. Hoffmann was specificallyconcerned with the issueof music and its expressionthrough language; in particularthrough the writing of the musicianand, as we shall see,the womansinger. This chapterwill discussthe singerin selectedmusical narratives by E. T. A. Hoffmann,comparing them with their Frenchemulations in the writings of Balzacand Berlioz and leadingon to the discussionof the motif in female-authoredworks of the July Monarchyperiod in chapter7. Like Goethe,Hoffmann, although read in very traditional terms,developed a surprisinglystrong vision of femalesong, in connectionwith a critical questioningof traditional conceptsof the ideal musicalfeminine. Looking back at the rationalebehind my investigation,I will arguethat the male authorsdiscussed in this chapterare importantcases in the ongoing,fluid discourseon the womansinger, which, although not losing its connectionwith 18th-centuryand Romanticideals, gradually evolves towardsmore realist depictionsof femaleartistry.

161 (1) Facing a Phantasm: the Singer in E. T. A. Hoffmann's Literary Work

Ich denkemir mein Ich durchein Vervielfältigungsglas- alle Gestalten,die sich um mich herumbewegen sind Ichs und ich ärgeremich über ihr tun und lassen.'

While Hoffmann scholarshipis by no meanssparse, it facesthe challengeof rebalancinga traditionally depreciativeand oversimplifyingview of the Hoffmannesque Hoffmann, with its biographicalreadings and undertonesof pathologyand madness.' Thus,exposing as a clichd 'Hoffmann the mad artist' hasled to the reneweddiscovery of a lawyer who was equally gifted as a musicianand a writer and who, despitean undisputablyeccentric nature, was respected and readas a literary successin his time. BetweenGerman idealism and the Frenchmusicien-littirateurs of the 1830s, Hoffmann,who said of himself that 'ich mag mich nicht nennen,indem mein Name nicht andersals durch eine gelungenemusikalische Composition der Welt bekannt werdenS0119,3 appeared as the quintessentialpoet-musician, whose understanding of and expertisein music is of importanceto any discussionof his literary aestheticsand writings. Modem scholarshiphas increasingly opened up to the diversity and richness of Hoffmann's talents,which tendsto makehim more easily accessibleas a major figure within the canon.Though the scholarlyinterest in Hoffmann the composeras an 4 intrinsic part of Hoffmann the poet hasbeen on the rise for the last twenty years, substantialcontributions to an interdisciplinaryapproach towards the author,in both 16.11.1809, Tagebücher, edited by Friedrich Schnapp (München: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1971), p. 107 (hereafter TB).. 2Die romantischeSchule, Historisch-Kritische Gesamtausgabe der Werke,ed. ManfredWindfuhr (Hamburg:Hoffmann und Campe,1979), VIII/ 1,P. 193. The negativereception of Hoffmann,particularly in the Germanrealm, is largely dueto both Goethe'snegative verdict and Heine'sassessment in Die romantischeSchule, which contributedto the creationof the 'Gespenster-Hoffmann'myth. Psychoanalysisand Freud'sreading of the uncannyin Der Sandmann(Das Unheimliche,1919) further emphasizedthis tradition of Hoffmann'sreception. 3 Letter to FriedrichKarl Kunz, 20.07.1813(Briefwechsel, ed. Friedrich Schnapp, Munchen: Winkler, 1967-1960,V01.1, p. 399), 4 Standard works include Klaus-Dieter Dobat, Musik als romantische Illusion. Eine Untersuchungzur Bedeutung der Musikvorstellung E. T A. Hoffmannsfir sein literarisches Werk (Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1984); Friedrich Schnapp,Der Musiker E. T A. Hoffmann: ein Dokumentenband (Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1981).

162 literature, 5 music and remain rare. In fact, the strong link between Hoffmann's musical literary and aestheticsseems to have favoured stereotypical, 'Hoffmannesque' readings centred on commonplaces such as the mad musician, literary analogies to music, Romantic clichds, and finally, the female singer as an object of male creation and longing. 6

To date,scholarship has not producedan exhaustivestudy of this polarizing characterin Hoffmann's works. Stayingwith traditionalreadings of Romantictexts, scholarshave offered ratherstereotypical views of the femalesinger as a monster,7a 8 (silenced)muse and a catalystfor male creativity.9 It seemsthat the traditional perceptionof Hoffmann's singersconfines them to a triangle of passivemusicality, male creativity and femaledeath. ' 0 Upon closer inspection, however, Hoffmann's singers do not seem to be so easily late classifiable within 18th-and early 19'h- century concepts of art. Through a discussion of Hoffmann's aestheticsand their subsequentrealization in his musical novellas, I shall question the traditional reading of the Hoffmannesque singer as a simplified, passive tool for male creativity and as confirmation of stereotypical art concepts. Rather, I would argue, the singer appearsas a complex embodiment of Hoffmann's musical and literary Weltanschauungwhich, together with the author's

5 E. T A. Hoffmann et la musique, ed. Alain Montandon (Bern: Lang, 1987); Patrick Thewalt, Die Leiden der Kapellmeister: zur Umwertung von Musik und Künstlertum bei W.H. Wackenroder und E. T A- Hoffmann (Frankfurt: Lang, 1990); Nora E. Haimberger, Vom Musiker zum Dichter. E. T A, Hoffmanns Akkordvorstellung (Bonn: Bouvier, 1976). 6 SeeKlaus-Dieter Dobat, 'ZwischenGenie und Handwerk.'Geweihter', Magier oderMechaniker? Metamorphosender Musikergestaltbei E. T. A. Hoffmann', in E. T A. Hoffmannet la musique,pp. 239- 57; A recentstudy by the Hoffinann scholarRicarda Schmidt deals with the author'soverall intennediality:Wenn mehrere Künste im Spielsind. - Intermedialitätbei E. T A. Hoffmann(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht,2006); Jean Giraud, 'Alements musicaux dans P=vre littdraired'E. T. A. Hoffmann', in E. T A. Hoffmannet la musique,pp. 207-3 8. 7 SeeJean-Charles Margotton, 'Musique et folie. Le ConseillerKrespel de Hoffinann', in E. T A. Hoffmannet la 269-83. 8 musique,pp. See SusanneAsche, Die Liebe, der Tod und das Ich im Spiegel der Kunst: die Funktion des Weiblichen in Schriften der Frühromantik und im erzählerischen Werk E. T A. Hoffmanns (Königsstein: Hain, 1985). 9 See Caduff, pp.260ff. 10 See Christian Mattli, Der Tod der Primadonna Der Mensch als Instrument im literarischen Werk E. T A. Hoffmanns (Bern: Lang, 2003).

163 " ironic scepticismof Romanticaesthetics, makesof the womansinger a potentially subversivecharacter. In what follows, I shall discusssinger and song,as conceptualized in the narrativesRat Krespel,Das Sanctusand Kater Murr as importantexplorations of femaleartistic empowerment.

Hoffmann's Aesthetics of Entgrenzung and Dissonance

Hoffmann's musicalagenda is not directly gender-specific,but is concernedwith music in generalterms. Although partial to the femalesinging voice, both as a professional musicianand as a musical enthusiast,Hoffmann refrains from formulatinga specific ideal of femalesong or providing us with an archetypalsinger figure. A look through his diary revealshis enthusiasmfor and appreciationof outstandingvocal performance, andthe exaltationhe experiencedlistening to his voice studentJulia Mark.' 2 Hoffmann's singerscover a wide rangeof songtypes, from thoseof the voice student and dilettanteor the accomplishedprima donnato the ethereal,idealized 'song of nature'. While the majority of songtypes and situationsaccord with contemporary musicalculture, Hoffmann's objectiveis neverthelessto discussmusic and songwithin the broadframe of his own aesthetics,which contradictsthe traditionally held assumptionthat his treatmentof songis simplistic and misogynistic.13 The author's pronouncedaffinity for experimentingwith this specifichuman instrument as part of his aestheticsof completenessand abolition of binary codesmay prompt us to look differently at his treatmentof songand of the femalesinger in his ccuvreas a whole. Hoffmann was no theoristin the senseof creatinga propermanifesto or educational treatise,but he conceptualizedmusic in his literary writings. Of all his contemporaries,

HarmutSteinecke does not takethe traditionaldichotomy of maleartist and femalemuse (as object) for granted,but questionsthe useof this motif in Hoffmann'swriting: 'Die Liebe desKflnstlers. Manner- Phantasienund Frauen-Bilderbei E. T. A. Hoffmann', in Codierungender Liebe in der Kunstperiode,ed. WalterHinderer (WOrzburg: K6nigshausen & Neumann,1997): pp. 293-309 (pp. 303-308). 12 Seeabove all Hoffmann'sdiary for the years 1811and 1812(especially pp. 110-75). His verdict of the singerMagdalena Koehl during his Bamberg is highly (TB, 124;136). 13 years acclarnative pp. See n.7-1 0.

164 Hoffmannmade perhaps the strongestcase for cross-fertilizationbetween music and literature,from which the centraltopoi and charactersof his texts develop.If music plays an importantpart in many of his texts,two key sourcesare crucial for his understandingof music as a sublime,uncanny, and henceRomantic art form, namely his review of Beethoven'sFifth Symphonyand Der Dichter und der Komponist,which both form part of the Kreisleriana.

Die Musik schließtdem Menschenein unbekanntesReich auf; eine Welt, die nichts gemeinhat mit der äußerenSinnenwelt, die ihn umgibt, und in der er alle bestimmten Gefühlezurücklässt, um sich einer unaussprechlichenSehnsucht hinzugeben)'

More than other writers of his time, the doubly gifted Hoffmann conjured up the Geisterwelt, a 'kOnstliche Gegenspharezur Wirklichkeit" 5 that music representedto him, finding highly evocative words for the othernessand the ineffable sublime of music which a work like Beethoven's Fifth is able to create in the listener. In this context, Hoffmann used the term romantisch liberally in order to describe the quality of music and its ability to expressthe demoniac, the ineffable of the infinite. Like the authors discussed in the previous chaptersand in the context of the musical-literary discourse, Hoffmann considered music the sublime, yet a sublime which was likely to frighten and unnerve the listener who felt his deepest,ineffable yet most urgent longing expressedthrough the mcdium of music. This understanding forms the core of Hoffmann's aestheticsof Entgrenzung, which holds both a positive and a disturbing potential. While music is able to abolish the boundaries of prosaic everyday life and create a senseof global completenessin human existence, it also implies all the ambivalence of the unknown other, of what is not prosaic and hence, may intrude into everyday life and potentially subvert prosaic order, thus sharing a central trait with the concept offiantastisch. Music, it appears,both fascinates and terrorizes, but in a deeper,

14 SdmtlicheWerke in sechsBdnden, ed. HartinutSteinecke/Wulf Segebrecht/Gerhard Allroggen et a]. (Frankfurtam Main: DeutscherKlassiker Verlag, 1985-2004,vol. 2/1, p.52 (hereafterSO). This essayis basedon two Beethovenreviews published in the AMZ (1810/1813),probably redrafted as a Kreislerianumduring the first half of 1813and published at the endof the year (Zeitungfir die elegante Welt,9.41.12.1813). 13 Dobat, Musik als romantische Illusion, p.96.

165 more visceraland existentialistsense than the imageryof femalemusical ambivalence that I haveexplained in chapters2 and 3. Hoffmann was partial to dream science and greatly appreciated Gotthilf Heinrich Schubert's 16 Die Symbolik des Traumes which he studied closely, as he did Schelling's Von der Weltseele: 'Sobald nur unsere Betrachtung zur Idee der Natur als eines Ganzen sich emporhebt, verschwindet der Gegensatzzwischen Mechanismus und 17 Organismus'. To Hoffmann, the musicalexperience was analogousto the dreamstate; both, despitetheir uncannynature, potentially provided Ganzheit, a transcendent completeness,abolishing the boundariesbetween mechanical and organic.This, as we shall see,plays a crucial role in Hoffmann'streatment of femalesong. Therecan be no doubt aboutthe fact that, despitehis tastefor instrumentalmusic, Hoffmannwas highly susceptibleto the importanceof the voice as the most humanof all instruments,and that he consistentlyargued for the intimate,beneficial link between music and words,recognizing the potentialof songto overcomethe dichotomyof musicalmechanics. Hoffmann's writings suggestthat it was indeedopera and vocal music which stoodat the core of his musicalvision.

Ja, in jenem fernenReiche, das uns oft in seltsamenAhnungen umfängt, und ausdem wunderbareStimmen zu unsherabtönen und alle die Lautewecken, die in der beengten Brust schliefen,und die, nun erwacht,wie in feurigenStrahlen freudig und froh heraufschießen, dass so wir der Seligkeitjenes Paradiesesteilhaftig werden - da sind Dichter und Musiker die innigst verwandten Glieder einer Kirche: denn das Geheimnis des Wortes und des Tons ist ein und dasselbe,das ihnen die höchste Weihe erschlossen.18

In counterbalanceto its irrational, ineffable essence,music needspoetry if it is to be accessibleand if its sublimenature is to be graspedby an audience.Hoffmann makes this point clearly in this key text on opera,and on the sacredunion betweenmusic and

" Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert,Die Symbolikdes Traumes(Bamberg: Kunz, 1814). 17 Werke,ed. ManfredSchrOter, 6 vol. (MOnchen:Beck, 1927/1928),1, p. 416. 'a SW4, p. 103.This is the oldestprose piece of the Serapionsbrader,published as Der Dichter und der Componistin the AMZ, vol. 15,nos. 49/50 (8. /15.12.1813). Hoffmann drafted this dialoguewhile composinghis operaUndine.

166 words,Der Dichter und der Komponist,in which Ludwig and Ferdinand,composer and poet, converseabout the relationshipbetween music and poetry, soundand text, and aboveall, aboutwhat makesa true, sublimeopera as the embodimentof Romanticart:

In der Oper soll die Einwirkunghöherer Naturen auf uns sichtbarlichgeschehen und so vor unsernAugen sich ein romantischesSein erschließen, in dem auchdie Sprache höherpotenziert, oder vielmehrjenemfernen Reiche entnommen, d. h. Musik, Gesang ist,ja wo selbstHandlung und Situationin mächtigenTönen und Klängenschwebend, uns gewaltigerangreift und hinreißt.Auf dieseArt soll, wie ich vorhin behauptete,die Musik unmittelbarund notwendigaus der Dichtungentspringen. 19

As a dichotomy,vocal and instrumentalmusic symbolizeto Hoffmann the longed- for Entgrenzungthat he seeksin music andwriting - yet while instrumentalmusic neverquite losesits connotationsof the uncanny,fear-inspiring and artificial realm of in fact ineffable listener20 Thus, otherness,vocal music may communicatethe to a . poetry and music intertwine in an effort to expressthe music alreadyresonating within the humanbeing. Ideally, both arts profit from their collaboration,insofar as music becomesaccessible and communicablethrough language which in turn is being 'h6her potenziert'through the sublimeof music.21 Rather than creatinga dichotomy,with its insolubleproblem of expressingmusic throughwritten language,Hoffmann aims at an experienceof synaesthesiaof the arts as well as a transcendenceof humanexperience and feeling throughcombining the realmsof reality, music and dream.In this aspect, Hoffmannis undoubtedlyin tune with earlier conceptsof the singingvoice andthe sublimenature of music. However,we now seethe tensionHoffmann experiences in trying to expressmusic in a prosaiccontext and give this othernessany kind of form. Throughtheir cooperationand mutual inspiration,poet and musicianare ableto shape the uncannyof music and its emotiveforce throughreason and structure,all the while pushingthe boundariesof humanexperience within the narrativeframe, with the ideal of abandoningboundaries altogether. Both music and dreamserve to emphasize

19 SW 4, p. 104. 20Hoffmann shows this in anotherKreislerianum, Ombra Adoratal, where the singing voice acts as a 21soothing force from the other world, comforting the listener(SW211, pp. 4145). Seechapter 3, andpp. 99ff.

167 Hoffmann's generaldictum on the fundamentalambivalence, duplicity and irrationality of humanexistence. This ambivalence,juxtaposed with Hoffmann's ideal of Entgrenzungis epitomizedthrough the leitmotival contrastbetween musical inspiration andpoetry on the one hand,and musicalmechanics on the other.22 Much morethan previousauthors, it seemsthat Hoffmannregards the interdependenceof music and words as an insolubleconflict, and the musicalexperience less as a sourceof divine transcendencethan of despairfor the humanartist. Hoffmann differs significantly from earlier exponentsof musicalaesthetics in his views on the idealspertaining to music and,by extension,to femininity, sincehis aestheticsof Entgrenzungcannot hide the fact that his musiciansand singersare for the most part tormentedand brokencharacters, who hardly ever experiencemusical transcendence,let alonethrive on the enthusiasmand artistic fulfilment which is supposedto be containedin the musicalidea. In his literary texts, Hoffmannmakes use of the musicalconcept of dissonancein order to portray music as being contradictoryin itself, as the idea of soundand its actualexecution oppose each other - it is an artistic ideal defying all attemptsto confine it within the frame of prosaicmusical life. 23 Dissonancecharacterizes and structuresthe lives of numerousof Hoffmann's musical characterswho are torn betweentheir own musicalideals and the prosaiccontext in which music is actually executed.In this, Hoffmannpursues a ratherpractical approach groundedin his own life as a professionalmusician, by portrayingmusic as a struggle, not as liberation. He transposesthis to his literary writing, making dissonantmusical structuresthe guiding principlesof his works, implying combinationsof voicesand harmonieswhich are likely to fail or causeconflict. Very often, music as it is alludedto

22 Dobatopposes the traditional readingof a Romanticdichotomy between music as the transcendent absolute,and literatureas the prosaiccounterpart, from which the conflict betweenprose and poetry would stem.Music is first and foremostan aestheticexperience for Hoffmann,while throughhis writings he exposesthe Romanticerror of idealizingmusic as fiction's solutionto revealingthe sublime.Rather, musicbecomes a meansfor enduringand bearingreality (Dobat,Musik als romantischeIllusion, pp.153- 55). 23 SeeKeil, 'Dissonanzund Verstimmung.E. T. A. HoffmannsBeitrag zur Entstehungder musikalischen Romantik',E. TA Hoffmann-Jahrbuch,I (1992-93),119-33 (pp. 123ff. ); Barbaradi Noi, 'Romantische Allegorie und E. T. A. Hoffmannsh6here musikalische Mechanik', in 'Seelenaccente'- 'Ohrenphysiognomik'. Zur Musikanschauung E. TA Hoffmanns, Heinses und Wackenroders,ed. Werrier Keil/Charis Goer (Hildesheim: Olms, 2000), pp. 10240.

168 in his texts collides with music as it finally structuresthe text and as it is beingexecuted within the text. This appliesto somecharacters as individuals in whom different voices arein conflict, but it applieseven more to Hoffmann's charactersin their relationships towardseach other, as opposingmusical entities, or as different musicalregisters, like voice and instrument. Thus, Hoffmann's musical novellas often expose fundamental musical conflicts, which range from almost funny, banal sceneslike the amateur musical soirde which Kreisler is forced 24 to accompany, and in which neither notes nor harmonies are correCt, to existential conflicts between dissonant voices or artistic views, with potentially fatal consequences.25

The fragile, conflictual balancethat emergesfrom Hoffmann's musicalaesthetics betweenthe surreal,irrational, limitless side of music and its mechanicalrealities, its textual embodiment,makes for a highly intriguing readingof Hoffmann's singersin his musicalnarratives, and of the conflicts they face whentrying to reconcileideals of music and femininity with their own questsfor performanceand agency.

24 JohannesKreisters, des Kapellmeisters, musikalische Leiden. This Kreislerianumis oneof the few comic turns on the conflict betweenKreisler, the absolutemusician and the dilettantebourgeoisie he is forcedto endure,probably due to financialconstrictions (which certainlyechoes Hoffmann's own experiencesto a certainextent): '0 Satan,Satan! Welcher deiner höllischen Geister ist in dieseKehle gefahren,der alle Tönezwickt und zwängtund zerrt. Vier Saitensind schongesprungen, ein Hammerist invalid. Meine Ohrengellen, mein Kopf dröhnt,meine Nerven zittern. Sind dennalle unreineTöne kreischenderMarktschreier-Trompeten in diesenkleinen Hals gebannt,?(Fantasiestücke in Callots Manier, SW211, 37). 23 p. As for example in the novellas Rat Krespel and Das Sanctus.

169 Hoffmann's Singers

When talking aboutsong, we can seeagain how Hoffmann,although drawing on existing musicalaesthetics, ultimately departsfrom the centralconcept of songas the reliable mediatorbetween music and language,between that inexpressible 'Geisterreich'and its resonancewithin the humanbeing.

Der Dichter rüste sich zum kühnen Fluge in das ferne Reich der Romantik; dort findet er das Wundervolle, das er in das Leben tragen soll, lebendig und in frischen Farben erglänzend, so dass man willig daran glaubt, ja dass man, wie in einem beseligendem Traume, selbst dem dürftigen, alltäglichen Leben entrückt in den Blumengängen des romantischen Landes wandelt, und nur seine Sprache,das in Musik ertönendeWort versteht.26

At first glance,it seemsthat Hoffmann conformsto traditional idealsassociated with song:the singeris the one who may be ableto speakthe languageof the unknown romanticGeisterreich, and whosevoice becomesin turn a Geisterstimme,like that of the singerin Ombra adorata! who takesthe listenerinto the realm of music andleaves him with the memory of her voice as eternalconsolation within his Soul.27 The singer addsform and contentto a music which is alreadyvaguely present within the listener's imagery('in der Brust desMenschen selbst'): 'In dem Gesange,wo die Poesie bestimmteAffekte durch Worte andeutet,wirkt die magischeKraft der Musik wie das 28 wunderbareElixir der Weisen'. Following Hoffmann's thoughtsabout music, a mythical understandingof songmust, at somepoint, collide with the mechanicsof actualmusic, with the technicalrealization of soundemitted by the humanbody: 'Der

26 Der Dichter und der KomponistSW4, p. 103.In his diary, Hoffmannregularly alludes to the strangenessof the exaltationhe experiencesthrough song. Quite tellingly, he feelsboth liberationand terror in his passionfor Julia, his voice student:'Spukereien durch die musikalischeExaltation. Gesang! ' (26.02.1812,TB, p. 143) 27 This short story was conceivedat the heightof Hoffinann'sJulia crisisand alludesto the soothing, liberatingpower of the femalevoice, which Hoffmannwill later perfectthrough the traits of Julia, Kreisler's love interestin Kater Murr. 28 SW211,p. 52.

170 Ton wohnt überall, die Töne, dasheißt die Melodien,welche die höhereSprache des 29 Geisterreichesreden, ruhen nur in der Brust desMenschen'. How shouldsuch a song,a transcriptionof somethinggreater than oneself,be conceivedwithin the singer,unless it is utter musicaldilettantism or its opposite,a surreal,supreme genius that challengesphysical and artistic boundaries?Especially sinceHoffmann, as in his Beethovendiscussion, does not alwaysdistinguish clearly betweenmusic and voice, so that music may be given vocal qualitiesjust as the singer's voice mergeswith the music sheaims to transpose?In OmbraAdoratall the narrator closeshis eyesbefore he evenhears the singer,and he is thus able to perceivethe song as a divine soundcoming out of nowhere,or at leastas a songwhich he cannotattribute to a distinct artistic subject.It is dueto this immaterialismof the humanvoice that the narratoris able to conserveand stylisethe songas a soundgenerated both by a sublime singerand within his own SoU1.30One may assumethat, if Hoffmannperceives the discrepancybetween ideal soundand musical mechanics as irreconcilable,this problem must be evenmore obvious in the caseof a singer,for whom soundis naturallybound to the humanbody, yet who neverthelessis a centralaspect of Hoffmann's overall musicalaesthetics, aimed to pushthe boundariesof musicalexperience, and catalysethe ambivalenceand inner tormentsof humanexistence through the musicalexperience. Thus,more than other authorsbefore him, Hoffmanndramatizes very stronglythe 'impossibility' associatedwith songand the fundamentalparadox between the song ideal and its performance,which receivesa specialfocus through the womansinger's conflict. Hoffmann's song aestheticsare not particularly gender-specificbut apply to both male and femalevoices as the authordeals with the humanvoice and songin general, within the broadstrokes of his musicalideals. Yet what makesHoffmann's treatmentof femalesong striking is the dichotomyof musical ideal andperformance, more precisely

29 JohannesKreislers Lehrbrief, SW211, p. 453. In reminiscenceof Wilhelm Meister'sLehrbrief, Hoffmannredrafted an earlieressay entitled Ahnungen aus demReich der Tone(AforgenblatIffir gebildeleStande, 21. /22.02.1816) into a letterof mastershipthat JohannesKreisler addressesto himself, concludingthus the Kreisleriana the Fantasiestficke. 30 and 'dann wird in deinen T6nen mir eine trOstendeGeisterstimme zulispeln' (Hoffmann's emphasis.Ombra Adorala! SW 2/1, p.45).

171 the conflict betweenmusical experienceas limitless and entgrenzt,as opposedto enclosedin the prosaicframe of musicalpractice and the dissonancethat threatensto sabotagethe musical ideal.

172 Musical Mechanics and the Human Instrument: Rat Krespel

Stereotypicalreadings of Hoffmann's singersgained momentum through the Julia episode,amply illustratedin Hoffmann's diary and takenas a classicalcase of RomanticKfinsterliebe. Tom betweenthe prosaicand the poetic,as Hoffmann liked to stress,he idealizedJulia in art, transposingher and his ideal love into characterslike DonnaAnna, the epitomeof the disembodiedfemale voice. 31 But Hoffmann's singers offer more. Another centralHoffmann text that exposesa challengingsinger is the novella Rat Krespel.

Synopsis

The narrator, Theodor, relates the story ofcouncillor Krespel, a Hoffmannesque lawyer and musician who appears as both an amiable musical entertainer and a maniacal violin constructor who cuts open the instruments in order to reveal the secret oftheir sound, only to throw them away afterwards, in a Sisyphus-like dilemma ofnever reaching his goal, He lives a secluded existence with his daughter Antonie, the child of a 'dissonant'marriage with the Italian opera diva Angela, a capricious devil whose behaviour at the time drove Krespel away. Antonie, who possessesthe most beautiful, unearthly voice,falls in love with the young composer B. However, Krespelforbids all contact since A ntonie is diagnosed with a life-threatening chest condition that will lead to her death should she continue to sing. One night, Krespel dreams ofAntonie's and B's musical love duet, only to wake andfind his daughter dead, with an angelic smile on herface.

Hoffmann's useof the voice in general,and his treatmentof the femalesinger's voice in particular,merit specialconsideration in this iconic novella. While Krespel, whoseown voice appearsstrangely out of tune with whateverhe says,seems to bejust as capriciousas his former wife, he is a doting father to his angelicdaughter Antonie, 32 who surpassesher motheras a singerand is boundfor a promisingcareer. In fact, when she sings,Antonie displaysthe highestqualities of soundproduction and poetry

3' Donna Anna in Don Juan (SW211) as well as Lauretta and Teresina, the two singers in Die Fermate, (SW4), have become representativesof specifically female disembodied singers whose song is pppropriatedby a male subject. 3' Not surprisingly,Antonic's name,through its playing with androgynyas well aswith 'tone', impliesa certainmusical idealism.

173 and literally is ableto embodythe ideal of the musicalsublime and transcendence and makethis ideal graspablefor her audience:

Der Rat vergoß Ströme von Tränen, nie hatte er selbst Angela so singen hören. Der Klang von Antoniens Stimme war ganz eigentümlich und seltsam oft dem Hauch der Äolsharfe, oft dem Schmettern der Nachtigall gleichend. Die Töne schienen nicht Raum haben zu können in der menschlichen Brust. Antonie vor Freude und Liebe glühend, sang und sang alle ihre schönstenLieder und B. spielte dazwischen, wie es nur die wonnetrunkene Begeisterung vermag. Krespel schwamm erst in Entzücken, dann wurde drückte er nachdenklich - still - in sich gekehrt. Endlich sprang er auf, Antonien an seine Brust, und bat sehr leise und dumpf. 'Nicht mehr singen, wenn du mich liebst - es drückt 33 mir das Herz ab - die Angst - die Angst - nicht mehr singen'.

Antonie's voice is ideal sound,generated in the humanbody yet transcendingpure physicality and surpassingthe mechanics of singing. It is her voice but also that of Naturmusik, of the Aeolian harp and the nightingale. The voice's otherworldliness at first moves then worries Krespel, whose concerns are confirmed by the doctor's report according to which Antonie suffers from an incurable 'flaw' in her chest, which can be read both realistically, as a medical problem, and poetically, as the conflict between the ideal sound and the performing body, the Hoffmannesque problem of musical mechanics. Contrary to the singer in Ombra Adorata!, Antonie is no ethereal vision who is symbolically disembodied by the listener who closes his eyes, but is fully present and visible to her father and her fiancd, in her 'impossible' performance. Krespel could be misunderstood at this point, as a jealous father who wants to keep his daughter for himself and away from her composer fiancd, thus cementing female song stereotypes. Yet first and foremost Krespel acknowledges the ideal of music embodied in his daughter, whose 'flaw' is exactly what createsthe inhuman, surreal sound. Antonie, whether consciously or not, embodies the musical genius of artistic Entgrenzung, both the creative originality and the 'extra something' which mark her as supreme, and which are hinted at through her pathological physicality and the quality of

33 SW4, p, 60. The novella was first published as a postcript to Fouqud ClEin Brief von Hoffmann an Herm Baron de la Motte Fouqud', Frauentaschenbuchffir das Jahr 1818). See n.4 1. Rat Krespel went from a relatively unknown novella to an archetypal piece of Hoffmann's writing that also inspired parts of Offenbach's opera.

174 her voice. Yet it is an unliveableideal surpassingthe capacitiesof body and mind. Krespel,who tries in vain to cut openviolins anddecipher their mysteries,knows this andtherefore, as an eccentricyet loving father,he tries to keephis daughterfrom forcing this ideal, evenif it meanscompromising her artistic agency,intimately linked to her love for B to whom sheis boundthrough art. To Antonie, singing equalsliving her love for her fiancd, whilst the father's interdictionto sing meansrenouncing the union with the musicianand living a compromisewith Krespel'sviolins, which Antonie eventuallyresigns herself to for a while.

Kaum hatte [Krespel] die erstenTöne angestrichen,als Antonie laut und freudig rief.- 'Ach dasbin ichja - ich singeja wieder'. Wirklich hattendie silberhellenGlockentöne des Instrumentsetwas ganz Eigenes Wundervolles, sie schienenin der menschlichen Brust erzeugt.Krespel wurde bis in dasInnerste gerührt, er spieltewohl herrlicherals jemals, und wenn er in kühnenGängen mit voller Kraft, mit tiefem Ausdruckauf- und niederstieg,dann schlugAntonie die Händezusammen, und rief entzückt:'Ach das habeich gut gemacht!Das habeich gut gemacht'!34

Howeverhealth-preserving and soothingthe synaestheticcompromise of the instrument-voicemay be, it doesnot provideAntonie with the true vocationfor her life as the artist sheis and furthermorealienates the singerfrom her voice by employinga substitutevoice in the shapeof the violin. Although this disembodimentof the female voice portrayedby Hoffmann could be readas a consciouseffort to disempowerthe singerand makeher her father's mouthpiece,depriving her of her artistic self- expression,this brief interludeactually servesto strengthenthe singer'sagenda, which is madeclear quite poetically by Hoffmannin the novella's conclusion,when Krespel 'dreams'of Antonie's and B's reunionin music:

Nun fiel Antonie ein in leisenhingehauchten Tönen, die immer steigendund steigend zum schmetterndenFortissimo wurden, dann gestalteten sich die wunderbarenLaute zu demtief ergreifendenLiede, welchesB... ganzim frommenStyl der alten Meisterfür Antonie komponierthatte. [ ] Plötzlich [Krespel] blendendeKlarheit, ... umgab eine und in derselbenerblickte er B... und Antonien,die sich umschlungenhielten und sich voll

34 Jbid P.63.

175 seligemEntzücken anschauten. Die Töne desLiedes und desbegleitenden Pianofortes dauertenfort, ohnedass Antonie sichtbarsang oder B... dasFortepiano berührte. 35

WhetherAntonie's prematuredeath may tap into contemporaryideologies of unhealthysong or the inhumanideal of sublimemusic, it is striking to seethat the readingof this disembodiedgirl mistreatedby her fatherhas often beensimplified within a binary patternof male power and femaledeath. 36 As mentionedabove, Krespel is actually far from being a jealous,possessive character, just as his daughteris more than a singerwho pays for her transgressionwith her death.Antonie's deathis in no way a constructiveelement for the male artist's creativeprocess. Krespel's first plea for her to stop singing is inspiredby worry, and the tearful realizationthat this unearthly songcannot (and therefore must not) exist. In consequence,keeping Antonie from a selfish,demanding crowd must to a certainextent be regardedas an act of respect towardsthe true artist: 'Auch die Welt, dasmusikalische Publikum, mocht' es auch unterrichtetsein von AntoniensLeiden, gab gewiß die Ansprüchenicht auf, denndies Volk ist ja, kommt es auf Genußan, egoistischund grausam'.37 The fact that Krespel keeps Antonie for himself doesnot imply a wish to monopolizeher songexclusively - on the contrary,not hearingher sing painshim, while the self-imposedsilence fuels Antonie's determinationto live and sing with her flancd.At no point doesKrespel keep Antonie againsther will, but ratherhe lets her chooseher own path in life. 38In termsof the often-citedviolin motif, Krespeldoes not gain any profit from disembodying Antonie's voice. Krespelmerely executeshis daughter'ssubstitute voice on the violin, he does this yet not understand type of sound- it is Antonie who identifieswith the violin, not her father- nor can he uphold or decipherthis type of Sphdrenmusik. Antonie's violin-voice, sparedfrom Krespel.'s dissection,'breaks' upon her deathand is consequentlyburied with her. The musicalmechanic (and dilettante) Krespel remains behindas his daughter,the enigmaof the true artist, dissolves:'Sie ist dahinund das

35 Ibid, 63/64. 36 pp. Seen. 7-1 0. 37 Aid, P.61. This remark,which could be Kreisler's,again emphasizes the fragility and uniquenessof the true artist amidstprosaic surroundings. 38 Ibid, P-61.It is ratherthe narrator'sperception of Krespeland his romanticizedimage of Antonie whom he claimsshould be 'liberated' from her father'styranny.

176 Geheimnis gel6st!'39 Rather than implying a solutionto the enigmaof Antonie's song (andhence to art itselo, Krespelhere realizes that Antonie took her secretto the grave. He feels liberatedfrom the musicalburden, abandoning all art forever. Antonie is a fascinatingenactment of Hoffmann's ideal of Entgrenzungand of liberation throughthe musicalexperience, through a voice belongingto the singeryet transcendingthe mechanicsof the humanbody. 40 Antonie's deathscene is situated within a dreamstate, in which boundariesdissolve and the artist endsher life happily. The singerand her voice transcendboundaries of dream,imagination and reality from the very beginning,a fact further implied by the character'sgenesis, which startedwith the thoughtof sound.41 Strugglingwith his own poetic creativity,the authorexperiments with thesetwo sidesof soundby creatinga femalesinger from his own chestand by attributingthe conflicting sidesof her etherealvoice to a pathologiccondition in her own chest. Throughoutthe story, he toys with the dream-likequality and elusivenessof the singer's voice: the narrator,Theodor, actually never hears Antonie sing a single note,yet he fantasizes beauty aboutthe of her voice and visualizesher songin his imagination- an analogousstate to Krespelwho literally seeshis daughteroff in a dream.Song thus remainsan unreachablefantasy. However,Rat Krespelmay also be regardedas a novella with a strongstatement aboutart, albeit an art that leadsto death.The true artist Antonie, knowing aboutthe fatal natureof absoluteart, choosesthe brief life as an artist, in songand love with her flancd.Her death,couched in imageryof transcendenceand bliss, implies self-

39 Jbid, p.56. 40 For a different turn on the motif of musicalEntgrenzung, see Werner Keil, 'The Voice from the Hereafter:E. T. A. Hoffmann'sIdeal of Soundand its Realizationin Early Twentieth-CenturyElectronic Music', in Music Literature in GermanRomanticism, 143-61. 41 and pp. 'mochte daß der [ ] Abendwind über den Flügel hineingestreift, daß es sein, ... offen stehenden oder ein flatternder Sommervogel die Brust Saiten berührt hatte - genug, ein klarer Ton, wie aus weiblicher hervorgehaucht, lang leise durch das Zimmer [ ], da die ging und verhallend ... und war mir, als sei es Stimme einer mir wohlbekannten Sängerin, die zu meinem Geist spräche,und doch wusst ich nicht, hatt ich sie einst wirklich im Traum [ 1 Sodann ich tiefer Brust: Antonie! ' (SW oder nur gehört. ... seufzte aus 4, pp. 1272/73) In this apologetic letter to Fouqud, who had requesteda new story for his Frauentaschenbuchfar das Jahr 1817, which Hoffmann, due to his many activities, had failed to produce, the author explains as a postscript how he came across the 'freundliche Himmelsgestalt' Antonie and attributed the name to a specific feeling of sound.

177 determinationand no senseof regret.Thus, while traditional scholarshipreads Antonie's fate as a stereotypicalfemale death catalysed by male manipulation,the deepermeaning implied in the novella is that Hoffmannsees the solutionto artistic transcendenceand Entgrenzungin the annihilationof physicality and the passingover into a preternaturalstate, which is bestexpressed through the metaphorof dream. Furthermore,Hoffmann takesa stanceon traditional constellationsof idealized 42 femininity and male fantasies,as opposedto the autonomyof the womanartist.

Glimpses of Emancipation? Das Sanctus

Synopsis

Bettina,an acclaimedandpopular singer has lost her voiceafter leaving church prematurelyduring the Sanctusand having beenreprimandedfor this.by a nun.As the doctor canfind no physical reasonfor her condition,a travelling enthusiasttells the 43 story of a Moorish girl, Zulema,during the Reconquistaof Grenada. Zulema,an outstandingsinger, acceptsChristianity and, underthe nameofJulia, performs with the nunsin church.However, her 'old' characterresurfaces and she leavesthe choir to perform her old, heathenishtunes. During a masshaptism, she eventuallyresurfaces and leadsthe congregationin to church,only to die infront ofthe altar. Thestory concludeswith Bettina, who has eavesdroppedon the story, regaining her voice.

Justas enigmaticand multi-layered as Rat Krespel,Das Sanctus,which concludes the first part of Hoffmann's Nachistficke,portrays two very different singers, intertwinedthrough their fatesas well as throughnarrative structure. This time the singer'svocal flaw is more clearly psychological,and Bettina eventuallyrecovers completely and is able to resumeher profession.The story garnered considerablecritical interestthrough psychoanalytical readings relating to the singer's mysteriousaphony, and the power strugglesbetween the singingvoice and a patriarchal

42See also MargareteKohlenbach, 'Women and Artists: E. T. A. Hoffmann'simplicit Critiqueof Early Romanticism',MLR, 89.3 (July 1994),pp. 659-673. 43Das Sanctus,SW 5. Jean-PierreClaris de Florian's Gonzalvede Cordoueou Grenadereconquise (1791) probablyinspired the centralstory; for the narrativeframe of Bettina'sillness, Hoffmann may haveused the personalanecdote of a singerwho hadtemporarily lost her voice.

178 systemsymbolized by the church.What seemshowever to be at the centreof Hoffmann'spreoccupation in this entirely musicalnovella is the artistic dilemmaof a singerwho has lost the most importanttool of self-expressionand creativity. The story of the singerZulema, who becomesentangled within the conflkting voicesof Christendom and Islam, serves to cure Bettina of her neurosis, restoring her confidence as an artist and enabling her to continue her career. Zulema is a fascinating character, as Hoffmann crafts her as a strong yet dissonant artist for whom death is the only solution to a perceived double-bind: singing her traditional, heathenishtunes, Zulema, 'das Licht 44 desGesanges in Granada" challengesand opposesChristian culture (expressed throughthe Catholic liturgy) which at the time is regainingcontrol over Andalusia. Zulemais neither forced to convertto Christianitynor to sing churchmusic, yet gradually,she attunes her lyre andvoice to the strangesounds, eventually joining in with the nuns' choir. However,as 'Julia', shenever fits in; her voice constantly overshadowsthe choral ensemble,and eventuallystrays again towards her traditional songs.

Oft hallte plötzlich der dumpfeKlang einertiefgestimmten Zither durchden Chor. Der Ton glich demNachklingen vom Sturmdurchrauschter Saiten. Dann wurde Julia unruhig und es geschahso ar, dasssie willkürlos in den lateinischenHymnus ein mohrischesWort einwarf4i§

Caught between two opposing musical as well as cultural ideals, Zulema appears dissonant and subversive towards her surroundings, but most importantly, she compromises her own integrity while trying to adapt to Christian music under the mask of Julia. Her constant oscillation between two antagonistic songs, her subsequent experimenting with the boundaries of different musical patterns, seemsonly to resolve itself in her physical death, which ensuesafter she sings the liturgy during a mass- conversion. This last step of the singer's conflict implies her transcendencebeyond 46 physical boundaries, symbolized by her unearthly voice and her upward gaze. In this

44 Ibid., p. 151. 45 Ibid, p. 152. 46 Ibid., P. 159.

179 aspect,she shares an importanttrait with Antonie, in that both charactersembody a profoundconflict betweena specificmusical ideal and the constraintsand contradictionsof the performing body (andthus, of the 'musical mechanic').Moreover, in the light of Hoffmann's aesthetics,Zulema's fate may be readas that of the artist who, compromisingher integrity tries, to conformto idealsthat arenot her own, tearing herselfto piecesover an irreconcilabledichotomy. Perhaps Zulema betrays her own musicianshipby switching sidesand singing churchmusic, perhaps she is just toying different with a way of expressingherself -whatever it may be, the contextof an instrumentalized Christianfaith which is usedas a meansof power and oppression perhapsovershadows the more fundamentalchallenge of the artist to staygenuine. Zulemadies becausethere is ultimately no way for her to expressher authenticsong, nor is her body able to containmusic which contradictsher ideals. As for Bettina,Zulema's story helpsher recoverfrom aphony,since she understands the story's key issues.She is able to transposeZulema's fate to her own, turning the girl's conflict into a resolutionfor her own dilemma.At the end of the story, Bettina singsPergolesi's Stabat mater, but sheperforms it in a medium-sizedrecital room ('jedoch in der Kirche, im Zimmer 47) in This nicht sondern m5BiggroBen , not church. last, somewhatenigmatic scene may imply that the busy diva Bettina hasadopted a calmerschedule, and thus maturedto a truer form of musicianship.But more importantly,the sceneimplies a dissolutionof traditional music patterns,liberating music from a specific frame, like the church,and turning it into a universalpiece of art to be 48Bettina's form performedanywhere . performancethus representsanother of musicalEntgrenzung and artistic self-determinationin the Hoffmannesquesense, but with the positive implication of the womansinger's reclaiming her artistic agencyand liberatingherself from performanceconstraints.

47 Ibid, p. 160. 48 Not coincidentally, Bettina's voice in this last scene is described as a 'herrliche Glocken-Stimme' (P. 160), which plays with the image of the church bells.

180 Male Phantasms?Kreisler and Julia

A surprisinglystrong case of femalemusicianship, though not often regardedas such,is Julia, ýohannesKreisler's music studentand idealized,platonic love object.The Kapellmeister and mad musicianKreisler, a veritablepredecessor of both Balzac's Gambara and Hector Berlioz's Corsino,is a very early figure in Hoffmann's (euvre.He makeshis first appearancein the satiricalpiece Johannes Kreislers, des Kapellmeisters 49 musikalischeLeiden, and finds his most accomplishedexpression in the late novel Lebensansichlen desKaters Murr. Although it is certainlypossible to readher as yet anotherfemale object of the male artist's desire,Julia is not a passivemusician at all, especiallyif we take into accountHoffmann's musical ideals. Julia is the only character to actuallyclaim musicianshipfor herselfand put it into practice,without the dissonancewe usually perceivein Hoffmann's characters.She first meetsKreisler during a walk with her friend, PrincessHedwiga. The two girls accidentallyeavesdrop on Kreisler, attractedby his singingand guitar playing. However,as he cannotseem to masterthe tuning of the instrumentand produce harmonic accompaniments to his voice, Kreisler throws the guitar away in frustration.Inspired by his music,Julia takesup the guitar and startssinging her own songswhich, unlike the Kapellmeister'sattempts, resonatein perfectharmony, creating a transcendentsound.

Julia konntees nicht unterlassen,sie schlugeinen Akkord auf dem zierlichen Instrumentan und erschrakbeinahe über den mächtigen vollen Klang, der ausdem kleinen Dinge heraustönte.'0 herrlich - herrlich', rief sie ausund spielteweiter. Da sie abergewohnt, nur ihren Gesangmit der Gitarrezu begleiten,so konntees nicht fehlen, daßsie bald unwillkürlich zu singenbegann, indem sie weiter fortwandelte.[... ] Sie beganneine bekannteitalienische Kanzonetta und verlor sich in allerlei zierliche Melismen,gewagte Läufe und Capriccios,Raum gebend dem vollen Reichtumder Töne, der in ihrer Brust ruhte.50

Julia, untrainedand (yet) 'unspoiled' by a harmful society,manages to do 'naturally' what Kreisler, the professionalmusician, fails to do: attuneher voice to the

49 See n. 24. 50 Lebensansichtendes Katers Murr nebstfragmentarischer Biographie des Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler in zufälligen Makulaturblättern, SW 5, p. 64.

181 soundof the guitar and project the resultingmusic to the outside- or rather,she does not needto attuneanything as shepossesses music intrinsically sincetraditional patterns of musicianshipdo not apply to her. It is characteristicto seethat while Hedwiga experiencesgenuine fear of Kreisler, who appearsas the embodimentof music's demonicforces, Julia remainsunimpressed, using the music that Kreisler inspiredin her to translateinto her own soothing,communicable musical language. Here,Hoffmann drawson well-establishedimages of femalesong, such as the Gnatural'link betweenwoman and music and the embodimentof the musical(and feminine)ideal throughJulia. Yet althoughone may qualify her as a symbolic Genius 51 figure to Kreisler, Julia in fact puts into practicethe Hoffmannesqueideal of consolationand catharsisthrough music as the soothingof a prosaicenvironment throughthe musicalexperience. Unlike most singerswho are spiedupon by a male onlooker/listenerand whosevoice may be appropriatedby a male subject,Julia in fact eavesdropson Kreisler and, literally, takesover from him as a musician.Throughout the novel, Julia is depictedas being ableto useher singing as a meansof liberationand escape.Contrary to Kreisler, whosecompositions she sings and plays,Julia is a pragmaticmusician who executesmusic 'naturally' without doubtingher own capacitiesor conceptualizingany views on music as such.

'0 Johannes,sprach sie sanft,du guter,herrlicher Mann, kann ich dennnicht bei dir den Schutzsuchen, den du mir versprochen?Kannst du nicht selbstzu mir tröstendreden den mit Himmelstönen,die rechtwiderhallen in meinerBrust'? - Damit öffneteJulia dasPianoforte und beganndie KompositionenKreislers, die ihr die liebstenwaren, zu spielenund zu singen.In der Tat fühlte sie sich bald getröstet,erheitert, der Gesangtrug sie fort in eine andereWelt, es gab keinenPrinzen, ja keine Hedwigamehr, deren krankhaftePhantome durften! [ ] Julia hatte in dasAndenken sie verstören ... geendet, an Kreisler ganzund gar versunken,schlug sie nocheinzelne Akkorde an, die ein Echo schienenihrer innem Gefühle.52

Among the tormentedmusicians of Hoffmann's universe,Julia is a strikingly positive character,affirmative of and attunedto the sublimity of music and one of the few examplesin whom songand music do not appeardissonant. While Hoffmann 51 The analogywith Hoffmann'spersonal Julia episodeis hardto ignorein this case. 52Ibid, pp.345/346.

182 identifieswith the plight of the male musicalgenius to someextent, he also leavesno doubt aboutthe futility of Kreisler's ideals,warning aboveall againstthe Romantic illusion that music revealsthe sublime.It seemsin this casethat Hoffmann makesa casefor music as a consolationfor and a solutionto the strugglesof everydaylife. Julia is able to realizethis in practice.However, since the novel remainedunfinished, it leavesthe questionof the potentialof femalemusicianship ultimately unanswered.As in the caseof Rat Krespel, oneneeds to readbetween the lines and questionthe seeminglypre-established power hierarchiesbetween male and femalemusicians to detectHoffmann's nuancesin his treatmentof music as an areaof disputebetween ideal and reality. In conclusion,although Hoffmann was certainlya man of his time and did not argue the casefor womenartists like CarolineAuguste Fischer, it hasbecome clear that to discusshis texts in similarly binary, restrictiveterms is counterproductiveand doesnot do justice to the author's complexview of eithermale or femalemusicians, and of what 53 he perceivedto be a multiplicity of existencesand experiences. Hoffmann's treatment of the femalesinger and her songappears much lessas a simplistic take on ideal femininity than as a multi-layeredexploration of femaleexpression through song, and as a generalinterrogation of the conflict betweenmusical ideals and mechanics, especiallyin relation to the artist's own freedomvis-d-vis the constraintsput upon music in the prosaicworld. Hoffmann's aestheticroots areto be found in the Romantic idealsof music and art, yet at the sametime, he appearsdisillusioned with them,a fact which is illustratedin his texts throughthe juxtaposition of musicalideals and fantasies, and the realities of the artist. This importantmirroring and cross-referencingbetween ideal, illusion and reality is alreadypresent in the previouscase studies, even more so as they are so fundamentalto the questionof the woman singer.But Hoffmanntakes this polemic further than Goethe,Stael and Fischer,through his radical treatmentof body and songperformance, musical ideals and their prosaicperformance space. In conclusion,we can detectaspects of criticism towardscontemporary ideals relating to art and womenwhich show us that, in his scepticism,Hoffmann was also 53 SeeHoffmann's remark on the 'VervielMItigungsglas'of the self, p. 159.

183 formulatinghis own artistic idealsbeyond binary modelssuch as male composerand femalesinger. His ultimate experimentconcerned the completenessof humanexistence in and throughart, all the while remainingsensitive towards notions of dissonanceand inner contradiction.Often enough,Hoffmann's singersare not what they seemto be, or what their male listenersand onlookerswould like them to be, and thus they undermine the ideal of musical femininity as well as the fantasyof songas a spectaclefor the audience.Symbols of artistic integrity and autonomy,Hoffmann's singersseem to strugglemore genuinelyfor true musicianshipand a spacewithin which they can expressthemselves as artists,or at least,where they can sensiblyrealize a form of artistry for themselvesamidst an unbearableenvironment - much like Hoffmann himself.

184 (2) From Periphery to Centre: France and the Artist as Centre Stage

Qu'est-cequ'un chanteur?Un seulcorps qui doit donnerdes firnes A ceuxqui Wenont pas.54

The exceptionallybroad and diversemusical culture of mid-centuryFrance was briefly summarizedin chapter2. Here, I shall discussin more detail how the musical-literary discourse on singerand songspecifically transferred into Frenchprose-fiction of the 1830sand 40s. As we shall see,this transitionfrom Germanyto Francedeveloped as a rewriting of paradigmsinherited from early Romanticismand authorslike Goethe,Stadl and Hoffmann and a strongresponse to the latter's fantasticalmusical novellas, but also as a gradualdeparture from earliermodels of femalesong towards more assertiveand realistic visions of the woman singer.

The Trivia of Genius: the Literary Output of the Singer

Perhapsmore so than in Germany, musical enthusiasm in France appearsas a frenzied mass vogue and true socio-cultural and literaryferment" which, in addition to its preoccupation with musical genius and artistic emancipation, contained a pronounced social agendaand sought to shapecontemporary society. In this regard, French literature treating music between 1830 and 1848, as compared to earlier German texts, appearsslightly to widen its reflection on song and the singer by placing the figure of the musician at the centre and, in doing so, raising the question of the artist in society. Underneath the social spectacle of music as mass-culture and the glorification of artistic attitudes, French texts of the mid-century, embracing tendenciesof both Romantic and

54 Xavier Fomeret, Un Critin et sa harpe, Conles el ricits, ed. JacquesRdmi Dahan (Paris: Corti, 1994), 197. See Tunfey: Music in the l9th-Century Parisian Salon, p. 7.

185 Realist aesthetics,presented the questionof the singerand her statusas womanand artist with renewedvigour. The political, economicand socio-culturalcaesura of 1830also marked the startof a new type of musical-literary discourse and the way in which writers reflected on music within a broader discussion of the place and status of art and artists. Coinciding with the heyday of French romanticism and bridging the gap between early romanticism and modernism, the high literary output between 1830 and 1848 appearsparticularly attuned to the question of the artist, and specifically, to the topic of music.56 1830, the year of the Bataille dHernani, equally marked the start of Hoffmann's reception in France, giving rise to a number of emulations and re-writings of his musical and fantastical tales, albeit of varying quality. 57Not all the contes were literary masterpiecesbut rathek a constant feed into the roman-feuilleton vogue,58 which, defined by form rather than content, served popular commonplaces like the Hoffmannesque and the glamour and eccentricities associatedwith the artist and musicianmilieu, including the archetypeof theprima donna.If music literatureof the 183Os and 40s appearspopular, it wasj ust a-much a formula-basedbusiness, potentially short-livedand cateringfor the bourgeois'fascination with everythingartistic and their desireto poseas artiststhemselves. In his article for the Revuedes deux Mondes, Sainte-Beuvesingles out the bourgeoisartistisme and the littirature industrielleas characteristicsof his time 'oA la littdratureet ]a socidtdsont dans un tel pdle-mele,et oil la vie d'artiste et celle de Phommedu mondesemblent perp6tuellement s'dchanger'. 59 Coinedduring the 1830s,the term of musicienlittirateur categorizesboth major names

56 See Bailbd, pp. 11-23. 57 For an extensive discussion of Hoffmann's enthusiastic reception in France see the standard work by Elizabeth Teichmann, La Fortune dHoffmann en France (Geneva: Droz, 1961). More recent studies include Ute Klein, Die produktive Rezeption E. T A. Hoffmanns in Frankreich (Bern: Lang, 2000); Andrea Hobener, Kreisler in Frankreich: E. T A. Hoffmann und diefranzosischen Romantiker (Gautier, Arerval, Balzac, Delacrobc, Berlioz) (Heidelberg: Winter, 2004). 58 For studies of contemporary press culture, see Lise Queffidlec,Le Roman-feuilletonfranqais au XIXe siýcle (Paris: PUF, 1989); Patrick Berthier, La Presse Ruiraire et dramatique au dibut de la Monarchie de Juillet (1830-1836) (Villeneuve dAscq: Pressesuniversitaires du Septentrion, 1997). 59RDA 15.09.1840.(cited in Martin-Fugier,Les Romanflques:fipres de I'artiste, 1820-1848(Paris: Hachettelittdratures, 1998), p. 229). Gautiertakes a similarly cynical stancein his 'Excýsd'artiste': T'dpicier n'existe plus. Cest I'artiste qui Fa tud. J Quel ddluged'arts, d'artisteset de choses artistiques'!(Le Figaro, 25.4.1837).

186 like Sandand Berlioz and their less-gifted,mass-producing colleagues. A largenumber of womenwrote as musicienslittirateurs, most of them educatedand intimately acquaintedwith the musical culture of their time, as salonhostesses and dilettanti, and sometimeseven as accomplishedamateur singers and pianists.However, with the exceptionof GeorgeSand and, to a lesserextent, Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, the prolific women of musical literatureare nowadaysforgotten -just like a large number of their male colleagues. Many novellasblend fact and fiction throughfrequent references to historical musicians. Dramatizing the life of early modem singer and composer Francesca Caccini, the singer-writer Stdphen de la Madeleine described her rise to fame in the fictitious account of her family's struggles and her own fear of becoming a professional 60The Paul Scudo in his singer on stage. critic portrayed a similarly successful musician 61 semi-factual Histoire dune cantatrice italienne, for which he blended real-life referencesto the Parisian music scenewith the fictitious life-story of the enigmatic soprano Rosine Stoltz. Allusions to famous singers or musicians are common in many texts, satisfying the public's infatuation with the artists, yet also commenting on mass musical culture through their ridicule of megalomaniac dilettanti as opposed to the real divas - due to the iconic status of certain singers, such as Maria Malibran, Pauline Viardot, Rosine Stoltz, the simple reference to La Malibran in the narrative context provided important fleshing out with regard to credibility, talent and aestheticsof the fictitious singer. Similarly to the German lieder tradition, the French romance was a fully-fledged, feminized businessproduct and mass-vogue, associatedwith a female singer possessing a naturally beautiful voice and, echoing the Rousseauesqueideal, singing of unhappinessin love and of her longing for nature and harmony. Romance scenesof yearning lovers or young girls who express their innermost feelings and musical

60'Francesca',RGM, 4.5 (28.1.1837). 61 Critique et littirature musicales,pp. 376-90. A notoriousmusical theorist and critic for a numberof journals like the Revuede Paris andthe Revuedes deux mondes, Scudo did not hold backwith typically sexistreviews of singers,whose perceived lack of talenthe consideredto be tolerablein view of their by physicalattractiveness (see pp. 33ff. ). The historico-culturalcontext described in Histoire was inspired Scudo'sown apprenticeshipat Choron'smusic academy in Paris.

187 femininity aboundin contemporarytexts, emphasizingthe poetic and feminine 62 connotationsof song: 'C'est le cceurqui chante'. While the romancecame to be known as a particularly successfulgenre for womenas well as an intersectionof high and popularart, of poetsand composers,63 the romancesinger in fiction continuedto negotiatethe poetic and the trivial aspectsof contemporarymusical culture, as exemplifiedby Balzac's 'natural' musicianModeste Mignon as well as the satiricalcase 64 study of the 'Cantatricede Salon or the numerousironic texts dealingwith dilettantismand the bourgeois'presumptuous artistic pose:'Mademoiselle de Valgrand, musiciennecomme le sont Apeu pr&stoutes les j eunespersonnes dlevdes pour le 65 monde'. As in Balzac'scase, authors did not necessarilyaccentuate the populist, trivial side of the singer,yet significantly elaboratedon the complexnature and quality of songas part of the artist's proflle and a sign of her uncorruptedartistic sublimity:66 'Cette fille dtait le type de podsiesecr&e, lien communde tous les arts,et qui fuit toujours ceux qui la cherchent'.67 In his Filles dufeu, Gdrardde Nerval combined reflectionson the womanartist with narrativeexperiments on the commonground betweensong and poetic prose.68 It comesas no surprisethat both theseauthors greatly appreciatedGoethe and Germanliterary traditions.The writing of the singeras a sublime,artist of geniusalso embracednotions of spontaneous,'natural' creativity, perhapsbest symbolizedby reminiscencesof Corinne'sgift of improvisation:'Elle

62 Victor Fleury: L'Artiste 3 (1833),p. 188.Fulcher ('The PopularChanson', p. 37) describesFrench song asthe 'literature of the peopleas well as their spontaneous,abstract expression in song'. 63 The fruitful collaborationof MarcelineDesbordes-Valmore with the composerPauline Duchambge is a pertinentexample of the successfulromance. See Ldon Guichard,La Musiqueet les lettresau tempsA romantisme(Paris: PUF, 1955),pp. 42ff. "Maurice de Hassan,Ta Cantatricede Salon'.Les Frangaispeints par eux-mdmes.Encyclopidie morale du l9e sikle, 11(Paris: Ldon Curmer, 1839-1842),pp. 201-208. 65 Camille Bodin [JennyBastide], Berthe et Louise,cited in Bailbd,p. 115.The cureof the megalomaniac dilettanteproved to be highly popular:'Eugdnie Bernard est aujourd'huiMadame Renaud. C'est toujours unecharmante femme. Elie n'a point cessdde cultiver la musique,mais seulement comme une utile distraction.Elie est la premWe A fire de ce qu'elle nommeassez plaisamment son dchauffourde musicale' ('C. V'., Te ddmonde la mdlomanie,LFM, 11.24,9. 66 -23.1.1848). SeeBailbd, p. 119. 67 La Comidie humaine,ed. Pierre-GcorgesCastex, 12 vol. (Paris:Gallimard Pidiade, 1976-1981), X, p,397 (hereafterCH). Beforebeing integratedinto Les Filles dufeu, Nerval's musicnovella Corilla, aboutan enigmatic operasinger of the samename (reminiscent of both Corilla Olimpica and Corinne)was first published underthe title 'Les Deux rendez-vous',La Presse,15. /17.8.1839.

188 69 rdunissaitA la fois le gdniequi crde,le talent qui exdcute,la gracequi embellit'. GeorgeSand went a stepfurther in her unlimited admirationof the artist Pauline Viardot, calling her 'la pr8tressede Fiddal en musique',who must preachtrue music to 70 the world. The breadthand diversity of, but alsothe sometimesblatant qualitative discrepanciesbetween different Frenchromantic and realist texts treatingthe singer, posea challengefor the critical assessmentof the topic; since,as I havemade explicit in 71 chapters2 and 3, the singerwith her numerousincarnations as actrice, cantatrice, chanteusedes rues, harpiste,prima donnaor diva assolutabelongs to both the trivial and the elite, theseincarnations appearing as prominentenactments of both 'high' and 'low' artistic discourse;furthermore she continues to negotiatethe dichotomyof ideal femininity and femaleperformance. She was usedby authorswho havesubsequently achievedcanonical status as well as in texts that havesince faded from public 72 memory. The singeras a literary motif continuesto covera wide set of topoi relatedto both the musicalfeminine and the issuesof the femaleperformer's artistic empowerment. The potentially stereotypicalsurface image of the July Monarchysinger covers deeperproblems of the ideal of femalesong and its relationshipwith the femalebody: the way in which the singermay or may not expressher song,or take her vocal gift further in a social and professionalsense beyond the constraintsof femalemusical ideal andpractice which I outlined in chapters2 and 3. In addition to the problem of female musicality, the singer partakes in the contemporary debate on artists and their place in society: An iconic specimen of her time, the singer belongs to the highly popular group of both musicians and performers, which situates her in the coveted realm of artists and bohemians, in which middle-class culture expressedan almost frenzied interest. Although texts deal with other performing

69 Gustavede Beaumont, Marie ou Vesclavage aux Etats-Unis (Paris: Gosselin, 1835), cited in Bailbd, 179. Sand, Correspondance V, p. 705. 71See chapter 2. 72 The exampleof Balzac'sSarrasine shows that a contemusical which receivedlittle attentionduring its time went on to canonizationthanks to RolandBarthes' critical appraisalin SIZ (1970).

189 arts professionslike that of the danceror the actress,the singerappears as the woman artist of choice,both in the socio-culturaland the aestheticsense of the term. She representsa new breedof performingartist in the public rcalm, yet eventhough she may comeclosest to the Romanticideal of original, creativegenius and its apotheosis throughmusic and the musician,she nevertheless still facesthe essentialproblems encounteredby singersof the late 18'hand early 19thcentury. Mid-century texts that treat the topic of femalesong continue to addressboth poeticsand performance.In line with the polemicssurrounding female song at the end of the 18'hand the early I 9th century,the femaleperformer remains per definitionemtransgressive and subversiveof the patriarchalorder, often going too far in her claim for a distinct voice as a sign of agencywhich throughher professionshe expresses as life-fulfilling. Moving away from Early Romanticism,the singer'spoetic and aestheticproblem becomesincreasingly bound up with the social implicationsof the professionalartist's claiming agency.In short,the controversysurrounding the singer,as expressedthrough its narrativetreatment, loses nothing of its sharpness,as Frenchauthors continue to negotiatedifferent idealsof femalesong and their variousincarnations through a womanperformer in their texts. In the following, I will discussthis problemspecifically in selectedtexts by Balzacand Berlioz, two authorsin the wake of Hoffmannwho developedvery strongyet controversialviews on the womansinger and her song.

190 Hoffmann Legacies1: Honori de Balzac musiden-littirateur

'Croyez-vous que I'Allemagne ait seule le privil6ge d'Etre absurde et fantastique?' (Balzac, epigraph to the pre-original edition of Sarrasine)

Honord de Balzac played a key role in introducing the Gennanfantastiqueur to a 73 French audience, and it comes as no surprise that Balzac published his first, and perhaps most enigmatic, music novella, Sarrasine (1830), at the height of the Hoffmann 74 vogue in France. Balzac's interest in Hoffmann was not simply the expression of contemporary taste. In fact, he had already published a Hoffmann tale in his journal Le Gyýnase in 1828 Lo6ve-Veimars inaugurated Hoffmann in 1829 '75when the vogue through the publication of selectedtales in the Revue de Paris, with two complete translations of Hoffmann's works to follow. 76Rather critical of French bourgeois tastes, Balzac was highly receptive to foreign literatures and, as an avid theatregoer with a keen interest in opera, was open to Hoffmann's musical themes and shared the latter's affinity for vocal music. Admiring the genius he perceived in the Kreisleriana, Balzac was neverthelesscritical of what he considered to be Hoffmann's reverie, his alcoholism and eccentricities: '[Hoffmann] sentait trop vivement, il dtait trop musicien pour discuter: j'ai sur lui l'avantage d'etre Frangais et tr&s peu musicien, je puis donner

73 This is ThdophileGautier's expression (see Charles de Lovenjoul,Hisloire deswuvres de Thiophile Gautier (Paris: Charpentier, 1887), pp. 11-15). 74 Te plus grand nombre est fou d'Hoffinann. C'est une fureur, c'est un engouement,mais il est contagieux' (Mercure de France, 0 1.05.1830). Champfleury later acknlowdges Hoffmann's key role in the formation of the fantastical genre in France: Vest en France que nous avons trouvd le mot fantastique, A cause de Ntormement et de la stupdfaction dans laquelle nous tenaient certaines ceuvres d'Hoffmann' (Conles posthumes dHoffmann (Paris: Michel Ldvy fr6res, 1856), p.28). 7' This wasthe Serapiontale 'Der Baron von B, translatedas VArchet du Baronde B'. Le Gymnase, 09-05.1828.Other stories include 'Les Deux r6ves' (La Mode,08.05.1830), which Balzacreworks as a 'conte fantastique'in December:Ta Dansedes pierres. Fantaisie' (La Caricature,09.12.1830); VElixir de longuevie' (RDP, 24.10.1830),the title and subjectof which give credit to both 'Don Juan' (RDP, 09/1829)and Die Elikire des Teufels(published in 1829),and finally 'Sarrasine'(21. /28.11.1830) and 'Une Passiondans le ddsert'(26.12.183 0), both in Revuede Paris. 76Frangois-Adolphe Lo&ve-Veimars, Contesfantastiques de Hoffmann(Paris: Renduel, 1829-1830); ThdodoreToussenel, tEuvres compl&es dE. TA Hoffmann(Paris: Lefebvre, 1830).

191 la clef du palais oii il 77 While to the important s'enivrait' . some scholars rightfully point Hoffmannesque tones in Balzac's 1830 novellas and go as far as to ascribe to Balzac the desire to become a 'Hoffmann frangais %78it must be said that Balzac's view of Hoffmann was equally critical: Tai lu Hoffmann en entier; il est au-dessous de sa r6putation; il ya quelque il bien 79The chose, mais pas grande chose; parle musique' . 80 above-mentioned epigraph to Sarrasine, Balzac from 1835 which omitted onwards, 81 replies explicitly to Walter Scott's Hoffmann critique, taking up the challenge of rewriting the fantastical musical novella. Balzac's subsequentbigger projects, Gambara and Massimilla Doni explicitly addressthis legacy.82 At the centre of Balzac's musical novellas stands a genuine yet critical admiration of his German predecessor,whose musical themes were enticing to emulate. Yet at the same time, Balzac's novellas constitute his attempt to create something different, coming to terms with what he called the irrational and mad elements in Hoffmann's wuvre. Despite their Romantic and Hoffmannesque undertones, Balzac's music novellas equally display his decidedly

77 Letter to Maurice Schlesinger,29.05.1837. Balzac calls Hoffmanna teriyaki, a musicalvisionary who haslost his attachmentto reality. Balzacuses this musicalmadness for Gambara,and Vendramin in MassimillaDoni (Contesmusicaux, ed. PierreBrunei (Paris:Folio, 1995),p. 24). 78 SeePierre Brunel's prefaceto Contesmusicaux, p. 18;Pierre Brunei's studiesTa Tentation Hoffmannesquechez Balzac', in E TA.Hoffmann et la musique,pp. 315-24; 'Orientations europdennes dansSarrasine', LAB (1992),73-85. In additionto the excellentPidiade editions of all threenovellas, PierreBrunel establisheda folio edition that breakswith the tradition of regroupingGambara and MassimillaDoni with Le Chef-d'auvre inconnu.Pierre Brunel explicitly placesthe threecontes musicauxtogether, under the patronageof Hoffmann: 'Mais derri&reSarrasine, Gambara et Massimilla Doni, mieux vaut voir apparaltre]a silhouettede JohannesKreisler et entendreles gdniesfamiliers du Pjinnistan' (Contesmusicaux, p. 32). 79 Lettresa MadameHanska, 1, p. 84. Ratherthan criticism, this remarkmight imply a certainfatigue of the excessiveHoffmann vogue sweeping France at that time. '0 Critics haveremarked that over the yearsBalzac consciously integrates the novellainto his Comidie humaine,although it was originally conceivedindependently. The link with Hoffmannand German Romanticismis severedfrom 1835onwards. (Etudes de mceursau X1Xesiýcle (Paris,Bdchet, 1835); La Comidie humaine,tome X (Paris:Fume, 1844)). 81 Tu Merveilleux dansle roman', RDP, april 1829.Loýve-Veimars published the article as a prefaceto his Hoffmann edition. 82 Wous avez,prodigue d'esprit, jetd sousma plume ce persormagedigne d'Hoffmann,ce porteurde trdsorsinconnus, ce pNerin assisA la portedu Paradis,ayant des oreilles pour, dcouter les chantsdes anges,et Wayantplus de languepour les rdpdter,agitant sur les touchesd'ivoire desdoigts brisds par les contractionsde Vinspirationdivine, et croyantexprimer la musiquedu ciel A desauditeurs stupdfaits'. Gambara.Dddicace A Belloy (CHX, p.459),

192 realist style, and his explicit referenceto and mirroring of society,as expressedthrough his Comidie Humaine.83

In the following, I shall discuss the novellas Sarrasine and Massimilla Doni as two key texts in Balzac's writing of the music novella.The infatuationwith, and subsequent departurefrom, Hoffmannesqueaesthetics becomes particularly evidentwhen discussingBalzac's treatment of the womansinger in the two texts.

A Singing Illusion: Sarrasine

Synopsis

In aframed narrative, Balzacrelates the story ofa gathering at the Lanty salon (presumablyin the 1830s),during which a mysterious,awe-inspiring old man intrigues the narrator's companion,the Marquisede Rochefide.The old man who instills unease and repulsion in the other guests,seems to havea specialrelationship with the Lanty family, in particular with the daughter,Marianina, an acclaimedsinger. Uponbeing questionedby the marquise,the narrator goeson to tell her the story of the ghost-like creaturewho turns out to be noneother than the once-famouscastrato Zambinella, the great-uncleofthe Lantyjamily and sourceof their wealth. TheFrench painter and sculptor Sarrasine84 developed an obsessionwith theyoung Zambinella,believing him to be a womanand using 'her'as a modelfor afemale statue,which subsequently servedas a blueprintfor a painting ofAdonis by Joseph-MarieVien that the narrator and the marquiseadmire in the Lanty's salon. Thenovella endswith the marquise's disgustat the story.

The novella originally containstwo clearly labelledparts: 'Les deuxportraits', dealing with the Lanty evening, and 'Une passion d'artiste', in which the narrator relates Sarrasine's story. While Balzac later removed these sub-headings,the novella retained its mirroring structure through the juxtaposition of two different stories, timelines and plots. The novella's two sides are linked through Zambinella and his various replicas and doppelganger in art (Sarrasine's sculpture and Vien's painting) as

8' Thisrealism equally underpins other singer narratives of theJuly Monarchy. See the case studies in chapter7. 84 Balzac probably took inspiration from 17'hcentury painter Jean Frangois Sarrazin. See Pierre Citron, Pidiade introduction, p. 1037.

193 in real life, throughthe eyesof his onlookers:the young castratois perceivedby Sarrasineas the ideal woman,whereas the old patriarchis considereda hideouscorpse by the marquise.And finally, Zambinella'sartistic legacyin the form of his great-niece Marianina,whose singing surpassesthat of the most acclaimedsingers of her time, and whosemysterious poetry echoesthe young Zambinella'smystery as an ideal object. Musically speaking,Balzac not only spansa centurythrough the life of Zambinellale centenaire,he also embracesa major changeof paradigmin musicalculture, between the heydayof the Italian castrati,who triumphedwhile womenremained banned from the stage,and the era of the acclaimedfemale singer, embodied by the soprano Marianina.In his initial stagingof the two singers,Balzac draws on the traditional imageryof songin its mysteryand ambivalence,sublimating Marianina within the realm of poeticizedfemininity:

Sonchant faisait pdlir les talentsincomplets des Malibran, desSontag, des Fodor, chez lesquellesune qualitd dominantea toujoursexclu la perfectionde Pensemble;tandis que Marianinasavait unir au m8medegrd la puret6du son, la sensibilit6,lajustesse du mouvementet desintonations, I'Ame et ]a science,la correctionet le sentiment.Cette fille dtait le type de cettepoesie secrete, lien communde tous les arts,et qui fuit toujoursceux qui la cherchent."

Far from making the girl a mere diva and representative of the trivialities of 1830s culture, Balzac explicitly links her to the secret of music and the arts as well as to the mystery that surrounds Zambinella as an old man. At the centre of Parisian gossip, Marianina's extraordinary nature blends with the mystery of her entire family, standing in sharp contrast to the salon evenings they host. Less theoretical than Hoffmann, Balzac carefully juxtaposes two different types of 'music' embodied by Zambinella and Marianina, as well as two contrasting aesthetics,developed through the very disparate contexts of Sarrasine's obsessiveinfatuation with the castrato and Marianina's performance in the Lanty salon. The carrier of both these opposing contexts is the

85 CH VII, p. 1045. We find here the familiar reference to well-known singers, both a sign of Balzac's realism and a frequent device in 1830s and 1840s French music novellas.

194 surviving castratoZambinella, who is also the sourceof the 'fantastical' elementin the novella:

C'dtait un homme.La premi6refois qu'il se montradans I'Mel, ce fut pendantun concert,o6 il semblaitavoir dtd attird vers le salonpar la voix enchanteressede Mariania. f ] SansWe homme ... pr6cisdmentun vampire,une goule, un artificiel, une esp&cede Faust de Robin desbois, il dire des du ou participait,86au gensamis fantastique,de toutesces natures anthropomorphes.

Although the narratorquickly exposesthe creatureas 'simplementun viefflard' (while at the sametime criticizing someGermans who believein the ghosttales spread aboutthe man), the novella's fantasticalelement remains the old man andhis mysteriousconnection to the Lanty family. In comparison,Sarrasine certainly doesnot comply with the Hoffmannesquehorror intruding into daily life. The resolutionof Sarrasinedoes not lie within the humanpsyche and the insolubleconflict between musicalideals and mechanics,but ratherimplies the contrastbetween Sarrasine's illusions and an almostcasual contemplation of the old castratoand his life, together 87 with the relief that 'on Wy fait plus de cesmalheureuses creatures'. In this, the fantasticalof Sarrasinediffers from that of Hoffmann's tales in that it appearsnatural and explicable.Ultimately, thereis a rational explanationto the horror of both Sarrasine and the 1830salonniers who are scaredof Zambinella.Thefantastique is less somethingpsychologically motivated than an externalizedphenomenon of the gaze,and of a trompe-l'ceilthat can be resolved.The narratorhimself, while beingwell awareof Zambinella'slife story, experiencesthe eveningat the Lantys' as a profoundly ambivalentsituation, with regardto his surroundingsand the ambivalenceand mystery surroundingthe Lanty family. The novella's openingmasterfully exposes this stateof ambivalentreverie, tying it into Hoffmann's aestheticsof the dreamstate and the ensuingwidening of the humanconsciousness:

86 Ibid, p. 1047. 87 Ibid, p. 1075.

195 J'6tais plongi dansune de cesreveries profondes qui saisissenttout le monde,mZme un hommefrivole, desfetes les [ ] Les imparfaitement au sein plus tumultueuses.... arbres, couvertsde neige,se ddtachaient faiblement du fond grisätreque formait un ciel nuageux, ä peine blanchi par la lune. Vus au sein de cette atmosphre fantastique, ils ressemblaient vaguement ä des spectresmal envelopp6s de leurs linceuls, image gigantesque de la fameusedanse des morts. Puis, en me retoumant de Pautre cöt6,je pouvais admirer la danse des vivants! "

Repeatedlythroughout the narration,these 'two paintings' or scenesare evokedin their ambivalence,as the narrator,'sur la fronUre de cesdeux, tableaux', experiences his presenceat the Lantys' as a borderlinestate between life and death,society and nature,conversations and music, finally witnessingthe gossipsurrounding the Lanty family, and especiallythe strikingly negativereactions towards Zambinella, who appearsas a ghostamong the living, addingto the Lantys' mysteriousdemeanour: Tette mystdrieusefarnille avait tout Pattrait d'un po6mede lord Byron [... ]: un chant obscuret sublimede stropheen strophe'.89 The fantasticalelement gains momentum throughthis enigmaticcharacter, 'cette crdaturesans nom dansle langagehumain, 90 forme sanssubstance, 8tre sansvie, ou vie sansaction', whoseappearances cause the most ridiculous speculationsand whoseimportance for the Lanty family is equallyleft ambiguous:'11 semblait que ce fOt une personneenchantde de qui dependissentle bonheur,la vie ou la fortune de tous. Etait-cecrainte ou affection?'91 The deeplydisturbing effect of the old man is resolvedin two stages,as Balzac movesfrom the uncannythat surroundsZambinella and 'her' art (tied to the poetic ideal of Marianina)to the realitiesof the contemporarysalon: firstly, throughthe narrator's accountof Zambinella'spast, in which he tells of Sarrasine'sinfatuation with the womansinger, an error resolvedonly at the end; and, in a secondact, through Zambinella'srevelation as Marianina'sgreat uncle, a clandestinepatriarch who is the sourceof the Lantys' fortune and vocal ancestorto the young soprano.In conclusion, after a play on ambivalenceand illusion, the narratorresolves Zambinella, now securely placedin the 1830salon, listening to a new mysteryof song,albeit the exactopposite of

88Ibid, 89 p.1043. Ibid., p. 1046. 90 Ibid., p. 105 1. 91 Ibid., p. 1048.

196 the horrific castratovoice: that of Marianina,the 'po6siesecrete'. Song (and its implied ambivalence)is a crucial factor in Balzac'sconceptualization of the mysteryof Zambinella,as it is in the novella's overall treatmentof the fantastical;yet it just as much servesthe author's final resolutionof the conflict betweenthe ideal and the real, wherehe movesfrom the illusion of the castratoto the realistic appealof the soprano.

The Mystery of Artistic Legacy: Zambinella and Marianina

'Echappdde sa chambre,comme un fou de sa loge, le petit vieillard s'dtait sansdoute adroitementcould derrifte une haie de gensattentifs A la voix de Marianina,qui finissait la cavatinede Tancr&de'.92 The relationshipbetween Zambinella and Marianina,as well as the songaesthetics they embodyis most remarkable,linking thefantastiqueto music and creatingcomplicity betweenthese two secretivesingers through artistic lineageand patronage,while equally emphasizingthe narration'stransition from the musical uncannyto a realistic resolution.Their ambivalentrelationship is implied through Zambinella'spresence during Marianina'sperformances and the young girl's affection for her old uncle, regardlessof the horror he may inspire in her. Their relationshipis markedby the secretof music and artistic kinship, which manifestsitself as an intimate form of musicalcommunication that seemsto belongto the two of them exclusively:

Addio, addio! disait-elleavec les inflexions les plusiolies de sajeunevoix. Elle ajouta mdmesur la derni&e syllabeune rouladeadmirablement bien exdcutde,mais Avoix basse,et commepour peindreVeffusion de son cceurpar une expressionpodtique. Le vieillard, frappdsubitement par quelquesouvenir, resta sur le seuil de ce r6duit secret. Nous entcndimesalors, grice A un profondsilence, le soupir lourd qui sortit de sa poitrine: il tira la plus belle desbagues dont sesdoigts de squelette6taient charg6s, et la plagadans le sein de Marianina.93

It is probablethat Zambinella,providing the family fortune,paid for and supervised Marianina's musicaltuition, which madeher into one of the finest singersof her

92 Ibid., P. 1050, 93 Ibid, p. 1055.

197 94 generation. Despitethe ghostly illusion as which he appearsin the first half of the novella,Zambinella is in reality a powerful character,not only due to his statusin the Lanty family, but more importantlyas an artist, which only becomesclear whenthe narrationcontrasts Sarrasine's blind infatuationwith the singer'srefusal to becomehis mistress.The sculptor's illusion is a quintessentialself-betrayal of the artist who, dangerouslyplacing seekingto imitate Pygmalion,is not able to differentiatebetween real life and illusion: 'C'dtait plus qu'une femme,c'dtait un chef-d'ceuvre! Sarrasineddvorait des yeux la statuede Pygmalion,pour lui descenduede sonpiddestal. 95 Quandla Zambinellachanta, ce fut un ddlire. L'artiste eut froid'. In sharpcontrast to the sculptor'spersistance, Zambinella tries to dissuadehim by insisting on her statusas an artist whoselife is the stageand who cannotlove in the prosaicway: 'Le thdatresur lequel vous m'avez vue, cesapplaudissements, cette musique, cette gloire, A laquelleon m'a condarrinde,voilA ma vie, je Wenai pasd'autre'. 96 In thesetwo opposingartistic types,Balzac rewrites crucial aspectsof RomanticKfinstlerliebe, which Hoffmann epitomizedin the Kreisler figure. It is the seeminglymore artificial artist, the castrato Zambincllawho proclaimsa more realistic,truthful conceptof art, detachinghimself 97 from humanemotion and not confusingart with love, whilst the sculptorbuilds up a dangerous,and ultimately fatal, obsessionwith his belovedmuse, making her the sole object of his artistic creativity. Thefantastiquein Sarrasinethus also appearsas part of the mystery of art and its different encodingsthroughout the novel - especiallywith regardto the genderplay and the castrato'seffect on his surroundings.Sarrasine's illusions of the sublimewoman and hencethe ideal of the art object and the fantasyof songare crushedby the most prosaicrevelation of the castrato,turning both the sculptureand the painting into

94 KatherineKolb acknowledgesthe importantposition the castratiheld in passingon their art as voice teachersand patrons('The Tenor of Sarrasine',PMLA: Publications ofihe ModernLanguage Association of America,120 (October 2005), 1560-75: p. 1565) 95 CH VII, p. 1061. This sceneis reminiscentof Balzac'sLe chef-d'auvre inconnu,but alsoof the RomanticKfinstlerliebe and the illusion of ideal femininity, to which characterslike Fischer'spainter Stephanifall 96 prey. Seealso Habock,pp. 254-59. CH VII, p. 1070. 97 Balzacreprises this importantaspect of professionalartistry (which receivedrenewed interest after the posthumous[ 1830]publication of Diderot's Paradoxesur le comidien) in MassimillaDoni.

198 abstract aesthetic ideals, strangely detachedfrom the person and artist who inspired both. On the other hand, Zambinella not only survives the dangerousillusion of art and love, he is literally a survivor in 1830, defying his abnormal physicality and the horrors through his longevity, his of castration eccentric attire and 'coquetterie fdminine'98 - they are no more than a horrific reminder of the past. Zambinella passeshis artistic legacy on to Marianina, the archetype of a new generation of singers, as the aesthetics of the singer evolve from visual to auditory. The singer Zambinella existed exclusively through the sculptor's gaze, as her gender play went on through her stage roles, through the sculpture Sarrasinemade of her and the subsequentpainting of Adonis. In 1830 these chimaeras of the singer dissolve through the narrator's story just as much as through Marianina's song which still conjures up the memory of the castrato. However, he is now nothing more than an old man whom the young singer seesoff with an 'Addio' and who is replaced by the soprano's realistic performance. In both types of artistic legacy, from Zambinella to Marianina, and from the sculpture to the painting, two very different aestheticsand approachessurvive and challenge the onlooker to

solve the mystery of art - yet the necessity of a transition from past to present, and from Sarrasine's artistic illusion and Zambinella's false song ideal to the reality of the 1830s is made clear. 99

Looking back at Hoffmann and his aestheticsof Entgrenzung and attempts at artistic completenessand communion, and comparing Sarrasine to a novella like Das Sanctus for instance, we see that, in a similar way, Balzac employs the central story as a cathartic element for the main narration, through which the mystery of Zambinella is

revealed - more precisely: through which the illusion of Zambinella is exposed as a complex interplay of gender, music and artistic illusion, which show us that authoritative, pre-conceived artistic categories are made redundant through the artist's agency. The different visual clues, paired with speculation and fantastical allure, are layers that gradually make spacefor the artist behind these layers, namely Zambinella

98 CH VII, p. 1052. 99 Citron links this necessaryevolution to Balzac's own development, his different artistic concepts and own states of mind ('Interprdtation de Sarrasine', LAB 1972, pp.90ff); Pldiade introduction, p. 1040.

199 who, in 1830,makes room for the next generationof singers.The conflict betweenthe ideal sublimeof songand its inherentuncanny which appearsas an inevitablecore of femalemusicality and which is herecreated through the traits of the horrific Zambinella dissolves.What remainsof the romanticSpuk, and its implied fantasyof femalesong, is the reality of 1830,and of Marianinathe singer,so mundanelybacked by her great- uncle's money.The originality and strengthof Balzac'snovella lie in this apologiafor artistic lineageand the singer's strongposition, throughwhich he pronouncesmore clearly than his Gennanpredecessor that a reconciliationof art and artist, ideal and mechanics,is possibleand that fixed categoriesof art and sex/gendermay become redundantwithout harmingthe artist. This constitutesan enticing conceptreferring to the singerand the myth of androgynyand completenessassociated with the singing voice. Reminiscentof earlier authors,Balzac points to the sopranovoice and her ghostly predecessorthe castrato,as the songof the future -a stancewhich aptly prefiguresthe music enthusiasmof the July Monarchyand its prima donnamyth.

200 Tuer MUM 1: Massimilla Doni Chargeons-nousd'eux? demandala princesseA son mari, car cet homme est restdfid6le A I'lDtAL que nous avonstud. 100

With Massimilla Don! and its companionpiece Gambara, Balzac moves away from Sarrasineand early talesmore explicitly written underthe patronageof Hoffmann. Commissionedby Maurice Schlesingerfor his GazetteMusicale, and written as the outcomeof Balzae'sItalian journey, the two novellasnot only fit more smoothlyinto the 1830sfeuilleton vogue,but they are also the result of perhapsBalzac's most intense reflectionson music and his negotiationsof musicalideals and realities.Massimilla Doni unitesthe contemplationof music and love with the rising Risorgimentospirit, well known to Frenchaudiences since Corinne, which Balzacbecame familiar with 101 while stayingin Italy. The parallelsbetween Balzac's and Stadl'swork are interesting in that they both chosefemale characters to embodyan artistic, progressivevision of Italy, and the hope for a betterfuture. 102 Nevertheless,the novella's denouementapparently left Balzacunsatisfied, and has continuedto raise criticism since.103 As we shall seein this section,the somewhat controversialending reflects Balzac's unusual treatment of musicaland feminine ideals, aspersonified in the two antagonisticfemale characters, the angelicMassimilla and the diabolic singerClara. In fact, the novella's overall conceptoffers ampleopportunity to

100 CH X, p.516. Balzac'semphasis. The denouementof Gambaraintroduces the readerto Massimilla, now marriedto Emilio, who becomespatron to the madmusician. 101 Having finisheda first draft in May 1837,Balzac reworked the novellaby chapters,the subheadingsof which wereabolished in the final version,but which remainnevertheless recognizable, most importantly the third chapterdealing with the performanceand discussionof Vopdra de Mosý'. The otherchapters are 'Les deux amours',which dealswith Emilio's love dilemmabetween Massimilla Doni andthe singer ClarinaTinti; 'La vie italienne', dealingwith eveningsat La Feniceand in particularwith the tenor Genovese'sfiasco; and the closingchapter 'Les deuxgudrisons', in which Emilio's andMassimilla's love dilemmais resolved. 102 GinetteFainas draws attention to the similaritiesbetween Massimilla Doni andJules Janin's novella Gabrielli: 'JulesJanin inspirateur de Balzac.Une sourceinattendue de MassimillaDoni', LAB 1961,223- 26. 103 SeeRend Guise's PldTadeintroduction to MassimillaDoni. On this occasion,Mariane Bury speaksof a Wfaut de composition'('Les Franqaisen Italie dansMassimilla Doni', LAB, 13 [1992],p. 207).

201 discussthis unusualvision of femininity as well as its intertextualaffinities with, but also departurefrom, more Hoffmannesquemusical themes. 104

The conte musical

Synopsis

Emilio Memmi, an impoverished Venetianprince, is in love with Massimilla Doni, an unhappily married, saintly woman. Since Emilio regards her as the pure, perfect ideal ofwomanhood, he is unable to consummatehis relationship with her. Emilio is seduced by Clara Tinti, a highly sensual woman and the current diva at the Fenice, who is in turn pursued by Massimilla's husband, the duke Cataneo, and her singing partner, the tenor Genovese.The lovers'confusion is eventually resolved when Massimilla assumes Clara's place and seducesEmilio. The ending suggeststhat Clara is reunited with Genoveseand that they resume their artistic collaboration.

Against the socio-culturalbackground outlined earlier,but also consideringBalzac's own preoccupationwith music,his love for Rossiniand responseto Hoffmann,there can be no doubt aboutthe importanceof the musicalelement: it underpinsthe entire story. The novella is structuredaround musical life in Venice,especially the performancesat La Feniceand the socializingof music lovers of the upperclasses with artists,notably the prima donnaClara Tinti andher partner,the tenor Genovese. Throughoutthe novella, we are confrontedwith different conceptsof music and love: both their interdependenceand the author's contrastingof musicalideal and reality. Balzacleaves ample space for reflectionson the musicalsublime, on the voice andon songas well as on the problematiclink betweenideal music and femininity which, much more than in Sarrasine,stands in contrastto the novella's realistic tone. One cannothelp but acknowledgethe almosteccentric musical statements exhibited by Vendramin. somecharacters in the novella - most importantlythe duke Cataneoand 1041 [L'auteur] rcssembicrapresque A un deshdros A moitid fou d'Hoffmann'. UneFille dtvelMassimilla Doni (Paris:Hypolite Souvcrain,1839), preface (my emphasis).

202 The former is Massimilla's husbandand Clara's patron;in a similar obsessionto that of Hoffmann's Krespel,he deriveshis solepleasure in life from finding the perfect harmonybetween his violin and Clara'svoice:

Tout ce qui produit chezPhomme un thanet le rattacheau ciel par le ddsirou par le feu du plaisir, tient non pastant A la musiquequ'A un effet pris dansles innombrableseffets de la.musique, A un accordparfait entredeux voix, ou entreune voix et la chanterellede son violon. Le vieux singes'assied sur moi, prendson violon, il joue assezbien, il en tire dessons, je tdchede les imiter, ct quandarrive le momentlongtemps cherch6 o6 il est impossiblede distinguerdans la massedu chantquel est le son du violon, quelleest la note sortiede mon gosier,ce vieillard tombealors en extase,ses yeux mortsjettent leurs derniersfeux, il estheureux, il se roule Aterre commeun hommeivre. 105

Far from approachingmusic as an ideal, Cataneo,a 'musical mechanic',derives physicalpleasure, an ecstatic'ivresse', from his musicalexperiments with Clara,which are clearly couchedin terms of sexualimagery. Opposed to suchbase, decadent notions of music is Vendramin,whose musical reverie complements his grieving over the lost glory of Venice and his incurableopium addiction: 'Apr6s avoir entendudes voix ravissantes,avoir saisi la musiquepar tous mespores, avoir dprouvdde poignantes ddlices,et ddnou6les plus chaudesamours du paradisde Mahomet,j'en suis aux images terribles'.106 Such musical and personaleccentricities unite Cataneoand Vendramin with anothermusical enthusiast,Capraja who, Vendraminrecounts, was acquainted with Gambarain Cremonaand who, striving towardsa sublimeideal, also usesmusic to distracthimself from his prosaicexistence -a trait thesemen sharewith Emilio, caught in his ideal, platonic love for Massimilla: 'ils vont dansI'Art 1Aoa te conduit ton extremeamour, IA oiýme m6nePopium. Ils ne peuventplus etre entendusque par leurs [ ] Eh bien, le duc Capraja[ ] fous de 107What these pairs. ... et ... sont musique'. reunites musicaldiscourses is the conceptof music as an idealisedart form:

Cette langue,mille fbis plus riche que celle desmots, est au langagece que la pensde est A la parole;elle rdveille les sensationset les iddessous leur forme m8me,IA oý chez

105 CH X, p.56 1. 106 jbid, p. 576. Through the Mahomet reference, Balzac links Vendramin to Gambara's madness. 107 Ibid, p. 584.

203 nous naissent les iddes et les sensations,mais en les laissant ce qu'elles sont chez chacun. Cette puissancesur notre interieur est une des grandeurs de la musique. Les autres arts imposent A Vesprit des crdations ddf inies, la musique est inf inie dans les siennes.108

Echoing Early Romantic aestheticsdiscussed earlier, Balzac conceptualizes music as an infinite art form which profoundly affects the listener. Music is superior to other 109 art forms, promoting artistic synaesthesia,as it is capable of expressing everything. The novella's protagonists thus appear to substitute a prosaic existence with music: Vendramin escapeshis situation through music and opium, Cataneothrough his musical experiments with Clara and Capraja through musical ecstasy.As for Emilio's idealized love for Massimilla, he finds it reflected in the musical 'royaume tout spirituel des abstractions', ' 10whereas Massimilla complements this stereotype by stating that 'll ny 111 a que la musique pour exprimer I'amour'. Of all the characters,Massimilla comes closest to delivering a rational discourse on music, through her analysis of Mosý, thus counterbalancing the musical reverie embodied by the principal male characters- yet she, too, often speaksof both music and love in idealized terms that sabotagemore realistic life models. It is not surprising then that vocal music, and concepts of the human voice as the ideal instrumentto expressthe sublime,occupy a centralplace in the narrativetreatment of music, and that the two singers,Genovese and Tinti, appearcentral to the novella's plot, becausenot only do they serveas importantanchor points for the somewhat abstractmusical idealsvoiced by other charactersin the novel, but they illustratemore than othersthe problematiclink betweenlove and art, ideal and reality. What's more, althoughshe embodies certain ideals and fantasiesattached to femalesong, Clara Tinti significantly contributesto the dissolutionof theseideals through her own strongsense of artistic integrity and professionalism.

108 Ibid, pp. 587-88. 109Ibid., pp. 608-609. 110 Ibid., p. 585. 111 Ibid, p. 578.

204 Concepts of the Voice: Genovese, Tinti, Massimilla

More than other instrumentsin Massimilla Doni, the voice links the ideal of music,and its conceptualisationthrough the musicaldiscourse to the practicalitiesof musicianship as well as to the interpersonalrelationships between the two main couples, Emilio/Massimilla and Genovese/Tinti.These interdependences become even more crucial during the performanceof Mosý, in which, accompaniedby Massimilla's lengthy commentaryon the opera,Tinti and Genoveseperform, the latter experiencinga completefiasco. Genoveseand Tinti are far from being idealized,sublime singers but rather contrastwith both Massimilla's intellectualmusical analysis and Capraja'sand Cateneo'sdebate over the ideal embodimentof song: 'La voix de Genoveses'empare des 112 fibres', dit Capraja.-'Et celle de la Tinti s'attaqueau sang',rdpondit le duc'. What makesthe two singersstand out againstthe musicalenthusiasm and fantasy exhibitedby other charactersis their humanquality, their imperfectionsand the fact that they arejuxtaposed to utterly ideal characterslike Massimilla and Emilio, whosechaste love, as we have seen,is likened to the ideal of music, and aptly expressedthrough Massimilla's theoreticalcommentary on the operaperformance. Genovese experiences the worst scenariofor a tenor, losing all self-controlduring a performanceas he emits nothing but animalistic sounds:'Genovese brame comme un cerf, dit le prince.Ce duetto,le premier que chantait]a Tinti, dtait en effet troubld par la ddroutecompl6te de 113 Genovese.Ws que le tdnor chantade concertavec la Tinti, sa belle voix changea'. Thus interrupting Massimilla's speechon Italian opera,Genovese is anythingbut sublimesong. Obsessively in love with Tinti, he exhibits ratherthe clear signsof an artist no longer in control of himself, and who has.lost the preciousemotional detachmentneeded in his profession:'Quand un artistea le malheurd'Etre plein de la passionqu'il veut exprimer,il ne sauraitla peindre,car il est la chosernýme au. lieu

112 Ibid., 113 P-583. Ibid., P-596.

205 d'en 6tre Fimage.L'art procMe du cerveauet non du cccur'.114 What's more, Genovese'sanimalistic demeanourverbalizes the downsideof love, its basest expressionthrough guttural soundsdevoid of any aestheticquality or beauty,parodying Massimilla's intellectualcommentary on operaand her idealizationof music as the languagethat best expresseslove. Her literally 'disembodied'speech is counteredby Genovese'sdisenchanted, bodily song.' 15Yet evenwhen regaininghis sublimevoice during a solo performance,Genovese is far from appearingas the ideal of songbut ratherpresents himself as a vain, self-centredartist:

Jamais la ne dpith&tc dc divine. [ ) Comme la 6tait musique mdrita micux son ... passion sainte! Mais quel affreux rdveil la vanit6 du t6nor pr6parait A ces nobles dmotions. 'Suis-je un mauvais chanteur?' dit Genovese,apr&s avoir termind Pair. Tous regrett6rent que Vinstrument ne fOt pas une chose c6leste. Cette musique angdlique dtait donc due A un sentiment d'amour-propre bless6'.1 16

However,the musicalideal that Genoveseis ableto demonstratewhen singing aloneserves as the blueprint for Emilio's idealizedlove for Massimilla, as his friends decideon a strategyto help him:

11peut voir sa maltresse toujours sublime et pure, toujours entendre en lui-meme ce que d'dcouter bord de la [ ] homme Waspire barbouiller nous venons au mer, ... et cet qu'A cette po6sie! Par mon minist6re, if rdunira son amour sensuel et son amour c6leste dans cette seule femme! Enfin il fera comme nous tous, if aura une maltresse. If poss6dait 1" une divinit6, le malheureux veut en faire une femel le!

Clarina,lafemelle as much as la divina, appearsin stark contrastto both the idealizedwoman-music Massimilla and Genovese,as an artistically integral singer.She performsher musicalduties flawlessly,rescuing Genovese's fiasco through her outstandingperformance, while giving Massimilla ampleopportunity to illustrateher 114 Ibid, p.613. Furtheron the tenor laments:'Mon Ameet mon gosierne font qu'un seulsouffld. The importanceof artistic professionalismand emotionaldetachment was already voiced in Corinne, Margaretheand Sarrasine. i's SeeJeannine Jallat, 'Petite podtiquedu corpsempdchd', Littirature, 60 (December1985), p. 87. Jallat providesa very interestingtreatment of voice andbody in MassimillaDoni, linking Genovese'sfiasco to fear the116 of castration. CH X, 612. 117 p. Ibid., p.613.

206 musicalanalysis. Clara, it seems,is lessaffected by a troubledphysicality than other characters,such as Vendramin,Capraja and Cataneo,who all escapethe burdenof their bodies,whereas Emilio and Massimilla contemplateeach other in ideal, disembodied termsonly. Clara howeveris the archetypeof femalephysicality, seducingEmilio and inspiring in him a desirefor real, completelove which he is unableto realizewith Massimilla: 'll croyait entendreun concertde voix angdliques,il aurait donndsa vie pour ressentirle ddsir que lui avait inspire la veille, Apareille heure,la ddtestdeClarina; mais il ne se sentaitmeme pas avoir un corps'.' 18The narrationjuxtaposes Massimilla, 'une divinit6 pure' and Clarathe singerwho, like a serpent,winds her armsand body ' 19 aroundEmilio. As I have explainedin chapter3 and shownin my discussionof Goethe,Stadl and Fischer,this dichotomyof antagonisticfemale archetypes is paradigmaticof the broaderdiscussion of song's ambivalentstatus between ideal femininity and femaleartistic empowerment. Although one could assessthe Tinti characterquite critically 120as a venus-figure and as the archetypalembodiment of thefemmefatale(at leastfrom Emilio's point of view) who, as a sensual,camal singer,seduces Emilio and threatenshis ideal love for Massimilla, shealso invites a different readingwhich makessense in the light of Balzac's overall agenda.While Tinti Possessescertain characteristics of the sensual seductress,a role mostly implied by her nocturnalencounter with Emilio, it must be said that in termsof the artistic concept,she is the most accomplishedand realistic characterto embraceand inhabit a form of ideal music, and sheadds both depthand realismto the conceptof femalesong. As a womanand a singer,she is caughtbetween different conceptsof music and love, suchas Cataneo'smusical experiments with her and her appropriationby Massimilla's highly intellectualspeech on opera.It is through her love and sensualitythat Emilio, caughtbetween 'les deux amours'becomes even more awareof his painfully idealizedlove for Massimilla.Massimilla must reconcile

Ila Ibid, P.579. 119 The narrationemphasizes different body partsfor eachwoman: the headand the handfor Massimilla, the foot for Clara. 120 SeeMaxime Prdvost,'Portrait de la femmeauteur en cantatrice',in MasculinlFiminin: pp.121-35 (pp.122-23).

207 within herselfidealized love and the sensualityrepresented by Clara,and thus two different visions of femalemusicality - only then are Emilio and Massimilla able to consummatetheir love and kill an unhealthyideal. Whereasthe novella concludeswith an unflatteringpicture of the now pregnantMassimilla, Clara Tinti remainsthe artist in the professionalsense of the word, singing divinely with the now recoveredGenovese '[qui] ne s'occupaitplus de sdduirela prima donnapar unemdthode angdlique'. 121 Regardlessof having sacrificedher love for Emilio, Clara's voice remainsunaffected, a sign of her emotionaldetachment and artistic professionalism.While her voice is an object of venerationand a much talked-aboutconceptualized expression of the sublime, the singerherself remains remarkably unaffected by suchidealizations, all the while embodying,even owning them. Contraryto Genovese,Clara's love for Emilio doesnot sabotageher singing but rathershe sings Vune voix troubl6epar le ddsir.Son chantfut une brise qui apportaitau cocurles caressesde Famour'.122 Despite her love for Emilio, whom shecalls 'idol' (thus mimicking Emilio's venerationof Massimilla), sheis professionaland realistic enoughto sacrificethis love in the end in order to enable Emilio and Massimilla to consummatetheir, love. As mentionedabove, the novella's stagedend hasreceived criticism. On a primary level, the Frenchdoctor's trick to cureEmilio by having Massimilla pretendto be Clara doesseem simplistic. Yet in the light of the novella's overall structureand theme,which emphasizesthe cross-referencingand mirroring betweendifferent conceptsof art and love, arguingagainst ideals and categories,the final twist for the femalecharacter makesmuch more sense,as it destroysthe artificial ideal of sublimefemininity. As far as the femalesinger is concerned,the novella not only accordsher a significantamount of artistic agency,but it further confirms a tendencyalready palpable in Sarrasine, which relatesto Hoffman's legacyin Balzac'scontes musicaux; rather than seeking Entgrenzung,Balzac, as a realist writer, arguesfor a reconciliationof art and artist, which may compromisethe ambition of absolute,sublime art yet which offers a more liveable existenceto the artist, all the while exposingthe pretenceof art as something

121 CH X, 619. 122 p. Ibid., p.558.

208 inhumanand ethereal.In short,Clara remains the true, realistic embodimentof female song,reclaiming the ideal from its stylized,artificial embeddingin Emilio's idealistic confusionof love and music. The love that Massimilla and Emilio are finally ableto consummateand live may excludethe ideal, in termsof idealizedlove and idealized music. Yet, as Ren6Guise remarks in the Pldiadeintroduction, the lovers live together the only possible,imperfect happiness. 123

From Entgrenung to Reconciliation: Moving Away from Hoffmann.

WhereasMariane Bury describesthe novella's disenchantmentwith the artistic sublime, and the subsequentdeath of the ideal for the sakeof reality, as being of a rather 124 pessimisticnature, Max Andrdoli identifiesthe Balzacianconcept of art as a quintessentiallyambivalent interplay between sublime and parody that should ultimately exposethe vanity of a sublimeart conceptand arguefor a more harmonious, albeit a compromisedapproach to art that leavesroom for realistic depictionsof artists. Pretendingto be a sublimeartist implies the impossible,and also the harmful in terms of humanqualities and relationships,closing the artist off from the outsideworld rather than encouragingan artistic compromisebetween ideal and reality.125 If we look at the conclusionof Massimilla Doni, but also at Sarrasine,the aim for the artist shouldbe to accepther art as a form of illusion that cannotconstitute her existenceexclusively - this is a trait which Balzac's artistsshare with characterslike Krespcl or the singerBettina, who realizethat their art is not synonymouswith life and that they themselvescannot or must not becomethe art form itself -a concernequally sharedby someof Fischer's protagonists.The singerneeds to detachherself from the ideal of the musicalfeminine. Of all the charactersin Massimilla Doni, ClaraTinti most respectsthis realistic concept of music, and sheenables other characters,like Emilio and Genovese,to abandontheir

123 Rend Guise, Introduction to Massimilla Doni, p. 538. 124 'Les Frangais en Italie dans Massimilla Doni', LAB, 13 (1992), 207-20 (p.220). 125 See Max Andrdoli, 'Sublime et parodie dans les Contes d'artistes de Balzac', L4B, 15 (1994), p.36.

209 absolutismand their existentialidentifications with their emotionsand beliefs.The complexity and significanceof Balzac'snovella lies in the connectionsbetween the different charactersand their views, and especiallyin their ability to let go of a categorisedway of thinking and to move on from the unliveableartistic ideal. More importantly, the novella breaksup the traditional, clich6d leitmotif of the musical feminine, of an ideal of femininity situatedwithin the samerealm as ideal, unattainable th music, which lay at the core of late 18 - and early I 91h_centurymusical aesthetics. This wrong ideal appliesto Massimilla and Emilio's idealizationof her, and it proves inimical to healthyrelationships. In this processof breakingup idealizedand feminized music, Claraplays a key role. Oncemore the femalesinger, as an artist, appearsas a substitutefor older, unsustainablemusical aesthetics, and as a harbingerof a modem and realist view on love and art, which relegatesthe ideal of sublimemusic and love to the realm of unhealthyhabits - habitsso poignantlyillustrated by the caseof Vendramin,for whom opium hasbecome his solemusic, and who, isolatedfrom the world, only feels love for his lost Venice.This, accordingto Balzac,is clearly the wrong type of Entgremungand artistic eccentricity.Rather, he is making a statement aboutartistic liberation without excess,but with the acceptanceof a sublimethat exists throughits absence,revealing itself throughthe artistic process,or throughthe audience'sreaction to artistic creationand to a singerlike Tinti. 126 In short,through the realistic implications that enclosethe myth, 'le mythe enfoui sousla r6alitdl.1 21 In this, Clara Tinti is faithful to Balzac'sviews on art and perhapsbest expressesthe author's rewriting of musicalaesthetics under the bannerof realismand reconciliation.Balzac continuesto negotiatethe problemhinted at by Goetheand Stadl,and more urgently expressedby Fischerand Hoffmann, of the Romanticartist and his plight as articulated throughthe fate of the singer.Commenting on an iconic figure of his time, however, Balzacadopts a more pragmaticoutlook on the realitiesof an increasinglyprofessional,

126 , La profondeur vient de l'intelligence du lecteur et non de la pensdeexprimde'. Balzac, Pensies, SýVe * ts, Fragments, ed. JacquesCrdpet (Paris: A. Blaizot, 1910), p. 665. Lettresti Madame Hanska, 1, p.414. See also Max Milner, 'Les Sens Ipsychiques'de Massimilla Doni et la conception balzacienne de I'Arne', LAB (1966), pp. 157-69.

210 sometimestrivial art scenewhich needsto cometo termswith its early Romantic heritage,and the still resonatingideals attached to womenand music.

211 Hoffmann Legacies 11: The Singer in Hector Berlioz's Les Soirees de Porchestre

To conclude this comparatist reading of the woman singer, embracing both German Romanticism and French realism, I shall now look at a rather specific treatment of the motif in the literary work of Hector Berlioz. As one of the most important composersof French Romanticism as well as a highly respectedauthor, Berlioz embodies like Hoffmann the image of the poet-musician and offers a fascinating contribution to the 128 musical-literary discourse. At the same time, he appearsas a highly polemic figure of his time, misunderstood and depreciated,with a profound dislike of Parisian music

circles and especially the musical tastes and aestheticsof the middle classes-a conflict which found expression in his written work and which suggestsa complex reading of such an iconic motif as song and a character such as the singer. Recent criticism has rediscovered Berlioz as a writer; of music criticism, letters and his memoirs first and 129 foremost, but also as a writer of music novellas. We shall in the following briefly look at Berlioz's major literary work, Les Soiries de Vorchestre, and its signature piece, the novella Euphonia, ou la ville musicale, which provides a stunning example of the subversion of Romantic song clichds through the dramatization of musical utopia undermined and destroyed by a woman singer.

12' Evenrecent criticism, muchmore interestedin Berlioz's literary legacystill acknowledgesthe difficulty of assessingthe doubletalent of the writer-musician.See Jacques Barzun's standard work: Berlioz and the RomanticCentury (New York/London:Columbia University Press,1969). Berlioz's distastefor Stendhaland Rossini,as well as his wish to blow up the ThdfitreItalien are well-known Mmoires, ed. PierreCitron [Paris:Flarnmarion, 199 1 ], p.93; hereafterMimoires). Like mostartists, Berlioz visited Italy, after winning the Prix de Rome(1831/32), but this experienceproved to be a disappointment,both personallyand musically.Berlioz becamemuch moreenthusiastic about Germany, a cherishedexperience related in Voyagemusical en Allemagne(1844) and implied in the settingof Euphonia(Harz region) andLes Soirees (Northern Europe, presumably Germany). Katherine Kolb calls this work 'a genreof its own: the travel letter aboutmusic and its socialconditions' (Hector Berlioz', in EuropeanWriters, The Romantic Century, vol. 6, ed. JacquesBarzun (New York: Scribner,1985), p. 789). 129See The Cambridge Companion to Berlioz (Cambridge:CUP, 2000); Berlioz: Past,Present, Future. BicentenaryEssays (Rochester: University of RochesterPress, 2003), both editedby PeterBloom; BdatriceDidier, Berlioz icrivain (Paris:Minist&e desAffaires 6trang6res,2000); ibid., 'Hector Berlioz et Part de ]a nouvelle', Romantisme,12 (1976), 19-26;Didier, 'Berlioz conteuret dcrivain', RDP, 77 (1970). 88-93.

212 Toilh 1'6crivainl: 130the Poet-Musician

Although his decisionto write was promptedby financial need,Berlioz received remarkablerecognition during his lifetime, both as a music critic, fearedand admired for his polemic tone and eruditestyle, and as a writer of fiction:

Berlioz, outre qu'il est un grandcompositeur, 6crit avecune fantaisie,une verve, un esprit que bien desauteurs de profession,incapable de la moindrefugue, pourraient lui envier: Les Soir6esde l'orchcstresont 1Apour le dire.131

A remarkably 'literary' composer from the start, Berlioz's musical inspiration was 32 intimately linked to his passion for literature and his level of literary culture. ' Writing did not come as easily to him as composition, and he often described it as a laborious task: 'La composition musicale est pour moi une fonction naturelle, un bonheur, dcrire 133 de la prose est un travail'. The composer's lamentations over having to write a review and suffering from writer's block, all the while wasting precious time for composing, pervade his memoirs. Only after the successof his Soiries did Berlioz acknowledge 134 himself as not only a composer, but also a 'prosateur'. Through the variety and literary merit of his writing and his highly original style, he is now deemed by some critics to be a truly Romantic writer, whose ceuvre,challenging in style and theme, pertinently dramatizes the junction between musical and literary language and conveys 35 the potential of musical literature, its fantastical and sublime essence.' Berlioz situates himself in the literary tradition of Hoffmann, of whom he says that 'Fidde poetique, touj ours sournise au sensmusical, n'a j amai dtd pour lui un obstacle;j'ai fortifid,

130 SeePaul Smith's review of Voyagemusical en Allemagne, RGM, 22.09.1844. 131 Gautier's review in La Presse,28.12.1854. 132 Many of his greatestcompositions rework classicalliterary themes:La Damnationde Faust,Biatrice et Binidict, Les Troyens.See Joseph-Marc BMW, Berlioz et Vart lyrique: essaidinterpritation ý Nsage de (Bern: Lang, 1981). 133 notre temps Mimoires, p. 128. 134 Nouvelleslettres, 1830-1868,ed. JacquesBarzun (New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1954), 156. See ý5 also Kolb, 'Hector Berlioz', pp.798ff. . See Didier, 'Hector Berlioz et Part de la nouvelle', p.25. Kolb furthermore regards him as 'among the world's great letter writers' ('Hector Berlioz', p. 809).

213 136 embellie,et aggrandiPune par Pautre'. Berlioz, it seems,is not only a descendantof Hoffmann but, like his Germancounterpart, he rewritesimportant Romantic topoi while 137 prefiguring aestheticsof Frenchauthors to come. It is in his writings, most importantly in Les SoIries, that Berlioz expresseshis chief concernsas a musician:his hatredfor mediocremusic and dilettantismas well as for artistic vanity on the onehand, and his unlimited love for musicalideals and for artistic freedomand excellenceon the other. Drawing on music as its chief source of inspiration, Berlioz's literary style, at deeply times polemic, ironic or parodic, aptly expresses these extremes.

The Berliozian Singer: Goddessor Monster?

Berlioz's primary concern,as a musicianand a writer, was to propagateand uphold the 'right' music (in termsof idealsand practice),and his remarkson songand the singer are numerous.When looking at his writing as a whole, one noticeshis interestin questionspertaining to songin generaland to the music industry of his time, and he was ratherappreciative of its outstandingsingers. Like most Romantics,Berlioz considered the humanvoice to be the musicalinstrument of choiceto createthe fragile balance betweenmusical technique and the humanelement, between the personalityof the musicianand the demandsof the art form,138 the archetypal'embodiment' of vocal music that appearsas a crucial aspectof singerand song:[Madame Branchu] m'a 139 sembldla tragddielyrique incam6c'. Like Hoffmann and Balzac,Berlioz, thougha professionalin the propersense, was susceptibleto and continuedto rewrite the Romanticimagery of the humanvoice, of songand in particular'of femalesong and its underlyingideals. What transpiresin his writings then is the constantoscillation

136(EUVreS littiraires: L Les soiries de Porchestre,II. Les grotesquesde la musique,III. A traverschants, ed. Ldon Guicbard(Paris: Grond, 1968-1971),vol. 11, p. 32 (hereafterOL). The affinity becomeseven clearerwhen we look at the SoirJesde Vorchestre,composed in referenceto Hoffmann'stales. 137 This appliesespecially to fin de si6cleaesthetics (Didier, 'Berlioz conteuret dcrivain', p.90). Didier arguesfor the canonization Berlioz 138 of as a conteur. See OL 111,p. 129; Bailbd, Berlioz et Vart lyrique, pp.55ff. 139 OL 111,p. 229.

214 between genuine admiration for prima donnas whom he considered to embody the ideal of music to perfection and, at the other end of the scale, his merciless criticism of artistic egotism and capriciousness: '[Madame Schr6der-Devrient] est possdddedu ddmon de la personnalitd'. 140For Berlioz, the musician must first and foremost choose to serve music, not her ego or any kind of financial or social objective. A notable example is Henriette Sontag, whom Berlioz praises without limits as the German nightingale who communicated the 'chant secret' to the French: 'Elle chantait aussi la musique, la grande musique immortelle, comme les musiciens revent parfois de 1'entendre [ ] I'art du 141 At chanter. ... elle savait enfin tout chant'. the sametime, this praise is part of a large-scale criticism of Sontag's constant search for fame and money, which, in Berlioz's opinion, led to her untimely decline. Her money, he argues,would 142 have been better invested in musical education. Although, as we shall see,his literary treatmentmay at first glancesuggest so, Berlioz doesnot criticize the prima donnain harshertones than other musicians.Rather, hejoins rankswith authorslike Goethe,Balzac and Hoffmannwho, contraryto the ambiguoussocio-cultural and aestheticimplications outlined in chapters2 and 3, were quite benevolenttowards women singers and readily respondedto the imageryof femalesong in more varied ways than musical-literaryaesthetics might suggest.What Berlioz polemicizesis artistic vanity and the musicalestablishment which pervertsthe artist into an egocentric,materialistic monster who sins againstthe sanctityof music. In this regard,Berlioz becomesunforgiving towardscertain singers, whether they be sopranos,tenors or baritones,143 just as he is unforgiving towardsan amateurishand disrespectfulParisian audience. What can be readbetween the lines is a certainsense of regretabout what he considersthe betrayalof somesingers like Sontag,paired with the implicit wish for artistic companionship,but alsohis own reconciliationto the discrepancybetween musical ideal and reality, a debatehe shareswith other authorsof the time: 'Sontag,une artiste,une artistesainte, possddant reellement tous les donsde

140 Mimoires, p,384. Berlioz is moreover very critical of the singer's 'Sprechgesang' Obid). 141 OL 11,pp. 255-56. 142 OL 11,p. 257, 141 See for example OL 1, p.9 1.

215 Part et de la nature:la voix, le sentimentmusical, Finstinct dramatique,le style, le gofit le plus exquis,la passion,la r8verie,la grdce,tout est quelquechose de plus que 144 tout'. Far from being a one-dimensionalblueprint or a fixed ideal that the author upholds,Berlioz's ideal singerthus is the genuine,accomplished artist who servesthe art form without falling prey to eithertoo much identificationor to the mundanityof the social creature- in other words: talent and economy. Interestingly,it is in the prima donnathat Berlioz seesthe ideal of music embodied, whereas he views the male singer as much more of a social being, prone to 145 capriciousnessand vanity. In Berlioz's writing there is ample recognition of, and fascination with, the individuality of the singer, her unique personality - perhaps even, between the lines, an admiration for this strong type of woman artist who, not unlike Berlioz himself in music, defies pre-conceived socio-cultural norms and categories and somewhat boldly inherits from both the romantic ideal of female song and the realism and professionalism of his own time. In this unique aspect alone, Berlioz standsout among many writers of the 1830sand 1840s. His singer is anything but a weak character, and his admiration as well as his ambivalent stancetowards her comes through clearly in his literary work, which shows strong allegiance to musical ideals while at the same time grappling with the author's profound disillusion with the very same ideals. Yet the singer's strength is not free of ambivalence and Berlioz (deeply affected by strong women artists like the actress Harriet Smithson and the singer Marie Recio, but also disappointed by women such as Camille Pleyel) proposes a highly innovative, ambiguous treatment of the woman singer in his best-known novella, Euphonia.

144 OL 11, 255. 145 p. SeeOL 11,p. 286.

216 A Utopian Space?Les soireesde Porchestre

11ya dans le nord de I'Europe un th6fitre lyrique o6 il est d'usage que les musiciens, dont plusieurs sont gens d'esprit, se livrent A ]a lecture et m6me A des causeriesplus ou moins littdraires et musicales pendant Pcx6cution de tous les opdras m6diocres.146

Compiledand published during Berlioz's London exile, the Soiries reflect as muchthe author'scontinuous frustration with Franceas his vision of musicalutopia: the settingis that of an ideal orchestraof musicienslettris, who, for 25 eveningsengage in literary readingsand debates,whenever the operathey are supposedto perform is deemed unworthy - which is the casewith most Italian and Frenchoperas. Thus, the narration consistsof an explicit interplaybetween music and literaturein a kind of redoubled feuilleton du silence,147 where bad music is substitutedby the text, in a communityof like-mindedartists, led by the passionateviolinist Corsino.1 48 Te sont desnouvelles, historiettes,contes, romans, coups de fouet, critiqueset discussionsofj ]a musiquene 149 prendpart qu'dpisodiquementet non theoriquement,des brios, desdialogues'. The thematicand structuralecho of Hoffmann is no coincidence:Initially, Berlioz intended to entitle his compilationLes Contesde Vorchestre,referring to Hoffmann's story compilationsand musicalthemes, but also to specificnarrative frames like in the Serapionsbrfider.In the Soirjes' prologue,he furthermoreestablishes the link to Balzac's Comidie humaineas anotherpoint of referencefor his personalconcept of a 'Comddiemusicale' which the Soirjes truly are, as they display Berlioz's wit and irony when condemningthe entire Parisianmusic scene,while also revealingthe encompassing,existential drama of humanityand the tragedyof the artist. As in his criticism, Berlioz showsthe entire breadthof his musicalenthusiasm in his novellas,

146 OL 1, Prologue,p. 2 1. 147 On Berlioz's music criticism, seeEllis, 'The Criticism', pp.16 If, 14' The irritable, passionateCorsino bears a strong resemblanceto Berlioz himself, but has also been read as an allegory for Napoleon, and Berlioz's nostalgia for better times (Kolb, 'Tales of Sound and Fury', in Berlioz: Past, Present, Future, pp. 78-81). 149 Letter to Joseph d'Ortigue, 5.5.1852, Correspondance Ginirale, ed. Pierre Citron, 8 vol. (Paris: Flammarion,1972-2003), IV, p. 151(hereafter CG).

217 oscillating betweenthe two extremesof musicalutopia (as in the designof the musical societyof Euphoniaand the outernarrative frame of the ideal orchestra)and his rageat musicalphilistinism and the betrayalof the sanctityof music,which is catalysed throughthe themeof revengein his novellas.Among the novellas,Euphonia expresses perhapsmost vividly theseextremes in Berlioz's understandingof music,and more interestingly,they stagethe womansinger as the key player betweenmusical idealism and its (auto-)destruction.

Tuer Pidial 11: Euphonia, or Musical Dystopia

Euphonia, ou la ville musicale, nouvelle de Pavenir was originally written as a classical conte musical in the RGM, at the height of popularity of the musical feuilleton and among a number of texts staging the woman singer, shortly after Marceline Desbordes- Valmore's Domenica and George Sand's Consuelo. After his inspirational journey to Germany, it is there, in the Harz region, that he situates his ideal musical city Euphonia, ruled by an art-loving German emperor and populated by an ideal musical society in which everyone has a precise function in order to serve the ideal of music. The city's infrastructure, social system and hierarchy is constructed entirely according to musical principles as well as each citizen's merit as a musician, and their ability to contribute to the apotheosis of music. Setting his story in the year 2344, Berlioz is quite original in developing his novella's futuristic theme, for example through the use of air transportation. % ADanish woman singer, Mina, intrudes into this peaceful utopia and wreaks havoc. 150

150 It is generally agreed upon that Mina, whom Berlioz originally named Ellimac ('Camille' spelt in reverse) was inspired by his unhappy affair with Camille Moke (later Pleyel). However, the Danish Mina also invites associations with another Scandinavian singer, Jenny Lind, whom Berlioz greatly admired.

218 Synopsis

The novella's plot unfolds through the letters ofXilef, a Euphonian composer on a musicaljourney in Italy, who reports back to his composerftiend Shetland in Euphonia about the decadent musical culture in Italy. At the same time, Xilefphantasizes dramatically about hisfiancee Mina, a brilliant but cold and distant singer whom Xlef suspectsof capriciousness. In the ensuing, libretto-like scene,Mina reveals to her mother that she is bored with Xlefs monotonous letters, his possessivenessand continual Romantic rants. She decides to abandon him and travel to Euphonia incognito in order to sing at the Gluckfestival, the most prestigious ofall music festivals. Some time later, Shetland's letter tells Xilefofhis miraculous encounter with the angelic singer Nadira who is now the most acclaimed singer in the city. In the meantime,Xilefhas travelled the length and breadth ofAmerica in order tofind Mina, who hadpretended to go on four. Having lost his social status in Euphonia, Xilef ultimately returns to the city only tofind his lostfiancie as none other than Shetland's lover Nadira, now an acclaimed singer in Euphonia, yet who has already started being unfaithful to Shetland. In a vengeful rage, Xlef has NadiralMina crushed in a steel pavilion constructed tofold up on itself. After the tragedy, Xlefcommits suicide and Shetland, who has gone mad,follows after afew days. The novella concludes with an image ofsilence that reigns over the onc- musical city.

While one may certainly readthis novella as a belatedliterary transpositionof Berlioz's bitternessand grudgetowards Camille Pleyel,neither a biographicalreading nor an exclusivefocus on Berlioz's themeof revengesuffice to assessthe novellals literary quality and its complexportrayal of musicalutopia, artistic companionshipand autonomy.Among the variousmusical characters, the most striking one is without doubt Mina/Nadira,the infamoussinger, who betraysboth male protagonistsfor the sakeof self-validationand gratification,and whosebetrayal causes their downfall as well as the destructionof the musicalutopia that is Euphonia.But doesBerlioz really portray her as afemmefatale, as a one-dimensional,monstrous prima donnadevoid of any higher idealsand artistic merit and allows no other readingexcept that of the female 151 musicalthreat, and the dangerthat is inherentin singerand song? Upon closerinspection, Mina appearsfirst and foremostmuch more realisticthan the two main protagonistsXilef and Shetland,who, not unlike othermale characters discussedpreviously, are caughtup in and eventuallyfall prey to their musicalideals,

151 Seechapter 3.

219 including their idealizationsof womanwithin the realm of music. WhereasEuphonia may well be a utopianplace in termsof musicalethics, the two main composersdistort this utopiajust as much as Mina. Xilefs Romanticreverie, ominously evoking Mignon's lemontrees in bloom (a scenenot devoid of Berliozian cynicism),and his obsessionwith his flancdebode ill from the start,as doesShetland's idealization when he first perceivesthe singerhigh abovethe clouds,in the sublimesetting of Sphdrenmusik:

Pentends sortir d'un nuage, dontje longeais les contours, une voix de femme stridente, pure cependant, et dont Vagilitd extraordinaire, dont les dlans capricieux et les chan-nantesdvolutions semblaient, en retentissant ainsi au milieu des airs, 6tre le chant de invisible [ ] femme 6tait debout A Pavant quelque oiseau mcrveilleux et ... unejeune du navire, appuy6e, dans une pose ravissante, sur une harpc dont, par intervalIcs, elle "2 effleurait les cordes avec sa main droite 6tincelante de diamants.

Berlioz makesit explicit that Mina/Nadira,in her harpistpose, is just asmuch a descendant th ideal of the late 18 -century,post-Rousseauesque of songand poetry as of the professionaland potentially mundanesingers of the July Monarchy,symbolised throughher jewellery. He also suggeststhat her ambivalentnature, like her name, changesaccording to the male perspective.The composers'idealization of Mina/Nadira stylizesher accordingto feminine idealsand accordingto what eachprotagonist wishes to seein her, without actually developingan understandingof the singerherself, underneaththe ideal. Thus, Mina is also the most complexcharacter, whose behaviour challengesthe male protagonists'one-dimensional, pre-conceived images of her. WhereasXilef believesher to be a musically blasphemousdiva, incapableof appreciatingBeethoven, let aloneShetland's compositions, Mina decidesto gain new groundand win over the Euphoniansthrough her performanceat the Gluck festival. While both composersremain attached to a fixed vision of the singeras a static ideal of musical femininity, and thus fail to evolvepersonally and artistically, Mina seeks personaland artistic changeand growth. Not surprisingly,Berlioz developsher as the driving force in the plot, her actionsadvancing and stiffing up the static natureof

152 OL 1,pp. 354-55.

220 Euphoniaand its composers.Although Mina knows that her 'betrayal' will most likely causea catastrophe,she is willing to facethe consequences,almost ironically mocking Xilef's his lack 'D'ailleurs faute [ j romantic exaltation and of realism: est-ce ma ... sije Faime [ ] Eh! Ma fbi, ' 153 ne plus! ... qu'il s'arrange! The sameis true of her performanceat the Gluck festival, where sheposes as Nadira and converts herself into a true Euphonian singer, at first submitting to the city's aestheticsand customs, then singing the Alceste aria and leading the congregation in a quasi-religious ceremony: 'Hier encore,je n'dtais qu'une femme vulgaire, doude d'une voix dclatante et agile, rien de plus. Le grand art ne m'avait point 6td r6veld. f... ] Je 154 comprends maintenant, jentends, je vis: je suis arfiste'. In this moment, Nadira almost threatens to overthrow Shetland's patriarchal hierarchy, as the entire choir of Euphonia respondsto her singing without needing any of the composers to conduct them. Nadira symbolically crowns Gluck's bust as part of the festival, yet it is her whom the Euphonians venerate on that day. The musical ceremony is spontaneousand sublime, centred on the singer, which arousesShetland's enthusiasm about the musical sceneand his passion for the singer, yet also triggers the onset of male jealousy, which inspires him to end Nadira's sceneand, silencing the singer, to symbolically re-establish the patriarchal order. Shetlandfollows in Xilef s footstepsas ajealous, obsessivelover who tries to live his passion for Nadira according to Romantic ideals of disembodied, artistic love: 11 055 noy a plus de Nadira, Nadira c'est moi. 11Wy a plus de Shetland, Shetland c'est elle! However, Shetland is unable to accept this love as something more prosaic than Kfinstlerliebe. Upon declaring his love to the singer, his harp breaks, and when he proposes a love-suicide above the clouds, Nadira appearsmore pragmatic and attached ideal image to life - she turns out to be a mere mortal woman, belying Shetland's of her:

153 ibid., p.353. 154 Ibid., p. 358. The question is whether this is just another of the roles Mina performs. 155Ibid., p. 360.

221 Nous touchionsau seuil de Vautrevie; un seulpas, un seulacte de volontd,et nous le franchir! pouvions 'Nadira! lui dis-je, en Ntreignant sur mon cceur,- Cher!- Vois, il n'y a rien de plus pour nousen ce monde,nous sommes au falte, redescendrons-nous? Mourons!' Elle me regardad'un air surpris.'Oui, mourons,ajoutai-jejetons-nous embrassdshors du navire; nos Amesconfondues dans un dernierbaiser, s'exhaleront vers le ciel avantque noscorps, tourbillonnant dans Vespace, aient pu toucherde nouveaula prosa*fqueterre. Veux-tu? Viens! Plustard, me r6pondit-elle,vivons encore! [ ] Oh Nadira, 156 ... ne serais-tuqu'une femme?

Ultimately, both Xilef and Shetlandfail in their illusions aboutMina/Nadira, who is perfectly capable of dissociating herself from her roles as a singer as well as from the ideal of femininity venerated by Xilef and Shetland, an aspect Berlioz toys with through her different aliases, showing that she identifies with more than the two composers' unrealistic concepts of art and love. This is a strong statement on artistic empowerment and agency; it seemsthat Berlioz sides more with this rogue singer than with the delusional composers who are fooled by their ideals and unable to reconcile their ideals in music and love with real life. 157Both men withdraw from the final catastropheof the destroyed musical ideal, Xilef by committing suicide, Shetland by going mad and dying shortly after: 'Shetland s'affaisse sur lui-meme. En se relevant, il rit, il court eperdu au travers dujardin, chantant, appelant Nadira, cueillant des fleurs pour elle, gambadant: il 118 est fOU,. In the end, the utopian musical city Euphonia has become a dystopia, where singing has turned to silence and the sublime musical harmony has turned into dissonance: 'Six mois apr&scette catastrophe,Euphonia encore en deuil dtait voude au silence. L'orgue de la tour dlevait seul au ciel d'heure en heure une lente hannonie dissonante, comme un cri de douleur dpouvantd'. 159 The often positive readingof Berlioz's novella,where Euphonia is supposedto representBerlioz's musical ideals,remains questionable. As Nadira's Gluck performanceshows, the mechanismsof this musicalsociety are fragile and volatile, as

136 1hid.,pp. 360-61. 157 h SeeKolb, 'The ShortStories', p. 149.In Le suicidepar enthousiasme,the 12, orchestraevening, Berlioz dramatizesa similar problemin the Romanticartist-hero Adolphe, who withdrawsfrom the incompatibilitybetween real life andhis idealsthrough suicide. Thus, the artist's suicidebecomes impotence synonymous158 with artistic andmale (Kolb, p. 150). OL I., 159 P.377. Ibid., p.377.

222 is the strict, almosttotalitarian order that reignsin the city, and which strangely juxtaposesthe thousandsof facelessEuphonians singing in tune with the two main composers,Xilef and Shetland,who appearoddly individualistic in the pathologically Romanticsense and who confusetheir conceptsof love with music in an ideal that turns out to be unliveable.Through the motif of the 'weak' Romanticartist hero,Berlioz perpetuatesan ironic, evena critical position towardssuch Romantic ideals, a position sharedto a certainextent by the authorsdiscussed earlier, not only Hoffmannand Balzacbut also Goethe,Stael and Fischerwho debatedthe realistic implicationsof art. In contrastto the fixed, morbid ideal, the womansinger appears as a foreign principle, a destructiveprinciple for some,yet throughher dynamics,her evolutionand will to live, shealso dominatesand advancesthe plot. Mina may well be an echoof the author'spast disappointments; she may well be an unfaithful prima donna- at leastthis is one of the roles that Berlioz ascribesto her. But sheis also the brilliant Gluck interpreter,able to win over Euphonia,able to be the ideal singerthat Xilef and Shetlanddream of, while avoiding identifying herselfwith sucha fatal ideal. Much more than Xilef or Shetland,Mina appearsan untamed,wild character,who may toy with musicalconventions for a while (as shownduring the Gluck festival) but whose artistic and personaldrive is muchtoo strongto be containedwithin a male-dominated, pre-conceivedmusical system- as such,she appears not that different from Berlioz himself, who liked to speakof himself as a savage,misunderstood yet abovecommon musicalcategories. 160 It is telling that in the end,Nadira becomesa disembodiedsinger in the most brutal way imaginable:she does not die in the imageof Romantic disembodimentand the paradigmatic'exhaustion' of her songthat I havediscussed earlier as a crucial aspectof the singer'sfate, sheis crushedto deathin a pavilion, constructedby Xilef. 161Nadira doesnot possessan inherent'flaw' that would prompt her untimely death;rather, Nadira is the perfect singerwho consciouslydestroys the ideal of femalesong (projected onto her) for the onlookingmale artist. Detachedfrom

160 SeeCG 111,pp. 54647. Berlioz expressesa fantasyin the ideal of the 'wild', untamedwoman (OL 11, 93). A scenethat recallsa similar mechanicaldestruction, that of the automatonOlimpia in Hoffmann's Der Sandmann.

223 earlier idealsof femalesong as fragile or pathologicand thus as sublimeand ethereal, her deathcomes in the most prosaic,mechanical form. Nadira is not a fragile singer boundto exhaleher last breath,nor an ideal that quietly fadesaway at the handsof the male artist; rather,she needs to be killed off, and sucha violent deathconfirms her statusas a strong,autonomous artist who must be silencedby force, sinceshe has made a mockery of musical and feminine ideals. Although Berlioz initially envisagedentitling his work Les Contesde Vorchestre, the tone of Euphoniais darkerthan Hoffmann's tales,in the sensethat Berlioz so starkly contraststhe musicalutopia with its subversionat the handsof Mina, but also at the handsof the male protagoniststhemselves whose inability to reconcilelove with their musical idealsresults in revengeand death. Yet the questionremains whether this specifictype of musicalutopia that Berlioz conjuresup is evena feasibleideal that a musicianshould strive for. As we haveseen, despitehis strongbelief in musicaleducation and his wish for a brotherhoodof like- mindedartists, Berlioz cannothelp but makean equally strongcase for the individual is just roguemusician who as closeto his inner stateof mind - and certainly closerto himself - than the Romanticechoes of the past.Xilef's and Shetland'sillusions rewrite the plight of Krespeland Kreisler, of Stephaniand Emilio Memmi, who all strive in vain to realizelove and art within the idealizedwoman, an endeavourwhich is boundto fail becauseof the impossibility of suchan unrealisticideal. Beneathits veneer, Berlioz's musicalutopia differs from the sublimeGeisterwelt of Hoffmann's universe, sinceEuphonia is a static,non-evolving system which is broughtdown by a singerwho doesevolve and refusesto be confinedto fixed, male-determinedartistic categories,and who refusesto becomeeither man's muse.Rewriting Hoffmann's singers,such as Antonie, Bettina and Julia in a much more reality-boundway, Berlioz makesa strong casefor artistic agencyduring a time in Frenchcultural history when singerswere amongthe most f8ted of all artists. Not unlike Balzac,Berlioz thus implies that the 'real' musicalsublime does not residewithin static ideals of Romanticismand a fixed imagelike the idealizedwoman singer,unattainable in themselves,but within the individual artist's evolution,and her

224 ongoingquest for artistic creativity, a point which CarolineAuguste Fischer, to some extent,already made as well, and which equally resonatesin an early archetypelike Corinne.Berlioz crushesthe static ideal of femalesong and contrastsit with the psychologicaland personalevolution of the autonomousartist, whoseemancipatory flight can only be stoppedby force. Finally, it appearsthat the conceptof the Romantic singeras a passivecharacter, confined to binary modelsof male-dominatedmusical- literary discoursecannot be upheld.This appliesin particular,as this chapterhas shown, to the works of male authorswhose seemingly patriarchal treatment of singerand song revealsa much more complex,critical stanceon idealsof music and femininity aspart of a fluid, continuousliterary discourseon the motif.

225 Chapter 7

Realistic Expectations: The Singer in Female-Authored Texts of the Julv Monarchy (1830-1848)

In the last chapter, I discussedthe potential of singer and song as a carrier of female artistic empowerment specifically in male-authored works, and showed how far the woman singer in texts by Hoffmann, Balzac and Berlioz undermines the traditional reading of female passivity or threat. In this chapter, I shall move on to discuss the singer's potential in four female-authored casestudies of the same period and show how the motif develops as part of a strong discourse on the liberated artist in general, in particular as part of a female writing tradition. Even more than their male colleagues, women authors are preoccupied with the key issues of female song outlined in earlier chapters and dramatize them as a mise en corps of female song, which explicitly focuses on the singer as heroine between ideal femininity and female artistic empowerment. Sophie Ulliac-Trdmadeure's conte Emmeline, ou lajeune musicienne (1836) treats a less poetic, yet crucial aspect of the singer in great detail: the issue of education and professionalism which, already hinted at by earlier authors, becomes increasingly W' important throughout the century, but remains compromised by female musical ideals and fantasies of the voice, which I discussedearlier. As part of the general discussion surrounding the artist's special status in society, severaltexts dramatizethe fate of the singeras well as the implicationsof femalesong as a sublimeideal that offers scopefor the discussionof femaleagency: Madame de Tatmay'snovel Une Cantatrice(184 1) and MarcelineDesbordes-Valmore's Domenica (1843),both of which coincidedwith GeorgeSand's better-known epic Consuelo/ La Comtessede Rudolstadt(1842/1844), preceded by her lesser-knownnovella La Prima

226 Donna (183 1 1). Written during the heydayof the diva andprima donnamyth, these texts reiteratethe critical reflection on the womanperformer in termsof her artistic identity and professionalvocation on the one hand,and her statusas a musician- in h-century performer society on the other,all the while rephrasing18, idealspertaining to music and songand thus the rift betweena newly emancipatedartist and her idealization.

1 While scholarshipis availablefor music in the life and works of GeorgeSand, it is as yet lacking for mostof the womenauthors and their contributionto the musical-literarydiscourse that I focuson in this chapter.See Thdrýse Marix-Spirc, Les Romantiqueset la musique:le cas GeorgeSand, 1804-1838 (Paris: tditions Nouvelles Latines,1954); Alison Finch providesan overviewof 19'h-centurywomen's writing: Women'sWriting in Nineteenth-CenturyFrance (Cambridge: CUP, 2000). Seealso: Chantal Bertrand- Jennings,Un Autre Mal A si&le: le romantismedes romanciýres (Toulouse: Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 2005); ChristinePlantd, La PetiteSaur de Balzac: essaisur lafemmeauteur (Paris: Seuil, 1989). 1shall deal with the specificcase of MarcelineDesbordes-Valmore later on in this chapter.

227 (1) Facing Reality: Emmeline, ou Idjeune musicienne

Cest un titre assezbizaffe, que celui de Contes auxj .eunes Artistes qu'a pris mademoiselle Ulliac.2

Although little-known today, SophieUlliac was a prominentwriter during her time who maintainedher place in literary history throughoutthe 19'hcentury. 3 Startingher career 4 as a translator, sheadapted trivial storiesand romances from Germanand English and went on to makeher reputationas the authorof moral and educationaltexts. During the 1830sand 1840s,her most productiveperiod, shegained acclaim as one of the finest 5 writers of children's literaturein France. In her popular anthologyContes auxjeune artistes,6 frequentlyrepublished during ,s the I 9thcentury, Sophie Ulliac exploresselected artistic professions:Lion, ou lejeune graveur; Valirie, ou lajeune artiste;7Prosper, ou lejeune sculpteurand finally, Emmeline,ou lajeune musicienne.Although thesetales, aimed at a youngeraudience may suggestsimplicity, they explorerealistic careerpossibilities in the arts,with the author'smoralistic style emphasizingthe educationaland realistic implicationsof an artistic education,an approachthat appearsworth investigating. The contesdid raise eyebrowsamong critics; althoughthe Revuecritique's reviewer generally favoured Sophie Ulliac, he regarded with suspicion the potential danger of educational literature encouraging young, impressionable readersto pursue the superficial, gratuitous glory of being an artist. As I showed in chapter 2, women's education, especially in the arts, was a widely discussedand ideologically controversial

2 Revue critique des livres nouveaux, 4 (1836), p.37. 3 Sophie Ulliac-Trdmadeure (1794-1862), a Britton, who is alternatively listed with the pseudonym Dudrezýne or simply Ulliac. 4 The earliest reference listed by the'BNF is Ulliac's translation of the German trivial author August Lafontaine (1758-183 1): La Petite Harpiste, ou lAmour au Mont-GJant [Die Harfenistin, oder die Liebe auf dem Riesengebirge 7.. avec deux romances imities du texte allemandpar Mme Victoire Babois (Paris, 1816). 5 Revue critique des livres nouveaux, 12 (1844), p.390. 6 Contes auxjeunes artistes (Paris: Didier, 1836). 7 Valdrie is an aspiring writer, similar to another of Ulliac's protagonists: Emilie, ou lajeunefille auteur. Ouvrage didij auxjeunes personnes (Paris: Didier, 1837).

228 th ,8 topic and continuedto divide public opinion throughoutthe 19 century. Especiallyin the caseof the woman singer,it seemsthat the issueof educationis eclipsedby the character'sstrong associations with the idealspertaining to womenand music,and the dogmaof the 'natural' (i. e. untrainedand unspoiled)singer which resonatedin the previouscase studies. In that light, Ulliac's Emmelinegives out an almostrevolutionary message.

Synopsis

EmmelineAdelmond, a well-bred girl with musicaltalent, isfaced with the difficulty of having to support herfamily after her mother'sfinancial and social ruin. Encouraged by thefamily's wise,moralfriend, M Derville, who had long criticized the girl's vanity and shallow nature,Emmeline embarks on an apprenticeshipin music.Developing her skills throughprivate tuition, Emmelinepasses the entranceexam to the Paris Conservatoirewhere she goes on to receiveher degreein order to becomea music teacher.During her studies,Emmeline is confrontedwith different musicalpossibilities and temptedby the glamorouslifestyle that shecould lead as a prima donna "en she wins the annual Conservatoireprize in three categories,the first studentto do so, she is admiredand enviedby everyone,only tofind herselfslanderedto thepoint of losing someofher students.Her reaction is an immediateretreatftom thepublic sphere,The conteconcludes with Emmeline'sretreat into a modest,yet relatively stable,existence as wife, motherand musicteacher.

The novella itself shows clear links with the German Bildungsroman tradition and emerging realist tendencies in France. As such, Emmeline dramatizes the coming-of-age of a spoiled,misled young girl who, througha rigorous musicalapprenticeship, comes to termswith reality and finds a decentplace in society. It is throughmusic that the protagonistreaches not only artistic, but more importantly, personaland moral maturity, while at the sametime savingher family from financial ruin and social stigma.Commonplaces associated with femalesong are undeniable,such as Emmeline'ssuperb voice and musicaltalent, as well as the implicit dangersthat bestrewthe careerof the professionalwoman musician, yet theseare

8 Anothernotable working womanof that time, the institutrice wasa highly debatedcharacter. See chapter2, n.73.

229 counterbalancedby the girl's strenuousand focussedjourney towardsfinancial and moral agency,and her efforts to becomea conscientiousand 'good' womanand daughterand to makeamends for her earlier capriciousnessas a vain, self-centredsalon girl.

Elle avait une voix superbe; elle cn dtait fi&re et elle la travaillait avec plaisir. Cette voix remarquable avait d6jA inspir6 un po6te; une romance avait W dddi6e A Emmeline, et jamais on ne s'adressait vainement i son amour-propre. Plaire et briller, briller et plaire, attirer les yeux par sa fi §ure, par sa toilette, par ses talents, c'dtait le but unique de ses pens6eset de ses ddsirs.

With regardto the statusand function of music in the novella, Emmeline'smusical apprenticeshipwhich, taking up the major part of the narration,is describedin detail as a painful, catharticexperience for the former salongirl who is graduallytransformed from a museinto a hard-workingprofessional -a rigorously structuredprocess further emphasizedby the author's meticulous,detailed account of the girl's apprenticeship. Although earlier authors,like Fischeror SophieMereau, depict femalemusical apprenticeship,Sophie Ulliac breaksnew groundwith her music novella in which the relationshipbetween woman and music radically turns away from more idealistic stereotypestowards a rationalistic,measured documentary of professionalization. Music doesnot entirely lose its poetic quality, as it still actsas a consolationfor the girl; yet.the reverie, the poetry and emotional gratification that Emmeline experiences when performing are inseparably linked with the utility of her musical practice and to the realistic purpose her studies need to fulfil. A serious music student, Emmeline has neither the time nor the social or financial status to allow herself to get lost in the pose of the singing muse or to dwell on romances written in her honour. Rather, the emotional catharsis triggered by music serves to strengthen her in her pursuits as well as in her allegiance to her mother, which defines her explicitly altruistic identity as an "0 artist: 'C'dtait dans de semblables moments qu'Emmeline se sentait artiste!

9 Emmeline, oulajeunemusicienne (Paris: Didier, 1836), pp. 11-12 (hereafter Emmeline). 10 Emmeline, pp.43-44.

230 During her quasi-religiousexercise in self-discipline,piety and musicalmastery, Emmelinehas to navigatethe dangersthat songand a certaintype of singingcareer posefor her. Contraryto previouscase studies where female song constituted a key elementof femaleself-expression, Emmeline's song requires careful guidanceand restraint:while her beautiful voice is an indispensableprerequisite allowing her to study music, sheis constantlytempted by the dangerof the operasinger's career, which initially appearsas a logical continuationof her girling in the salonsand revelling in her vanity. Securinga contractas a court singeror as a theatricalperformer is the most covetedcareer path for the Conservatoire'svoice students,and Emmeline,one of the most talentedand studiousof her class,is sorely temptedby this option:

Et I'Ame d'Emmeline se r6voltait contre la rigueur de sa destin6e; et elle pretait une oreille avide aux r6cits qui souvent 6taient faits autour d'elle, de la brillante fortune de quelque compagne qui avait dtd engag6ecomme cantatrice, pour la chapelle d'un prince 6tranger. Emmeline se disait que cette carri&re, plus honorable que celle du thdAtre, donnait au moins la libertd de travailler, et, en assurant Pexistence, permettait de se livrer uniquement A Ntude et d'abandonner les 6coli6res.11

Resistingthe temptationto becomea cantatriceturns out to be the true moral test for Emmelinewho hasto choosethe right type of feminine,moral musicianship.Ulliac operatesa very clear two-classsystem as to what is an appropriatesphere for women musicians,and shedoes so much lesssubtly than earlier authorswho either implied the legitimacy of the stagesinger (Fischer, Hoffmann, Balzac and Berlioz) or includedthe problematicstatus of public femaleperformance in more generalissues related to the femalevoice and the ideal of femalesong and poetry (Goethe,Stadl). Compared to previouscase studies, Ulliac, if anyone,comes closest to Madamede Stadl's understandingof the stageperformer as a problematicfigure indissolublytied to the femalecharacter's decline. In comparison,Ulliac dismissesthe stagecareer clearly, if not bluntly: If the hard-earned,quiet existenceof the music teacheris portrayedas beingmore 'real' than decent,the illustrious life of the actrice, i. e. of the singerwho performson stageand in front of a paying audience,is the epitomeof falsity, obscenity

11Ibid, p.366.

231 and decadence,appearing as a nightmarishdistortion of the attentionEmmeline receivedas a salondilettante:

Madame Adelmond nourrissait, contre ]a vie de th6fitre, des prejug6s qui prennent leur source dans des sentiments de pudeur et de raison trop bien fonddes pour qu'on puisse d6sirer de les voir s'effacer tous. Emmeline, d'ailleurs, qui passait maintenant une grande partie de sesjourn6es au Conservatoire, avait sous les yeux des preuves bien multipli6es que 1'existencedes artistes est un m6lange bizarre oý le faux Pemporte sur le vrai; aussi s'affligeait-elle en se voyant confondue peut-6tre, dans l'opinion publique, avec quelques-unesde ces fernmes 16g&rcsau moins, chez qui I'We de vertu est tellement subordonndeA une foule d'autres toutes contraires, que cette We disparait ais6ment, et parfois sans retour. Une chose encore la choquait, c'6tait le ton cavalier des hommes, des amateurs de musique qui venaient papillonner autour de cesjeunes filles, dont la plupart se destinaient au th6dtre. Emmeline dtait tropjolie pour ne pas attirer les regards; son air de rdserve la rendait m8me plus piquante encore: mais on voyait promptement que laprude, c'est amsi que ses compagneset tous les dl&es ]a nommaient, n'dtait pas abordable. 12

Emmelinenevertheless dreams about the eccentric,illustrious lives that opera singerslead and to which her fellow studentsaspire, but sheknows that choosingthe careerof the cantatricewould inevitably disgraceher in the eyesof her motherand irrevocablycause her misery. In this aspect,Ulliac showsmuch more clearly than other authorsdiscussed so far that sheis consciousof the socio-culturalpolemics and fantasiessurrounding the public singerand that shecrafts her musicianas a counter- figure to the perceivedimmorality and frivolity of the singer,which Emmelinemust repudiate.Further admonished by her friend Derville, 13Emmeline slowly comesto termswith her dutiesas a good musicianand daughter:

Emmelinesentait bien quelle dtait la rdsolutionqu'elle devait prendre;mais aujourd'hui elle trouvait trop obscurela renomm6ede simpleprofesseur, et malgrdelle, elle soupiraitchaque fois que,dans les concertso6 madameLebrun, qui I'aimait beaucoup, la conduisaitsouvcnt, elle 6tait t6moin de Vadmiration,de Penthousiasmeexcit6 par une belle voix, deshommages dont les cantatricescdl6bres dtaient l'objet; et elic se figurait le plaisir qu'il devaity avoir A voyagerpr6c6d6e par Nclat d'un beaunom, ivresse,f6t6e, [ I Comprenant accueilliepartout avec recherchde,encens6e ... enfin Ntendue de sesdevoirs, elle se rdsignaet elle sentit qu'il fallait terminercette ann6e memeson dducationmusicale, afin d'Etre libre de se livrer aux travauxbien moins

12 Ibid., 148. 13 p. Ibid, p.369.

232 attrayantsqu'exige la carri&e de professeur.Dans cette carriýre obscure, elle pouvait enfin se distinguer,former desdl&ves qui lui feraienthonneur, et assurerA sa mUe une vieillesseheureuse. "

Emmeline's voice is beautiful and an important prerequisite for her admission to a musical education, yet it becomes a less important skill during her studies, as her focus is on becoming a proper music teacher of voice and piano equally, and eventually composing. Again, we find here a clear digression from my other case studies in that Ulliac de- emphasizesthe female singing voice in view of the woman musician's more important duties as a good woman and conscientious artist - in that, she has more in common with the aesthetic and socio-cultural backdrop discussedin chapters 2 and 3 than other authors of her time. Ulliac reconnects with the Rousseauesquedouble-bind of female song and the inherent threat of female musicality that needs to be contained, as female musical practice needs to be monitored. Thus, female song and its expression through the profession of singer takes the form of a potentially dangerous,morally corrupting force which needs to be controlled and channelled into the right type of art practice. In her argument, Ulliac also appearssurprisingly stricter than some of the male authors discussed so far. The notion of cantatrice possessesneither artistic merit nor aesthetic value, but is presented as a seemingly easy shortcut to financial security without the hardship and daily hassle of teaching, and above all to social admiration and a glamorous lifestyle. A mere fantasy, song thus becomes void of realistic life prospects to the point of posing a threat to the singer's integrity. Emmeline is put to the test when her friend Armande leaves her mother for an engagementas a court singer in Russia - which is not per se a bad prospect, but which obviously exposesArmande as a careless, immoral daughter. Tempted and jealous though she is, Emmeline remains faithful to her commitment towards her mother, proving her worth as she ultimately cares for Armande's mother as well, and again counterbalancing the moral ambiguity of her profession with her worth as an angelic, caring creature."

14Ibid., p.370. 15 Ibid, p.379.

233 Although Emmelinepossesses the necessarytalent and educationto succeedas a cantatrice(and is theoreticallyfree to chooseher career)this specifictype of female musicianshipis, due to its social andmoral implications,inappropriate and unacceptable.Ulliac exposesthe dangersof the singer'spublic life underthe scrutiny of a volatile audienceand subjectto the gamesof courting and patronagein a merciless music businessruled by envy and intrigues:

L'homme seul peut impundment aspirer A tous les genres de gloire; ]a femme qui se respecte et veut We rcspectde,doit les craindre tous. Emmeline venait d'apprendre ce, que valait cette obscuritd qu'elle avaitjadis dddaign6c; et elle ne se montrait que chez ses &ves et chez scs amis; et elle d1oignaitavec effroi tout ce qui aurait pu rappeler des triomphes, si cruellement et si promptement empoisonn6s.16

No matterhow modestand morally irreproachablea womanartist may be, Emmelinehas to learn that thereis no guaranteethat shewill remainunscathed in the public eye.This is not so much a disappointingdenouement on the part of the authoras it is factual; underneaththe conte'sconservative morality lies a carefully constructed realistic scenarioof the situationof a femalemusician during Ulliac's time, whenpublic opinion was volatile and gossipfrequent, and when the singer'spublic imagewas impossibleto control -a fact which, paradoxicallyadded to the creationof the prima donnamyth. If Emmeline is neither a muse nor a genius she representsa pertinent example of possiblefemale musicianship and its implications:Sophie Ulliac's novella is the constantadmonition for a womanartist to work harderthan her femaleand malepeers, while still suffering from public disapprovaland having to think further thanjust the superficialglory of the prima donna.Moreover, Ulliac's musicianovercomes the ideal of the salonsinger and poetic muse,whose vanity and shallownessare both nurturedby Romanticpoems dedicated to her and her own showcases,and the fantasyof the opera singerand the fake glamourassociated with her life. None of thesesimplistically drawn imagescan adequatelyportray the womanmusician and the realistic implicationsof her

16Ibid, pp.378-79.

234 professiondefined by a long apprenticeship,hard work and financial hardshipto which femalemusic teacherswere especiallyvulnerable. As such,Emmeline is, on the one hand,a femalemusician who, throughhard work, dedicationand a senseof moral obligation,rises above the stereotypeof the domestic,well-bred womanwho singsand plays the piano, but also abovethe stereotypeof the femalevoice as museand the fantasyof the woman singerand operaticdiva, as portrayedby many texts of the 1830s 17 and 1840s. On the other hand,Ulliac takesa clear,moralistic standand fails to address the potential and the positive sidesof the stagesinger who, as we haveseen in other texts, can also serveas an exampleof femalestudy and work ethics. In comparisonwith earlier modelsof song,there is little mystery,little poetry left in the music teacherEmmeline - yet sheis an importanttype of singer,too, as throughher the authorshows a legitimate,feasible way for womento pursuemusic professionally and establishthemselves as respectableworking womenin society,a facetthat, if not untreated,was neverthelessleft underdevelopedin texts of the late 18thand early 10 century.In fact, SophieUlliac's musicianwould havemade a valuableaddition to and fitted well amongthe different typesof working womenportrayed in the satirical sociologicalstudy Les Franqaispeintspar eux-memes,counterbalancing the biased view of women artistsadvanced by the sarcasticarticles on the Figurante and the Cantatricede Salon.18 Despite her shortcomingsand her overall conservative, moralistic tone, Ulliac showsan interesting,unorthodox proposition through her de- mystification of poetry and femalesong ideals and the realismof a musicalcareer for a middle-classwoman whose concern is far lesswith the poetic quality of songthan with moving up the social ladder.The RevueCritique's review of Ulliac's work articulates the uneasethat contemporaryintellectuals certainly felt when facedwith sucha bold and realistic proposalfor womento educatethemselves professionally as musiciansand still claim their placeas membersof thejuste-milieu.

17 Seefor exampleAlfred Dessessarts,Ta Chanteusedes rues, LArtiste, 4 (1832),67-69; Guy d'Agde, 'Une Cantatriceitalienne', LArtiste, 5 (1833),77-80; Louis de Maynard,'Notre ami lejuste milieu', RDP, 20 (August 1835),84-110. 18See L. Couailhac,Ta Wre d'actrice'; Philibert Audebran,Ta Figurante';Maurice de Hassan,'La Cantatricede salon', in Les Franqaispeints par eux-mdmes.Encyclopidie morale du dix-neuviýmesikle (Paris:L. Curmer, 1841), 1,pp. 75-89; 1,pp. 413-20; 11, pp. 201-208.

235 (2) The Prima Donna Question

As we have seen,the topic on which SophieUlliac displaysconsiderable unease is the prima donna,the iconic archetypeof I 9thcentury musical culture who bestembodies the professionaland mythical sideof femalesong, all the while continuingthe Stadlian polemicsof the performing heroine.Ulliac upholdsher singerin termsof educationalor moral values,but neverthelesscarefully navigatesthe fantasyof the prima donnaand thus of femalesong at its most performative.She naturally counterbalancesthe portrait of her studiousmusician Emmeline with her fellow studentArmande who, a true, immoral diva, leavesher motherbehind for a careeras an actrice and court singer- which in turn further highlights Emmeline'smoral and musicalpurity. Ulliac aimsto legitimise the singerthrough a carefully constructedvision of femalesong that contrasts with the actrice and her implicationsof worldly glamourand immorality. Furthermore, Ulliac ignoresthe dichotomyof songpoetics and performancein order to focus exclusivelyon the music teacherin her social and economicdimension. In that regard, the authorsomewhat regresses compared to her male contemporaries,who created legitimatesingers as stageperformers who displayeda surprisingpotential for artistic agencyand integrity; but Ulliac also differs from earlierwriters like Fischer,Goethe and Stadlfor whom the performanceof singerand songalways plays a centralrole. Although treatedby previousauthors, the prima donnacomes into her own during the 1830sand 1840sas a characterwho synthesizesand representsthe culminationof the diverging aspectsof femalesong that havebeen discussed so far, drawing on a long tradition of femalesong, between ideal andperformance, as well as constitutingan entirely new breedof performing artist who singswith a claim to publicity, critical acclaimand artistic sublimity. The literatureof the 1830sand 1840sdevelops this potential and exploresthe prima donna'sbody, voice and poetics;as shownin chapters 2 and 3, the singerincarnates a bourgeoisfantasy and an ideal of femininity that any womanregardless of talent and social standingaspires to incarnate.Yet thesetrivia camouflagea more problematicside to the femalemusician who strugglesto break loosefrom traditional binary modelsof femininity that opposedthe good and the bad

236 singerand by extension,acceptable and condemnablemodels of femininity. On the one hand,the cantatriceoccupied one of the few placesavailable for womenartists in the July Monarchy,and in that regardpartook in the cult surroundingthe sublimated(male) 20 artist of FrenchRomanticism: 19 'Si Partisteest roi, le chanteurest un dieu'. Onthe other hand,as we have seenearlier, this cult of the artist is alwaysexpressed differently for women,and continuesthe problemof femalemusical ambivalence, and the reconciliationbetween ideal femininity and femaleartistic agency. The prima donnaoffi&s scopefor a seriousliterary discussionof femaleartistry and, in this chapter,of a femaleliterary discoursethat usesthe singeras the text's heroine, and exploresthe dichotomy of femaleideal andperformance in greaterdepth. The following casestudies of GeorgeSand, Madame Taunay and MarcelineDesbordes- Valmore show the singeras a vehicle for a renewedquestioning of womanand artist, constructingthe femalesinging voice as a strongstatement within their narrative discourse,thus re-writing the myth of femalesong and attenuatingthe stereotypical extremesthat often threatenthe literary depictionof the singer.

19 SeePaul Bdnichou,Romantismesfranqais, 2 vols. (Paris:Gallimard, 2004); MauriceShroder, Icarus. TheImage ofthe Artist in French Romanticism(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 196 1). 20Guichard, p. 86. While Guicharduses the maleterm 'chanteur'he clearly identifiessong and singeras femaleprerogatives.

237 HoffmannesqueEchoes: GeorgeSand, La Prima Donna

Son nom partait de toutes les bouches accompagnedes dpitUtes de diva, de benedetta.21

Before undertakingher opussummum Consuelo, George Sand reflected on the prima donnaquestion through a conteof the samename. Published in the Revuede Paris not long after Balzac'sSarrasine, La Prima Donna displaysan equally compelling treatmentof the femalesinging voice as well as distinctly Hoffmannesqueundertones.

Synopsis

On the eveofthe homecomingof Gina, oncetheforemost soprano in Verona,the narrator encountersthe German Yalternawho relatesthe dramatic backgroundto Gina's resumptionofher career.Acclaimed by all and a singer ofabsolutegenius and sublimity, Gina compromisedher life and career on stageby agreeingto marry an older aristocrat. Thesinger's marriage endedher career and causedher immediate physical and mentaldecline into madness.The conte concludes with the narrator witnessingGina's return to the stageand her performancein Zingarelli's Giulietta e Romeo.Performing after years ofwithdrawal due to ill health, Gina experiencesthe renewal ofartistic sublimity and transcendencebut, while in character,dies on stage, only to befollowed by Falternawho witnessesthe scene: Tant d'imotions longtemps perdues,longtemps disiries, retrouvies et sentiesavec tant depuissance, avaient brisj ce corps jpuisj de maladie.Gina itait morte aux accordssuaves et religieux de Zingarelli, au milieu du dernier et du plus beaude sestriomphes'. 22

Amid the many trivial depictionsof singersin contemporaryjournals, the quality of Sand'sconte lies in the developmentof her operasinger as a strongRomantic artist who facesan existentialiststruggle within her intrinsically artistic nature:Gina drawsher existencefrom music and from the stage,and in this, sheis depictedas a figure of superior,musical geniuswho incarnatessong as shecommunicates it to her listeners,

21 Ta Prima Donna', RDP, 25 (April 1831), p.234 (hereafterLa Prima Donna).While GeorgeSand was officially collaboratingwith JulesSandeau at the time, scholarshipgives the major credit for this conteto GeorgeSand. 22 Ibid., p.248.

238 causing them to experience a quasi-religious rapture and transcendence.Sand develops Gina both as a musical-feminine ideal and as a fully-fledged performer who is unanimously accepted and acclaimed and thus not in the least concerned with the implication of female musical ambivalence. Sand casts her as a legitimate representative of sublime art, exerting her musical powers on the audience: 'Voix du ciel; voix de Penfer, rernuant tous les cceurs,vibrant dans toutes les arnes,les rafraichissant de les d'accents dechirants [ ] la foule suavesm6lodies, ou torturant sanspitid cruels et ... dtait 14 force, A Fair [ 1.923 sans sans voix, osant peine aspirer ... The male protagonist, Valterna, emphasizesthis very strong position of the singer in the text. He sympathizeswith Gina's plight throughhis own sufferingand madnessto the point of following her into death.Despite his privileged statusas narrator,he is not a typical male protagonistwho eitherremains an outsiderto the mysteryof music and songor whosefixation on the femalesinging voice threatensto appropriateit for his own purpose,but rather he actsas the prima donna'smouthpiece, rendering her pain evenmore visible, and providing the narrativeshape for her swansong,entirely acceptingand glorifying the singerherself and her art as well as synchronizinghis own 24 physical,mental and emotionalstate of mind with hers:

C'6tait mon existenceA moi, et elle Wapparut,bienfait et b6nddiction!Et ma vie s'alluma A son regard,et mon Ameengourdie et triste serdveilla enthousiasteet forte de [ ] C'6tait dans aux accentsenchanteurs sa voix. ... commeune religion queje portais mon cceur,une religion A laquelleje vouais la vie qu'elle m'avait donnde.25

The dramaof the singer's fate derivesfrom Gina's consciouscompromising of her artistic identity throughmarriage. Trying to integrateherself into upper-classsociety as the wife of a count (who, quite typically, had acquiredthe singer'shand as part of a bet

23 Ibid., p.237. 24 Sandthus both rewritesthe motif of the 'weak' male character,as seenin Balzacand Berlioz and proposesa different constellationbetween female artist andmale spectator than for exampleStadl, or Fischerin Der Giinstling. On the characterof the malenarrator, see David A. Powell, 'Nous et eux: Le narrateurfrangais dans un texte italien: La Prima donna', in Le Chantierde GeorgeSandlGeorge Sand et Vitranger: Actesdu X' ColloqueInternational GeorgeSand, ed. Tivadar Gorilovics/AnnaSzab6 (Debrecen,Hungary: Kossuth Lajos Tudomdnyegyetem,1993), pp. 285-93. 23 La Prima Donna, p.238. Sandlater expressesa similar religiousveneration towards Pauline Viardot (seechapter 6, p. 186).

239 with his friends), she violates the foremost rule of artistic genius. Contrary to other singers who face the insoluble conflict between artistic self-expression and the desire to love, Gina radically betrays herself and the sacrednessof her art not for the sake of love, but for blasphemous reasons,namely her own illusions about the existence of a respectablewoman of society. George Sand was certainly well aware of the socio- cultural implications of the woman artist, especially the woman singer, but her focus is fixed on the artist more than on the woman. Consequently, the narration pays little attention to the socio-cultural and moral implications of Gina's status and her reasons for marrying, but instead focuses on the direct consequencesfor the artist herself-

Ne me demandezpas les raisonsqui la d6terrninýrentA 6changerson bonheur contreun titre et de l'opulence;je les ai toujoursignordes. Pensa-t-elle s'diever plus haut dansl'opinion enjoignant un faux dclatA tant d'dclat solideet r6cl dont Ventouraitson talent?Eut-elle la faiblessede se croire au-dessousde cesfernmes qui Papplaudissaienttout haut, et qui 1'enviaienten secret?Hflas! elle dtait plus qu'elles toutes;elle prdfdradevenir la demi&red'entre elles.26

Gina's existentialpurgatory sets in as a direct responseto her error in dishonouring her gift and compromisingthe realismof her existence,lured by the false glamourof the upperclasses. Sand is uninterestedin offering escaperoutes to her artist by exploring the possibilitiesof a binary, traditional conceptof femininity (and its implications like salonmusical practice or motherhood)- sheavoids the double-bindof the woman-artistand discussesGina exclusivelyas an artist who has failed. Sand refrainsfrom passingmoral judgment on her singerbut concentrateson the artist's inner conflict and her coming to termswith her own betrayal.In conclusion,there can be no compromisefor Sand'ssinger, such as domesticmusical practice or teaching,let alone the ideal of 'natural' songwhich could help Gina regaininner harmony.On the contrary,Sand creates this type of 'natural' femalemusic as the singer'svery own purgatory.In a key scenesecretly witnessed by Valterna,Gina re-enactsthe role of Desdemonain her garden:singing in a natural settingwhich appearsas a nightmarish

26 Ibid. p.239.

240 distortion of Italian poetic utopia, Gina no longer differentiatesbetween herself and the role, nor doesher voice follow regularpatterns of vocal harmony:

L'herbe fldchit en criant; un fr6lement de robe agita le feuillage, et A travers les les Gina, [ ] d'une triste la citronniers et myrtesje vis ... voix et plaintive, elle chanta romance du Saule: c'dtait Dcsdemona, la Desdemonade Shakespeare;m6lancolique comme la nuit qui semblait gdmir avec elle, pressentantsa terrible destinde, la pr6disant dans chacun de sesaccents, la racontant dans chacun de ses regards.Je Ncoutais dans une muette extase; tout A coup elle poussaun cri d6lirant, etje frissonnai. [ ] Pauvre Wnitienne, il faut Mourir! fuyait, les ... mourir. - et elle pile, yeux dgar6s, sublime de peur, ct au moment o6 I'amour de la vie d6ployait dans toute sa vigueur la puissantednergie de ses moyens, au moment o6 sa voix poignait Vfime de toute Pharmonie d6chirante de ses accents,elle sarreta, comme frapp6e d'une commotion dlectrique, le regard fixe, le cou tendu, immobile ct froide comme une statue.27

Her agony progressesas Gina distorts her craft in the salons; projecting her voice into the emptinessof her villa or into the hostile landscapeof her gardens,Gina literally singsherself to madness,denying any kind of compromisefor her songand deridingthe ideal of a woman's 'natural' songas a harmoniousextension of her inner self that servesno genuineartistic purpose.Gina's songdoes not so much addressthe question of 'female song' as that of 'song' as an absolutecategory, an art form that hasbeen compromised.Through the exclusivenessof her art as well as the importanceof the right context of performance,the characterof Gina bearssimilarities to early archetypes like Mignon - however,in contrastto Mignon, Gina's singing is communicableto her listenersand destinedfor performancein a public contextwhere it reachesits full potential. Couplingthe prima donnapersona with the conceptof artistic genius,Sand stagesGina as a legitimateartist who belongsnowhere but on stage.Gina appearsas a demiurgewho transcendsher audienceand shapescontemporary musical culture - situatedin the realm of artistic genius,Gina's preachingto her audiencereformulates Mignon's and Corinne's songsas a messageof sublimefemale music which actually works: 'Son apparitionapportait dans le cceurcomme un souvenirdes m6lodies du ciel.

27Ibid., pp.242-43.

241 [... ] Danstout le coursde lapi6ce, exalt6epar les applaudissementsfr6n6tiques, elle s'dlevaau-dessus de tout ce que I'ltalie avait produit de gdnieet de mdlodie'.28 The narrationsharply contrasts the singer'sextraordinary constitution with the harmful environmentof society,in which, nourishedby the wrong type of (literally constrictive)air, her surrealvoice turns into mere screams.Neither salonmusic nor the searchfor music in naturealleviates the mentaldistress of a singerwho appearslarger than the life to which shehas confinedherself.

Le luxe et Populence ne lui allaient pas; il fallait A ses larges poumons un air et plus ipre et plus libre. Sesjoues se cav&ent, et ses grands yeux bleus se marbr6rent de [ ] En A la noir. ... vain chercha-t-elle vaincre cette r6verie am6re qui consumait; en vain essaya-t-elle des chants vifs etjoyeux; si elle venait A laisser courir sesdoigts sur le piano, si elle forgait sa voix A des mesuresvives et pressdes,bient6t seule au milieu de la foule dtonnde,elle revenait aux noires pensdesqui I'assidgcaient sans cesse,ses doigts effaient lentemcnt sur Ics touches plaintives, sa voix s'affaiblissait, des phrasesd'une harmonic poignante sortaient sourdementde sa poitrine, et les 29 chants commencds dans lajoie allaient mourir dans la doulpur.

Sandincreasingly dramatizes the psychopathologicalaspect of Gina's voice as a punishmentfor betrayingher artistic identity, preparingthe singerfor her inevitable physical and mentaldegradation and the symbolic destructionof her vocal harmony, leaving nothing but disharmoniousscreams and ultimately silence.

On dit que parfois, lorsqueses chants avaient cessd, ses ycux inquietsct hagards semblaientinterroger la foule; qu'elle rdpondaitpar un long cri au silencede mort qui rdgnaitautour d'elle, et qu'elle tombaitalors, froide commela pierrequ'allait frappersa tete dchevelde.30

In the conclusionof her conte,Sand celebrates the apotheosisof the singerand her voice with the culmination of Gina's triumphal re-integrationinto her original sphere. Her questfor freedomand for authentic,sublime self-expression as well as her deathin the happiestmoment of her performanceis not unlike Antonie's fate in Rat Krespel.

21Ibid, pp.245,247. 29Ibid, pp.239/240. 30 Ibid, p.24 1.

242 Gina's death is preceded by an almost erotic vocal and artistic transcendenceduring which she experiences her own genius as a voice which is not her own but seemsto animate her from the outside, an image drawing on the notion of genius as embracing both male and female qualities, as well as on the paradigmatic dissociation of singer and voice. Gina experiences a utopian, androgynous voice that not only renders her performance sublime but unmistakably marks her body as redundant and incapable of being sustained any longer: 'Surprise elle-m6me de la puissancede ses moyens, elle dit A Rosetta, dans le dernier entr'acte, qu'il lui semblait qu'une autre voix que la sienne, une voix magique, s'exhalait, mfile et pleine, de sespournons dlargis'. 31 Like other singersdiscussed earlier, Gina experiencesthe importanttranscendence of her physical being through art, and ultimately, this supremacyexpressed through her geniuscan only be achievedthrough physical death, and throughthe impossiblemixture of masculineand feminine traits. Canthe operasinger survive beyondthe end of the songand beyondthe idealsassociated with the musician?Can the womansinger actually sustainthe originality, the limitlessnessand supremacyimplied by artistic genius?In this early novella at least,George Sand avoids a lengthynegotiation of the questionand breaksoff with her heroine'sdeath, which clearly echoesthe Hoffmannesqueheroine whose death coincides with the expressionof utmostmusical sublimity. While this abruptdramatic end is undoubtedlyplaying with the archetypeof the morbid, degeneratingprima donna,the conclusivescene equally constitutesa glorification of the absoluteartist Gina, for whom therecan be no distinction between imaginationand reality, betweenthe stageand the 'real world' and betweenherself as a performerof music and the divine ideal of music that is generatedthrough her, yet in turn generatesher. Sand'sprima donnademands respect for the singerand her art, but more importantly Sanddemands respect from the artist for herselfand her profession without apologizingfor or compromisingher statusas a fully-fledged artist. A fact she underlinesthrough her inversionof ideal and reality. The author'sgreat merit is her

31Ibid., p. 248. This constitutes the irreconcilable conflict between an ideal sound and its physical, mechanicalexecution through the mise-en-corps in a femalesinger which is boundto fail andtherefore resultsin thedestruction of the singing body.

243 affirmative establishmentof the singeras diva and prima donnain the propersense of the term: the singeris a legitimateperformer of both music incarnateand artistic genius. Additionally, in a small yet importantsub-plot the authorestablishes a femaleartistic lineage throughthe contraltoRosetta who was carefully groomedby Gina to succeed her on stageand who, in the role of Romeo,is the oneto bury the prima donnain her 32 coffii n. Despiteits finally tragic outcome,this climactic sceneechoes the positive, promisingmessage, already voiced in Corinne,of a symbolicartistic motherhoodand female lineagethat underminesthe dichotomyof natureand art and,to someextent, of (biological) femalenessand (aesthetic)femininity. Tbus,taking a strongposition on the prima donna'sagency, George Sand's conte must be considereda landmarkin the writing aboutthe woman singerduring FrenchRomanticism, while at the sametime preparingthe ground for Sand'sgreater works to come,most importantlyher singer epic Consuelo.

Trivial Surprises: Madame Tatmay, Une Cantatrice

MadameTaunay's apprenticeship novel Une cantatrice(184 1) was publishedduring the heydayof music literaturein France,alongside other singernovels that are far more 33 well-known today, like Domenica and Consuelo. Although Madame Taunay probably followed contemporary taste for the popular motif of the prima donna, her treatment of the topic is, despite undeniably trivial tones, surprisingly unorthodox and somewhat emancipatory.34 1

32 As a contralto,Rosetta prefigures the vocal Sand'slater characterConsuelo. 33 profile of MadameTaunay was the wife of Hippolyte Taunay,painter and writer, who translatedTasso's La Gerusalemmeliberata and wrote booksabout Brazil, wherehe lived from 1816-1821.Like manyof her contemporaries,Madame Taunay attained notoriety during the July Monarchy,publishing a numberof novelsand obtainingthe Prix Montyon for her work Vertusdupeuple (1842). 34 Bailbd dedicatesa lengthier-than-usualcomment to this novel (Le Romanet la musique,pp. 207-1 I).

244 Synopsis Une cantatricefollowsthefate ofFloretta Bonucci,the illegitimate daughterofan Italian musicianin Paris and his housekeeperGiovanina. A musicalgenius, Floretta enduresherfather's gruelling musicaltraining with the result that, at the age of twelve, whenher voice already spansall rangesfrom bassto soprano,she is able to assistwith herfalher's teaching.After herfather's death,Floretta is revealedto Parisian musical circles who support her career and help her achieveacclaim as an operasinger in France and Italy. Havingjallen in love with herfather's studentAlbert de Fargueil, Floretta learns to emancipateherselffrom this emotionalbond, which causedher nothing but grief, since the aristocrat Albert consideredher socially beneathhim. In her questfor personal and artistic agency,Floretta is supportedby afatherlyftiend, the EnglishmanSir Adenkton,whose eventual suicide determines Floretta to breakoff contactwith A lbertfor everand to live her life alone,as an acclaimedsinger.

The novel's centralplot dramatizesthe singer'scoming-of-age, her personal, emotionaland artistic emancipationamidst an array of stereotypical'singer problems'. Throughher emancipation,Floretta ultimately becomesa fullY-fledgedprima donna. Underneaththe light narrativestyle, Florettais in fact depictedas a strongand independentartist who, throughthe hardshipof musicalapprenticeship and her precociousgenius, rises to becomean acclaimedstage performer.

Mais c'est A la natureseule qu'elle doit sonplus grandm6rite, mdrite immenseddjA [ ] D'une dtude et qui chaquejour sed6veloppe d'une mani&e remarquable... rdguRre et progressive,elle passeA une improvisationqui, malgr6de nombreuses fautes,d6note un gdnieprEt A se produireen brisant,avec unc heureusehardiesse, 35 jusqu'aux r6glesles plus simpicspour s'dieverdavantage.

Breakingthe stereotypeof femalesong as an attributeof beauty,Taunay makes her singera musicalgenius whilst insisting on her physicalunattractiveness: she is a precociouschild caughtbetween the 'genderless'innocence of childhoodand the potential of the adult womansinger (which is an interestingtake on the androgynous qualities implied by the conceptof genius)and whose powerful voice only addsto her in beauty, awkwardness,Floretta not only looks foreign to contemporaryFrench tastes but her perceivedugliness functions as a preliminary stateto her bloom as a prima

35Une Cantatrice (Paris: Berquet et Pdtion, 1841), 1, pp.5-6 (hereafter Une Cantatrice).

245 donna,whose voice and looks harmonizeon stagebut haveno groundin real life. Even as an adult, the singerremains a far cry from ideal femininity. As such,Taunay's singer is devoid of the idealismof the stagepersona but ratheremphasizes the discrepancy betweenthe 'genius' and professionalismthat allows Florettato perform sublimely on stageand to createthe illusion of music and emotionsthrough herself and the bland womanshe is by day. This 'flaw' further preventsany romancebetween Floretta and Albert, the latter only expressinginterest in the stagepersona. In fact, the authorclearly dissociatesthe musical experiencefrom notionsof femalebeauty and the visual rapture of the male spectatorand thus'Consciously dismantles the visual, erotic aspectof the acclaimedsinger as a contemporaryfantasy. Nevertheless, Floretta's apprenticeship is as much a musicalas an emotionalone. While her revelationas a prima donnais at first motivatedby her unrequitedlove for Albert, Floretta'sgrowing disillusion with love goeshand in handwith her increasingartistic mastery.Not differentiatingat first betweenher life and the stage,Floretta draws on her exaggerated,biased emotions in orderto excel on stage,communicating her art in a credibleand quasi-realisticway to the audience:

11faut, disait-onpendant les entr'actes,qu'elle ait eu de,fameux maltres pour s'etre rompueA exprimerde la sorteun sentimentsi violent; ou qu'elle soit bien dprise, bien amoureuse,de quelqu'un,rcprenait un autre,carje doutequ'un cceur indiff6rent puissepeindre les passionsavec ce hautdegr6 de vdritd.36

In an almost ironic nod to the stereotype of the female artist who ties herself to a male lover, Florettaacknowledges the problematicinterdependence between her craft and her feelingsfor a man who continuesto scoff at and reject her: 'Albert et le thddtre; dansces deux mots se rdsumetoute mon existence:Pun sansI'autre ne me suffirait pas: ma passionpour Albert est le secretde mon talent, et mon talent est le secretde ma 37 passionpour Albert'. Depictedas immoral and vulgar, Albert is anythingbut a Romanticprotagonist but appearsentirely unappreciativeof Floretta'scraft, leavingno

36 Une Cantatrice., 1, p. 86. 37 Jbid, 1, p.327.

246 doubtsabout where he seesher, a publicwoman 'engaged' to heraudience and whom he would neverconsider marrying:

Moi, comtede Fargueil,6pouser une actrice,fille naturellede M. Bonucciet de ]a Giovanina!cc scraittrop plaisanten vdritd, et cettenouvelle ferait, pendantun hivcr au moins, le sujet de toutesles conversationsen Francect en Italiel Non, ma toute belle, quandon a votre talent on ne se marie pas;cc seraitun vol manifestc.Vous vous devezau public, qui du restevous rend cn affection la considdrationqu'il cst obligd de vous rcfuser."

Despitethe novel's trivial tonesand perhaps unwittingly comical,clichdd moments, the omission of any sentimental element in the love plot is noteworthy; Floretta's art is a potentially empowering sign of genius and artistic procreation, yet she is also an object of social scrutiny and condescensionand must come to terms with her status. If in other singer narratives, such as Corinne, at least the illusionary quality of song is upheld insofar as it is capable of uniting the lovers on a poetic level where they may temporarily take refuge from social nonns, the focus for Floretta and Albert is decidedly different. Madame Taunay offers neither a utopian, symbolic spacefor the singer and her love-interest, nor the traditional female escaperoute of atonement for the singer who could theoretically inarry into society if she renounced her artistic vocation. Rather, as in the case of Sand's Gina or Fischer's artist heroines, Florctta's only possible path is one of self-appreciation and fully assuming her existence as an arlist in reality, while discarding any illusionary, 'romantic' ideals about love and a place in society assumedto be the right one for her. Traditional constellations of art and love are further undermined when Florctta triumphs over her rival, the German prima donna

Mlle Hermann who has become Albert's mistress - however, the protagonist's victory is purely artistic and serves to emphasize Floretta's independenceand position as prima donna in the true senseof the term and through a strict dissociation of art and love.

Thus the singer's apprenticeshipis one of professionalization:as a singer,she has to learn painfully to differentiatebetween her existenceon stageand in real life as well as

39 ibid., 1,pp. 137-38. While the novel's tone often appearsironic, Albertjoins rankswith the male charactersin my othercase studies, who appearas ratherweak, distorted Romantic protagonists.

247 betweenher art throughwhich shecatalyses her unrequitedfeelings for Albert, andthe latter's defacto indifference- it is throughthis harshapprenticeship that shegradually gainsagency as a woman and as an artist while ridding herselfof her emotional dependenceon Albert:

On ne pouvait coneevoir qu'une petite femme si gr8le cOt une voix semblable, et qu'un physique si ingrat A la ville changedt de la sorte sit6t qu'elle paraissait cn sc6nc. Floretta, dans sa vie privde, n'efit excitd les ddsirs de pcrsonne, tandis que sous Ic costume de dona Anna, ou sous celui d1nýs, elle captivait tous Ics cccurs; if n'dtait pas jusqu'au Idger Albert, qui, sans meme le prdsumer, ne flut pris au pi6ge; soit habitude, soit orgucil, if restait enchaW, comme malgrd lui, au char de la cantatrice cn vogue, qu'il suivait en tous lieux, et dont il dtait devcnu le vdritable cavalier servant. Lc salon de Floretta.ne d6semplissait point lesjours o6 if ny avait pas spectacle; Albert de Fargueil en faisait, pour ainsi dire, les honneurs, malgr6 les reprdsentationsde la comtesse, sa mere, qui, indignee de ce nouveau travcrs, lui disait durcment: 'If ne te manquait plus que de tc faire entrctenir par une actricc, au vu et su de tout le monde; personne Wignore qu ý 'cst elle qui a payd tes dates; veux-tu donc nous ddshonorcr soustousles rapports!

MadameTaunay clearly drawson the stereotypeof femalebeautification through song,yet decidedlycontrasts the prima donna'sillusion with Floretta'ssocial stigmaas an actrice, who is furthermorerather unattractive by the light of day. Thus,an essential part of Floretta's apprenticeshipand liberation from her symbolic statusas prima donna is her vocal and dramaticgrowth in so far as shenot only expandsher repertoirebut movesout of her previousroles and beyondthe vocal commonplaceof opera.So far, Florettahas performed only roles that allowed her to transposeher personalstate of mind and her feelings for Albert on to the stageand thus blur the boundariesof her personallife and her profession.Turning towardsmanlier, contraltoroles, the singer's voice maturesand expandswith the result that Floretta'sunattractiveness as a womanis transformedinto the imposingbeauty of the artist and her craft, a musically dcrined beautywhich the singerowns.

Ibid., 1, pp. 130-31.

248 Son casqueA panache blanc, ses beaux chevcux noirs retombanten bouclesgracieuses autourde son visage,et le costumeguerrier de Tancr&de,avaicnt rcndu Florcttabelle, mais de cettebeaut6 m5le qui dtonneet subjugue:le feu magiquede sesycux, la fiert6 douceet noble de son maintien,Vair martial qu'clle avait su prendre,donnaient A toute sa personnequelque chose d'imposant, d'irr6sistible; aussila Bonucci fut-elle d6sce jour inscriteen lettresd'or dansle souvenirdes dilettanti napolitainS.40

In a secondimportant step, the prima donnaexperiences further sublimity when she visits Romeand singsamong the ancientruins. While this key scenemay havebeen inspiredby Corinne's symbiotic rapportwith Romeand its ruins, MadameTaunay uses Floretta'snightly, anonymousconcert at the Coliseumas a sceneto highlight the exceptionalnature of the singing voice which ultimately appearsas bodilessand sublimein its androgyny.In harmonywith the poetic,religious natureof her surroundings,her singing voice acquiresa new poetic depthsince, for the first time, she singswithout preconceivedemotions and not for any audiencebut for her own pleasure as an artist. The poetic mise-en-scýneof Floretta'sperformance and voice explicitly drawson the ideal of sublimesong and enrichesthe singer's characternot only as a stageperformer, but as a transcended,sublimated ideal artist.

Lajeune virtuose, sans se faire autrement prier, monta sur un fOt de colonne, et chanta incontinent la cavatine de Tancredi, Di lantipalpiti! qui lui valut A Naples de si nombreusescouronnes. Ici, point dc public A dlectriser, A subjuguer, point dc rivale A confondre, rien qu'une inspiration A suivre, un ami A contenter, et pourtant Floretta fut sublime! Ses mAles accents eurent cette fois une puissance immense iur I'Amc impressionnable de son compagnon. Cc fut presque de la souffrance. Jamais ]a cantatrice, dans ses plus beaux triomphes, ne lui avait paru si ravissante,jamais il Wavait davantage Vempire lui. f ] Tous deux firent senti qu'elle exergait sur ... quelques pas pour s'61oigner, lorsque, en tournant une arcade, ils apergurent leur custode ct une certaine quantit6 de moines agenouillds pr6s de IA, paraissantdcouter encore les sons qu'ils ne devaient plus entendre. - 'lls ont raison d'en agir ainsi, s'dcria IAnglais, maitris6 par son enthousiasme,en s'inclinant; c'est A deux genoux qu'il faut recueillir vos divins accents, trop heureux de trouver place A vos pieds, 6 toute la terre devrait se prosterner141

40 fbid, 1, pp. 165-66. 41 lbid, 1, pp.226-27.

249 Florettano longer performsin orderto pleaseAlbert or the audience,nor is her song nourishedby her extremeemotions, as was the casethroughout the early stagesof her career.Rather, her songnow stemsfrom her own inspirationand sublimegift, which makesher standout as an exceptionalsinger able to transcendthe conventionalpatterns of femalesong, a fact emphasizedby the 'masculinity' of the performancethrough which shecomes closer to the ideal of an androgynous,purist singingvoice. Despitethe knocksshe inevitably receivesas a working womanand artist, and amidstthe rivalries and intriguesof her profession,Floretta displays a pronouncedpride that is not confined to her singerpersona but expandsas part of an affirmative narrativediscourse that emphasizesthe overall acceptanceof the characterin the contextof the novel. More than other texts of the time, MadameTaunay's novel emphasizesa strongportrayal of the artist, and showsthe singer'srealisation of her potential,her merit and musical genius:

Elle a pris, avecses dix-neuf ans,le sentimentde ce qu'elle vaut et cettefiend native le [ ] qui rdv&leaux fernmes1'empire qu'elles sont appeldesA exercerclans monde. ... elle a vdcu dansle monde,elle ya dtd appr6cide,recherchde, d6sir6c, class6c cnf in parmi les fernmesles plus remarquablesde sontemps. 11 Wen est pasune sansdoute qui se fut enorgueilliede semblabIcstriomphcs! Florctta, femme avant tout, quelleque soit d'ailleurs sa sup6riorit6,a reconnuenfin son mdrite.42

Despitethe hardshipsof her career,Floretta, formulating a strongcredo of independence,displays a distinct senseof autonomyand agencythat inevitably replaces her child-like stubbornnessabout winning Albert's heartwith her songthat showsa true senseof artistry and self-sufficiency.The singer'sclaim for a spacein the public arena naturally accompaniesher auto-definitionas an artist as well as her critical assessment of women's placein society- an argumentwhich bearssome similarity to that of Fischer'ssinger Justine, who criticized traditional gendercodes as beingto women's disadvantage.

42Ibid, 1,pp. 160-6 1.

250 Je n'ai rien de commun avec les autres femmes, etje supposeque cette divergence de de dducation. f ] fois lid A mes opinions mondaines vient ma premi&e ... votre sort, une celui de Pautre, il vous faut Oe parle des fernmes) tout sacrifier aux convenanccs,A Favenir pr6sum6 de vos enfants, A la volontd d'un mari quelquefois injuste, toujours despote. Si vous aimez le monde, il vous en dloigne; si vous avez des talents remarquables, il en prend ombrage, et vous rdduit A oublier ce qui vous a coOtdtant d'anndes d6tudes. Si cest par dtat que vous cultivez Part auquel vous 6tes initi6e, alors ce meme homme, qui devait vous soutenir, vous encourager, devient le plus exigcant de [ I 6tat A inddpendant, vos critiques; ... un tel ne convient nullement mon caract6re volontaire mEme, et quije le sens, ne se plieraitjamais aux minuties du mariage. Enfant de la nature, je ne suis point habitude A suivre ]a volont6 des autres;je Wai support6 dans ma vie qu'unjoug, celui de mon p6re; encore ne Wen a -t-il fait sentir la pesanteur qu'en ce qui avait rapport A la musique. Dans toute autre circonstance,j'dtais, non seulement ma mais aussi celle de ma m&e et de mon digne p&e lui- 43 maitresse, mEme.

In a final digressionfrom stereotype,Floretta experiences neither vocal breakdown nor physical demise,since her 'death' is effectively transposedonto her platonic friend Adenkton,whose suicide acts as a momentof liberation and catharsisfor the singer. While other singersend their careersbecause of the requirementsof love or becauseof their inability to resolvetheir conflicts as artistsin society,Floretta's eventual decline appearsas an almostbanal vocal declinethat occurswith age,disillusionment and increasingfrustration with her professionalmilieu, and it startsat the height of her career,while sheis perfectly in control of her voice and mastersboth technicaland theatricalaspects of her roles. The fury and illusions in love of her youth havebeen replacedby masteryand maturity. If the prima donna'send may appearunspectacular to the point of being unromantic,she is in fact a realistic characterwho sustainsherself to a high level and appropriatesa musicalgenius which lasts.More importantly,Floretta incamatesa carefully craftedgenius that no longer relies on the treacherous,extreme natureand interior instability of Romanticgenius which celebratesthe extremeof the suicidal,victimized artist. On the contrary,Floretta's sustainability depends on proper technique,focus, hard work, and aboveall femaleself-sufficiency: 'Maintenant tous les replis du cceurlui dtaientfamiliers, et elle pouvait peindreavec une dgalesupdrioritd

43 Ibid., 1, p. 324.

251 I'amour soupgonneux ou Famour satisfait. Plus malitressede son art, elle r&gle ses 44 effets, et donne A son jeu une unitd qu'il Wavait jamais euejusqu'alors

Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, Domenica

Among the writers of GeorgeSand's generation, Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786- 1859)seems to embodymost fully the imageof the Romanticwoman artist who, echoingthe fate of a writer like Fischer,experienced the hardshipof reconcilingher artistic ambitionswith financial securityand the more bourgeoisrole modelsof wife and mother.Propelled on to the stageat a young age,Marceline married the actor ProsperTalmore' Lanchantinand formed life-long friendshipswith well-known artists of her time, like the singerCaroline Branchu and the actressMademoiselle Mars. Despitea lack of formal education,she was cultivated,with a discernibletalent for the 45 arts and for languagesas well as pronouncedsocial opinions. Startingout as a tligies recognizedwriter of poetry andromances, she published her first volume, et romancesin 1819.Desbordes-Valmore produced over 2600 poemsmany of which were set to music by, amongothers, Georges Bizet and CdsarFranck. Compared to most 46 47 women authorsof her generation,Desbordes-Valmore's life and oeuvre havebeen relatively well documentedand assessed,although certainly not to the sameextent as GeorgeSand's. Even though Desbordes-Valmore'sstatus within the Frenchliterary canonis still somewhatundecided, scholars have now acknowledgedher importance,

44Une Cantatrice,11, 33. 45 p. SeeChristiane Elmer, 'MarcelineDesbordes-Valmore (1786-1859): un tdmoinengagd. La Dimension POliticO-socialede Marceline'. Interviewwith Marc Bertrand(april 2006) [accessed27 October2008]. 46 er2. SeeFrancis Ambritre, Le Sikle des Valmore:Marceline Desbordes- Valmore et les siens(Paris: Seuil, 1987). The Austrian writer StefanZweig dedicatedone volume to MarcelineDesbordes-Valmore specifically: Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. Das Lebensbildeiner Dichterin. Mit Obertragungenvon GiselaEtzel-Kfihn (Leipzig: Insel, 1920). 47See Wendy NicholasGreenberg, Uncanonical Women. Feminine Voice in FrenchPoetry (1830-1871) (Amsterdam:Rodopi, 1999).

252 48 even coining te term style marcelinlen in reference to her cruvrc. While Paul Verlaine declared her 'la seule femme de gdnie et de talent de cc si6cle ct de tous les 49 SiMes" contemporary scholars50 consider her an unorthodox woman poet with innovative, multi-faceted and unclassifiable aestheticsthat make her stand out as a 51 unique reflection of her time. Less known than her poetry is her mature ceuvreas a prose writer. Starting in 1830, Desbordes-Valmorc authored a considerable number of 52 contes, nouvelles and novels, some of which, including Domenica, are available in modem critical editions. 53 Domenica occupiesa specialplace in Desbordes-Valmore'smuvre, not only due to its musical-artistictheme which invites comparisonswith the author'sown life, but also due to its statusas a key text of Frenchmusical literature. 54

Synopsis

Thenovella tells the story ofthe Germanpainter RJgiswho, living a miserablelife in Rome,comes to hear his neighbour,the young singer Domenico,with whomhefalls instantly in love and to whosevoice andfate he henceforthlies his entire existence. Thanksto Domenica'sGerman governess Ffille, Rigis is able tofollow the singer'sfate from a distanceand relate it as afirst-person narrator. A romanticallyplatonic admirer from afar, thepainter looks on helplesslyas Domenicafallsfor her married colleague, the tenor Cataneo,while at the sametime beingpressuredby herfamily to contract a rich marriage in order to solvetheirfinancial worries. After an audiencewith the Pope,

4' Duringher lifetime, Desbordes-Valmore wasin factcounted among the grandspo&es, to whom amateursand ouvrier-po&es sent their texts in thehope of securinga publishing deal (See Martin-Fugier, 286). PaulVerlaine, (Euvres enprose complNes (Paris: Gallimard Pldiade, 1972), p. 678. soThe leading Desbordes-Valmore scholar Marc Bertrand has provided important groundwork in the formof criticaleditions of herworks as well as individual studies of herpoetry. See Louis Aragon et MarcelineDesbordes-Valmore : essai deprosodie comparee (Paris: Publications M.B. etG. T., 1997); Lestechniques deversification de Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (Lille: Service de reproduction des th6ses,Universitd de Lille 111,1981); Les ceuvrespodliques deMarceline Desbordes-Valmore (Grenoble: PUG,1973). 51See Christiane Elmer, Vapport littdraire de Marceline Dcsbordes-Valmore. Marceline, reflct de son si6cle'.Interview with Marc Bertrand (march 2006) jaccessed27 October 2008]. 2Domenica, ed. Marc Bertrand (Geneve: Droz, 1992) (hereafter Domenico). 33The novella was first published in thesocialistjournal La Dimocrallepacifique(06. -17.11.1843). 54See Marc Betrand's preface to Domenico(pp. I 1-12).

253 Domenica obtainsa debt waiverfor herfamily and goeson to live underpapal protection in a Carmeliteconvent, where she continuesto sing sacredmusic.

As far as narrative developmenýand staging of the prima donna persona are concerned, the novella remains indebted to the ideal of female song while taking the issue of artistic sublimity and female agency an important step further. A veteran of the song and romance genre, Desbordes-Valmore could have opted for a light treatment of her female singer, yet in fact she combines a profound poetic discussion of Domenica with a considered reflection on her singer as a socio-cultural creature. In consequence, Domenica, the divine child who develops into an acclaimed opera singer, appearsboth as a legitimate offspring of the earlier song models discussedin chapters 4 to 6, close to the symbolic and poetic quality of the female song, and as a child of her own time, in which the notion of the artist as a genius and demiurge is tied to her status as a performer and working woman in society. Domenica is a singer who, within the absolute realm of her musical gift, neverthelessundergoes important personal and professional changes as part of her formativejoumey to achieve artistic maturity and independence.

DravAngon elementsof the artist novel and Bildungsroman,Desbordes-Valmore developsher singerthrough a tripartite plot, startingwith Domenica'sepiphany as a musician.The story of the singer'sdifficult upbringingand musicalapprenticeship, which madeher into the artist sheis at the time depictedin the novella,is intertwined with the male narrator'sradical, revelatoryexperience when he hearsher for the first time. The narrationstarts in mediasres, as Rdgisrecounts his renaissancethrough Domenica'ssong:

Quandil Warriva pour la premi6refois de m'dcoutervivre et de me demanderpourquoi je vivais, c'dtait ARome, etje venaisd'entendre Domenica chanter. Domenica Wexistaitque pour chanter,mais de ce chantqui 6veille dansautrui toutesles facult6s que la naturey renferme.Udcouter, c'dtait penser.Chaque than de cettevoixjcune et puissanted6tendait le bandeauqui me serraitle front. Durantses 6tudes, l'unissait-elle A quelqueinstrument comme pour 6voquerdes amies qu'elle semblaitregretter, on eOtdit que sesdoigts fr6lesy rdpandaientune haleinem6lodieuse, ctje ne respiraisque de sa respiration.Cette enfant se reposait-elledes sons enchanteurs qui soulevaientI'ltalie, Pair qu'elle venait d'ibranler s'immobilisait autourde moi; je mejetais hors de ma

254 chambre sans desirer mEme pdndtrer dans la sienne, devant laquelleje passais,bourrel6 d'un silencieux vertige, ctje parcourais Rome comme un fou; mais le timbre argentin restait dans ma poitrine, o6 je Pentendaislongtemps vibrer contre mon cocur.Ne pouvant suivre la chanteuseau ciel, en unissant ma voix inculte avee la sienne,je priais 55 Dieu qu'il m'envoyit des ailes, afin de Py rctrouver un jour.

Despitehis distantand idealisticrapport with Domenica,Regis' role as a narrator and secret accomplice of the singer constitutes an important complement to the singer's vocal profile: Ue ne pus desserrerles 16vresdevant elle, car je me ressouvins tout-A- 56 coup que je bdgayais; et mon dme aussi se mit A b6gayer en Mois. Domenica's vocal sublimity is met with her male admirer's stuttering: he is never able to addressher directly when they meet, but resorts to silence and to providing a written voice for the singer, much like Valterna in Sand's novella, or Hoffmann's narrators who remain outsiders to the true mystery of female song. Rdgis enjoys a somewhat undetermined, idealized status as both a distant onlooker and secret male accomplice who understands and respectsthe singer's genius and sublimity. Alienated from society, the painter identifies himself as part of Domenica's sphere, acting as her mirror and mouthpiece on the narrative level; in his attitude, Rdgis clearly differs from the stereotypical paradigm of the male painter and his female muse, such as in Fischer's Margarethe, a constellation which points towards the problematic link between feminine ideal and male artistic procreation.57 More in line with Berliozs 'weak' male characters,Wgis lives an unsuccessful bohemian life with the sole purpose of hearing Domenica sing and cherishing the slightly more privileged relationship with her, without even forming the pretention to possessher. As the above excerpt shows, he reveals Domenica's musical genius in very clear terms, leaving no doubt about the unearthly gift and supreme status of this type of singer. Both 'natural' and intellectual (and thus to some extent both female and male) qualities are ascribed to Domenica, as well as the capacity to touch her listener in an unusual and deeply spiritual way, perpetuating her own voice within him.

55 Domenica, pp. 17-18. 56 Ibid., p. 34. 57See chapter 5.

255 Rdgisdescribes the impact of Domenica'ssong as an alterationof himself with a strongreligious tone; her voice is 'complete' in that it servesboth the sensualand intellectual side of music. Furthermore,it is her songthat literally altersthe air around her listenerand breathesnew life into him, continuingto reverberateclose to his heart. This sublimeand deeplyspiritual experiencegives Rdgis' life meaning,prompting him to questionand to 'think'. 58 Be that as it may, the deeply poetical quality of Domenica's song is informed by the singer's gruelling apprenticeship at the hands of her uncle Piramonti, who adopted the orphaned girl and trained her together with her cousin Ninio, a fellow child prodigy who is exhibited throughout Europe and who, after catching cold in England, dies prematurely. Domenica on the other hand survives Piramonti's cruel training, with the pain over her cousin's untimely death only adding to her musical gift, and she is revealedas a vocal geniusin full bloom who capturesher audiencethrough the truth and intensity of her performance:

D6s le soir, le public ravi Vadoptapour son enfant.Elle dtait belle, la pauvrepetite, intelligente,vive et trop folAtrepour ne pas6veiller ]a fr6quentecol&re de son maltre.11 n'dtait pashomme A s'cndormirdans la preparationde sesplans futurs; aussi, Ics petits doigts qui, le matin, avaientW cruellementcinglds pour leur lenteurou leur distraction au piano, agitaientdoucement le soir un bouquetavec d'irrdsistibles graces devant un public idolStre,qui donnaitde Por pour sessourires et Pappelait:La diva bambina.59

Domenicaradically differs from both her uncle who Wavait en lui rien de l'originalitd piquantequi fait de tant d'honneteset laborieuxcomddiens Pune des classesles plus pittoresquesde cellesqui travaillent et souffrent',60 nor doesshe share her late cousin's thirst for applauseand fame: 'Outre unepassion ardente pour Ntude, Nnsatiablesoif des61oges s'dtait emparddu petit Orphde'.61 Literally pushedon stage at a young age,Domenica. starts singing with no particularintention to please,and her 58 In her famousartist novel Songofthe Lark (1915),Willa Catherdescribes the completenessand absolutenature of her singeras follows: 'The voice simply is the mind and is the heart.It can't go wrong in interpretationbecause it has in it the thing that makesall interpretations'(The Song ofthe Lark, ed. A. S. Byatt (London: 59 Virago, 1982),p. 509). Domenica, 60 p.25. Ibid., 23. 61 p. Ibid., p.24.

256 child-like 'purity' and innocence,'cette voix si brillante sortantd'une bouchesi pctitc ct innocente'are what single her out as a sublimechild with an exceptionalgift who is able to surpassher cousin later on, thanksto a strict educationand the painful emotions and memoryof his passing:'La voix sculede Domenicasurpassa bientOt cn puissance celle de son fr6re, parceque ddjAcette voix dtait pleinc de douloureuxsouvenirs'. 62 Growing up, Domenicamaintains the child-like dispositiondisplayed in her very first perfon-nance,during which the public declaredher a diva bambina;Domcnica's uniquenessis emphasizedthrough the hybrid, transgressivequalities of both the diva and the child, reconciling the myth of the god-like child with the idealsof musicand poetry (which were constructedmore polemically by Goethein WilhelmMeister) and with the artistic agencyof the matureadult singer,such as proposedby Sandand Taunay.Domenica's 'beauty' is an exclusivelymusical and sublimetrait, markedby its completenessin moral, intellectual,sensual and artistic termsand which makesthe singerimmune to any form of mundanityor trivialization. Desbordes-Valmorefurther developsDomenica in this particularaesthetic in the key sceneof the singer'sdebut and artistic emergenceat the SanCarlo theatrein Naples:

Tout-h-coupson adolescencedclata comme une rose blanche qui sort dc sesdpincs. En d6pit desprivations ct d'un dtroit confincment,c1le s'dleva droitc, soupicet pure commeles vestalesqui ne s'endormcntpas cn veillant Ics lampesetemelIcs. Ses cheveuxet sesycux dtaientsi noirs, ]a coupede son visagesi parfaitemcntitalicnnc, que son maltrecrut pouvoir Vannonccrpartout comme native de Sorrcntc,Men qu'une simple chaumiareanglaise eOt servi de cracheA cette cnfant de tribu crrante.La quinziýmeannde de Domenicasonnait quand clic apparutau thd5trede SanCarlo, A Naples,sous le voile blancde Giulietta, et son d6butfut couronndd'un succ6 immense.Sa voix 6tait splendidect d'unc suavit6rare. Spontini,qu'ellc cnlcvahors de sa placedurant un de sesvoyages en Italic, ne trouva rien de comparableA cettevoix bondissante,hormis la voix divine de Mme Branchu,qui, disait-il n'cutjamais de rivale au mondepour son dgalit6parfaite dans scs trois octaves,son dldgantcflcxibilit6, sa tristessepicine de larmes,et sa brOlantedncrgic. 11 ddrinissait dcvant moi cct instrument humain,si doux et si passionnd,en disantqu'iI dtait A la fbis Poragect Voiscau. Domenicapossddait de m6me,A son insu, ]a podsieprofonde qui traduit par le souffle toutesles passionsmurmurantes d'une fime compl6tequi s'dtonne,qui s'ignorc, ct livrc au cicl avcc de saintstransports ]a confidcnce de sesdou leurs. Quoiquc tim ide ct renferm6,Phabitude Pavait familiaris6 de bonneheure A plaidcr, si Von peut hasardcrcc mot, devantdesjuges ravis et ficrs de lui faire gagncrsa cause.Aussi n'dtait-ceque

62 jbid, p.27.

257 devanteux qu'elle rdapparutpleine de confiance et d'abandon.Scs formes sveltcs, sa distinction naturelle,avaicnt leur part sansdoute, dans les transportsque causaitsa jcunc prdsence;mais c'dtait cc souffle tout-h-tour16ger, solenncl, plaintif et toujours chastecomme son cceurqui fit pleuvoir sur elle les rubans,les sonnetsct les fleursdont lajeune fille surprisederneura. presque suffoqude. 63

Marceline Desbordes-Valmorecarefully balancesher singer'svisual aspectswith her vocal characteristics,insisting on the 'souffle' ratherthan on melodiousor performativeaspects of a particularsong. The emphasislies on the underlyingfeatures of her voice that are not directly visible or audible,but which denotea deeper,more spiritual quality, that sought-after'podsie profonde' which underpinsmusical idealism and the Rousse'auesqueconcept of song,yet which appearedincommunicable for early archetypeslike Mignon and Corinneand continuedto impedeartistic empowermentfor women singersin general.The narrationpays homage to the orphic power of the singer's voice, echoingthe musicalideal by allegorizingher as the perfect 'human instrument';pure, harmoniousand perfectly communicating,translating this specific poetry of the interior throughher voice andproviding the listenerwith a deeper full understandingof life throughart - in turn, the singeris given spaceand credit as a priestessof music who literally breathesher gift into her listeners.On the other hand, sheretains the fragility of a girl thrown into the spotlight and who appearsto be 'suffocated' by the public showeringaffections on her. An unusualprima donna, Domenicareunites the two antagonisticsides of femalemusicality in that sheis a strong 64 65 stagepersona in the guiseof a saintly 'muse enfermde', a jeune sainteCdcile'. She leadsno typical prima donnalifestyle, but shiesaway from all worldly aspects associatedwith singers,instead opting for seclusion,discipline and focusingon fulfilling the tasksset by Piramontiand giving outstandingperformances. The girl remainsunscathed by the dire circumstancesof her upbringingbut risesabove them, unimpressedby the possibilitiesof her careerand the prima donnaimage she could be expectedto live up to.

63 Ibid, 30-3 1. 64 pp. Mid., 27. 65 p. Ibid., p.28.

258 Elle vivait, pure comme la flamme allum6e, chaque soir, pour elle A la Madonc, par la f6i d'une pauvre femme du pcupIc. Peut-Etrecctte pudcur sauvageou clIc rentre quand ses belles 16vresse ferment lui a-t-elle W soufflde tandis que sa poitrinc d'cnfant servait doreiller A Ninio mourant, et que ce souffle plaintif lui a dit: 'Domcnica, prcnds garde! c'cst le dernier concert qui m'a tUd!66

Despite her child-like saintliness, Domenica is not immune to some of the major problemscommonly associatedwith femalesingers, such as financial worries andthe questionof whetheror not to give in to one of the many suitorsand potentialpatrons - or evenworse, to betrayher exclusivegift by falling in love and tying her craft to emotionaldependence. Yet as is the casewith most singersmentioned so far, Domcnica'svocal genius,nourished by her artistic and personalintegrity, is rendered fragile throughher associationwith men, namelythe ill-doomed infatuationshe developsfor Cataneoand the pressureshe is exposedto by Piramonti's continuedgreed and exploitation. If the idealist Domenicanourishes the illusion that Catancowould be her ideal partner(which is true on stageand in termsof her own artistic evolution), Rdgiscritically exposesthe tenor as an unsuitablematch:

La taille de ce rossignolhumain dtait petitect lourde,sans grace ct sanssouplessc, son de la Wrole. [ ] Depuis [Domenica] dpur6 visageterne ct piqu6 petite ... un an, avait son goOtsur le sien, Ncoutant de l'ime et du regard.Je m'avouai, pour lors, la diff6rencc de deux fraternelles d'un sensible son expression,quand ccs voix s'cmportaicnt meme67 essordans les chefs-d'ectivrede I'hornmerdgnant aujourd'hui par toute I'Europe.

Although not depictedas morally corrupt or dangerous,Cataneo, cannot return Domenica'sfeelings, since he is marriedto an unnamedsinger who IcR him for a love affair with a foreign prince. The tenor's confessionand the subsequentdestruction of her illusions trigger a severecrisis in Domenicawhose final nervousbreakdown occurs during a recital with her colleaguewhich turns into a duel betweenperformers. While the saintly Domenicaappears instantly more humanthrough her emotionalsuffering,

66 Ibid, pp.32-33. 67 Ibid., pp.41-42. The composerin questionis Rossini.

259 the combinationof her vocal distresswith her personalstate of mind in fact accentuates her surrealallure, which is exclusivelychanneled through her voice.

Qui VeOtpeinte alors eOtdtcmis6 une belle chosel11 cOt gardde l'image de I'artiste accomplie,crdde pour dcouteravec amour, comme pour chanteravcc religion ct fbi. Plustard, clansla soirde,tandis que Ics sonsravissants dc ccs deux voix crraientclans toute la salle s'dievant,s'abaissant ensemble tout-h-tour comme deux rossignolsqui luttent; alors quetous, sans rcspirer, leur tcndaicntune orcillc ravic, Was! f lors moi, vaincu et entrafridIA par mon cccur,qui pouvaitse doutcrde I'angoissecnfcrmde dans Ic seinharmonieux de la pauvresir&ne! "'

As a direct expressionof Domenica'sinner self, her voice surpassesthe normal rangeof tessituraand the capacityof the singer'sbody and literally explodes,like GeorgeSand's singer whose death coincided with a blatantmismatch of body and voice, and whoseidealistic songtranscended the normal categoriesof music and gender.While this larger-than-lifeperformance causes the public's frenzy, it also leads to Domenica'sbreaking-point: her songcollapses in the form of screams,while she herselfplummets into madness.Too strongto be contained,Domenica's inner stateof mind destroysher harmony,leading to the climactic, albeit symbolic,death of the singer and her idealisms.In this key scene,Domenica's voice is no longer sustainedby her sublime 'souffle' but is depictedas a direct (imaginativeor real) screamfrom the singer's breakingheart, alienating her from herselfand her audience:

L'expressionde sa voix, d'abord vagueet resscffdc, devint largect puissante;scs cris furcnt sublimes;on pleurait,on la couvrait de fleurs. Sesbras s'ouvrirent, et le bouquet tomba,dont la vue parut Vcffrayer.L'air, intcrrompupar une note aigudde la 110tc,ct le roulementrdel du tonncrrc,fircnt qu'elle se recula,regardant avcc alarme autour d'clle. Puis, les sonsadoucis de cetteMe, appelantla rentrdedu chant,s6par6rcnt ses 16vrcs, mais nulle voix Wensortit plus. Un seulcri pcrqantlui partit du cccur,ct, posantsa main sur ce cceurqui dclatait,Domcnica resta immobile. La confusionse rdpanditde loge en loge. Chacuns'avangait avec inquidtude;chacun attendait ccile qui devcnait6trangare A tout. 'Nc paraissantplus se ressouvenirdu lieu ou elle dtait, isoldesous les millicrs d'ycux qui la regardaicntavcc anxidtd,ellc plia douccmcntles gcnouxcommc unc personneen pri&e, s6parantune par une les fleurs du bouquct,ct sWorgant de les attacherdans le vide, ainsi qu'clle avait fait au portrait de sa m6re.- C'cst le rOlcl C'cst

68 Ibid, P.76.

260 le r6lel cri6rentplusicurs voix. - NonI Emmcncz-lalEmmcncz-lal cri6rcnt d'autres, plus fort'. "

This striking narrativecaesura at which the singer'svocal deathoccurs takes us back to the Rousseauesquecore of humanvocality and emotivity, situatedwithin the heart,as is musicalgenius. In stark contrastto the imageof the consummate,professional performer,as seenin Balzac'sor Berlioz's texts, Domenicamerges the personaland the professional,nature and art. However,this delicatestatus does not result in the singer's death,as was the casewith Sand'sGina. Domenicain fact recoversfrom her psychologicaldistress and, while doing so, transformsinto a saintly figure who is deeplyadmired for her purity and innocence:

Un ange!Un ange!dit le vieux pretreen passantcntrc nousdcux. Laube en cc moment6clairait un peu nos figures.- Qu'avez-vousA pleurcr?mes fr6res, poursuivit-il en nouscxhortant. Ici, ouplus haut,c'est vraimentun ange.N'aycz donepas moins de sournissionqu'clle. 0

Cataneofurthermore elevates her abovethe constraintsof commonsociety by stylising her as a saint-like figure againstwhom he believeshe hassinned: 'Elie est A Pabri de tous, cria [Cataneo]avec une joie ddchirante.Vous ne pouvezla ddshonorer, maintenant.Priez pour moi, jeune vierge,ajouta-t-il d'une voix que brisaientles sanglots,et pardonnez-moi!971 The denouementDesbordes-Val more providesis no 'happy ending' in the way one behind might expectit - the prima donna'sstage career is cut short and sheretreats the walls of the CarmeliteConvent. However, it is not a dramaticending either as was tile casein certainother caseswhere the singer'spoetic, symbolic deathresulted in her actualphysical death.Rather, by radically removingher singerfrom the constraintsof the prima donnaimage and sanctifyingher (which againsuggests a symbolic deathof the singer's femalebody), Desbordes-Valmore suggestsa freedomfor her singcr who

69 Ibid., pp.79-80. 70 Ibid., p. 84. 71 Ibid., p. 83.

261 from the start was portrayedas saintly andpure, a survivor in a treacherous environment.Domenica was trainedfor public performancesyet it is questionable whethershe actually enjoyedthis career,since Piramonti trained her in order to further his own personaland financial objectives.The novel concludeswith an enigmatic,open end, leaving the last words to the singerherself who, liberatedfrom all social and emotionalattachments, is able to voice her thoughtsdirectly: 'Eh que fera-t-elledc sa Ics voix? demandaMille avecun sanglot.- Si la voix n'est pasmorte, je chanterai louangesde Notre-Dame-du-Carmel,rdpondit simplement Domcnica. Ce fut vrai le lendcmain'.72

Despiteending her novel somewhatabruptly, Desbordes-Val more managesto show a previously unknown facet of the singer,providing a contrastto more common conceptionsof the prima donnaand maintaining the delicatebalance between song poeticsand the pcrformativeside of the singer.Rdgis describes the singeras a rathersad 73 and deplorablecharacter, a 'pauvre Prima Donna' who,just beforeshe becomes entangledin standardprima donnaworries, financial issuesand love conflicts, so often depictedin more traditional singerstories, is able to profit from her breakdownand draw back from an environmentthat is depictedas illusory, corruptedand malevolent. The Pope's 'acte de ddlivrance[ ] destinde protectionconstitutes an ... qui changeaitsa erranteet les pompesthddtrales en une claustrationvolontairc'. 74 Through her withdrawal, which to a certainextent echoes Margarcthe's withdrawal from the muse position into the securityand autonomyof the convent,Domenica obtains not only agency,but a voice that concludesthe novel. While this may to someextent be regarded as symbolic, it makesDomenica, stand out as a singerwho breaksfree from the singing model imposedon her by othersand evolvestowards personal maturity and an exclusivesense of freedom,despite the certainly 'open' ending.For the narrator'spart, 75 he believesthat, free of all worldly constraints,'Domenica cst dcvcnueheurcusc', and that in her particular situation,the conventis able to offer a personalfreedom and

72 Ibid 93. 73 ., p. Ibid., 74 p.91. Ibid., 92-93. 75 pp. Ibid, p.93.

262 agencythat had so far beenlacking in her life as a singer.However, a certaindoubt remainswith regardto the ambiguity of Domenica'sstatus as an 'angelic' creaturewho retreatsbehind the walls of the conventin order to escapethe burdenof her prima donnaexistence. It seemsas thoughDesbordes-Valmore deliberately chose an open endingin order to bypassthe insolubleconflict of the womansinger between ideals of musicalfemininity and the fantasyand worldly dimensionof the stageperformer.

As we have seen,the literary treatmentof the motif by womenauthors constitutes a vital aestheticand socio-culturalcomplement to the many reflectionson the increasinglyvisible womanartist in Frenchculture of the 1830sand 1840s.The female- authoredtexts selectedfor this chapterdevelop and rewrite the singer,reappraising her as a complex figure of femaleartistry throughwhom they reflect on the key topoi of femalesong ideals, between stereotypical depictions of the musicalfeminine and enactmentsof genuinefemale artistic empowermentin society.Sand, Taunay and Desbordes-Valmoremostly avoid traditionalposes of victim or museand ncglcct the trivia of the bourgeoiswould-be artist, but appearkeen to investigatethe singer critically in terms of her artistic legitimacyand performance space, as well as her emancipationfrom the superficialityof both the prima donnafantasy and the traditional paradigmsassociated with femalesong that we saw earlier.Thus, authors of the July Monarchyperiod continueto negotiatethe claim for a femaleartist reconciledto both the idealistic side of music and the pragmaticdemands of her vocationand her efforts to integrateherself into societyas a fully-acclaimedartist, moving away from the ideal realm of muse,dilettante or prostitute.Within a femalewriting tradition, theseclaims were voiced beforeby writers suchas SophieMereau, Caroline Fischer and Madamede Stadl,yet it is in the texts of the later writers discussedin this chapterthat they find a stronger,more realist narrativevoice as well as a more prominentnarrative space. However,the discussionin this chapterhas also shownhow far it is problematicto apply a binary readingto a motif like the singeraccording to the author'ssex, since both male-authoredtexts, suchas the onesdiscussed in chapter6, and female-authored

263 texts negotiateequally the fine line betweenthe stereotypeand the potentialof female song,with momentsof striking artistic agencyoccurring regardless of the author's sex.

264 Conclusion

Goingback to Goethe'sinitial remarkon Mignon,whom he described as having the 6madness of disparity',' it seemsto methat this peculiarexpression captures the essenceof the womansinger and her song very well: As with mostartist figures who occurthroughout the I 91hcentury, there is somethinghighly enigmatic,extreme, perhapseven mad about the singer,who appearsas sucha strong,yet fragile characterfull of thecontradictions that mark contemporary discourse on womanand art andwho, aswoman and artist, is diff icult to placewithin an aestheticand socio- culturalframework. There remains something ineffable about even the mostvisible, acclaimedprima donna, who is alwaysmarked to someextent as a 'stranger',2 to use Desbordes-Valmore's term. Bound to theunspeakable sublime of musicas well asto the fluid, shiftingand controversial views on femininityand art, theenigmatic essenceof singerand song described by authorsseems to go beyondthe boundaries of contemporarycultural and theoretical discourse, creating a literaryvision of femalesong and performer that is uniqueand modem. Considering Goethc's remark, thereis furthermorea strongsense of disproportionand discrepancy about the singer,which marks the characteras profoundly different yet potentiallypowerful, implyinga questioningof the rapportbetween aestheticizcd concepts such as song andfemininity and its veryrealistic embodiment by a femaleperformer.

In my thesis,I have set out to investigatethe motif of singer and song in literary texts, setting my discussionagainst the backgroundof the socio-culturaland aestheticdiscourse, outlined in chapters2 and 3. My central questionaddressed individual authors' treatmentof the dichotomy that I identified as inherentto the imagery of female song,namely the discrepancybetween a musical-feminincideal

"Wahnsinn des MiOverhaltnisses'(IIA VII, p.616). 2 'Celle qui devcnaitdtranglre A tout'(Domenica, p.80).

265 and song as a possibility for femaleperformance and agency.I have investigated how this dual vision of 'musical femininity'as both a socio-culturaland an aesthetic phenomenonwas transposedinto literature,and how literary texts respondedto the notion of musical-feminincotherness implied by the iconic paradigmsof female songthat contemporaryaesthetics suggested. What I have shown in my discussionof the variouscase studies is that not only did authorsrespond str9ngly to the imageof the singer(as part of a general fascinationwith music and song),but that in their literary treatmentof the motif, they exceededthe simplifying, restrictive patternsof contemporaryculture and theory, and discussedvarious implications of femalesong in nuanced,multi-laycrcd ways, which sometimesresulted in their making surprisingly strongcases for female song.The broad developmentof the motif, from the early archetypeof Mignon to the consummate,ultra-professional Domenica shows above all that the authorsI have discussedin this study were certainly indebtedto musical aestheticsand to certain idealsassociated with woman and song- suchas the implication of musical- feminine otherness.Yet all of them developedtheir interpretationof such paradigms, a uniquenessdeveloping both on the thematiclevel, in other words the authors' textual developmentof singerand song,and, on the narrative level, through the authors'extension of the motif within the narrativediscourse. Thus, the different narrativesoffer an alternative,more complex and subversivetreatment of the singer and her song.Thematically, the singer in literature is developedmuch further than contemporaryideals of the musical feminine, with authorscreating figures of singers that exceedthe clichds of femalemusicality and limiting categoriessuch as dilettante, prima donna,muse or songbird,and actually crafting very carefully a femaleartist figure who appearsexceptional in her otherness.Furthermore, the initially idealist view of music, songand femininity which determinesearlier musical narrativesaround 1800becomes increasingly tempered by a very realist perspectiveon musical-poetictranscendence and the necessity to reconcilethe sublimerealm of musicwith the banal,prosaic framework of performance.This shift of songaesthetics between idealism and realism coincides with thetransition from the moreidealist aesthetics of Germannarratives before and after 1800towards works of FrenchRomanticism and Realism,which treatedthe singer from a different

266 socio-culturaland aesthetic perspective. Yet despite the chronological and cultural discrepancy,seemingly disparate narratives like Gocthe'sMeister and Dcsbordcs- Valmore'sDomenica still drawon thesame fascination with musicand the enigmaticnature of the singeras a 'stranger',physically, textually, musically. Apart from the simplified,schematic treatment of singerand song implied by contemporaryaesthetics, I have furthermore, in chapters2 and3, established contemporarydiscourse as a paradoxaround notions of themusical-fcminine, which hadbeen a trademarkin the discussionof femaleartistry since antiquity, and which continuedto encouragethe rewritingof thewoman singer as a figureof femaleand musicaldifference and abnormality. Although the authors discussed do not radically reversethe paradigmof femaleotherness, they develop the issuein a muchmore assertiveway, thus opening up a possiblereading of femaleartistic empowerment throughdifference, while simultaneouslyinscribing the woman singer in a tradition of artisticgenius, i. e. artisticoriginality and supremacy - an exceptionalstatus normallyreserved for the maleartist throughout the 19'hcentury. The authors discusseddo no simplyrewrite or reproduceschematic imagery of singerand song, ascontemporary aesthetics might lead us to suspect,nor do the narrativesdwell on clichdslike the singer'svisuality or eroticism.Rather, the narrativescritically investigatethe singer'sotherness as the potential for femaleexpression and autonomy,to the point of sometimesoutright refusing the stereotypicalpose of the singer,for instancein Fischer'sview, but alsoin Madamede Thunay's and Desbordes-Valmore'sdepiction of thesinger as a hard-working,self-reflccting professional. All the casestudies discussed here sharý the factthat their authors did not merely reproducesocio-cultural and aesthetic commonplaces with whichreadcrs were familiar but that,united in their fascinationwith the singerand her song, and their uniquetreatment of the femalesinging voice and body, they contributed to an ongoing,fluid andcontroversial discourse on womanand music which undermines the simplisticand dogmatic aspects of culturaland aesthetic paradigms.

Certain key themesthat developedout of my casestudies are particularly important with regardto contemporaryideals of song:

267 A central issueregarding the woman singer is her shilling statusbetween a musical ideal and the professionalreality of femaleart in practice.Authors increasinglyblended their treatmentof singer and songwith a discussionof female artistic education.As a result the fantasyof femalesong becomesmuch more entrenchedin realist imagery,to the detrimentof the static, iconic imageof female song as a fixed ideal. The narrativetreatment of femalesong moves away from a purely idealist imagery to an attainableelement of femaleprofessional artistry, stripping the singer of a great part of illusion and fantasy,while anchoringher much more within a social frame and a community of artists and artistic kinship. Although the singer's realism is to someextent at oddswith the I 9th-century ideal of artistic genius (a fate sharedby male artists), it certainly placesthe singer,thematically and textually, within the broaderliterary tradition of the Bildungsronianand the artist novel, which are both marked by the protagonist'shaving to come to termswith the unliveable ideal of art and its realistic implications.This increasingsense of realism and measurerequires especially an iconic, idealizedcharacter like the singer to be situatedwithin a nuanced,literary discussionof femaleartistry, paving the way towards agencyof the artistic self, and thus, prcf iguring aestheticsof modernity. Secondly,an importantarea of the narrativetreatment of the singer concernsher problematicstatus within society,caught between the conceptof aestheticizcd femininity and biological femaleness,as well as the underlying ideology opposing (female) natureto (male) art. This double-bindof the woman singer resultsin her rather unstableposition outsidesocial normswhich, despiteoffering an important senseof freedomas well as artistic exceptionality,also marks her as a 'faulty' female and a marginalizedcreature. The crucial issueof this challengeto the dogma of biological femalenessis addressedby Madamede Stadland GeorgeSand who both developthe themeof symbolic motherhoodand femaleartistic sisterhoodand lineage,which servesas a substitutefor conventionalmodels of womanhood.The woman artist's symbolic family and the necessityof establishinga femaleartistic tradition appearas key topics especiallywithin a femalewriting tradition (and rightfully identify Madamede Staalas an influential foremotherof 19'h-century women authors). The third key issuewhich emergedfrom my discussionof the different case

268 studiesis the questionof narrativeperformance space, and thus, the issueof the singer'sspace, literally andtextually. This vital point is pertinentlytaken up by all the authors,in the important,general questioning of thesinger's legitimacy as artist andwoman, and constitutes the most important shift from thesocio-cultural and aestheticbackground to the literarydevelopment of themotif. Whatemerged from the theoreticalbackdrop to femalesong was especially the visuality and the sensualityof the singer,as an objectof sublimeeroticism and fantasy projected onto the singingbody by a (male)spectator, and standing in sharpcontrast to the otherwiseethereal, sublimated nature of songand music. Literatureresponds to this dichotomyin anextremely striking way by debating the issueof spaceon differentlevels, weighing up thesensual fascination and the staticpose of the songbirdwith a narrativediscourse on thesinger and her quest for a voice,literally andpoetically. Goethe and Stadl are the two authorswho, writing duringa specificperiod of aesthetictransition and fluidity, mostprominently discuss their singer'ssemiotic space, by hybridizingtheir textsand creating a textualblend betweenthe singer,her communication and the narrative environment; this space that the singeroccupies thus becomes clearly visible in the prosetext. Yet as we moveon towardsmore realist depictions of singerand song, the debateon narrative spacepersists. Lookingat the lastcase study, Domenica, there is somethingmesmerizing about the way theauthor creates and dramatizes her prima donna as a fantasy,first brought to life throughthe viewpointof themale admirer Rdgis, and who seemsaptly to fit into the mouldof theacclaimed yet staticand visualized singer who, as a narrative subject,remains strangely mute. In short,Desbordes-Valmore draws on thevisual, sensualfantasy of the womansinger, only to haveDomcnica'come to life'propcrly andfree herself from theprima donna myth in thevery lastlines of thenovel and, by speakingproperly for the first time,claim agency for herself,discarding the image that wascreated of herhitherto in the novel.I foundthat such a debateon the singer'snarrative voice is sharedby thedifferent case studies, and undermines the centralfantasy of femalesong aesthetics which ultimately confined the singer to the poseof a visual,eroticized songbird to be lookedat, not a lyrical subjectin chargeof her identityand her song. In this respect,all thetexts discussed offer interesting

269 escaperoutes, despite the fact thatthey obviously have to drawboth on theauditory andthe visualaspect of thewoman singer. What they accomplish is thatthey underminethe fantasyof the staticvisual singer, and of femalesong imagery by conceptualizingthe singerwithin a narrativediscourse, with thepossibility of the singerowning this discourse. I haveshown that througha critical closereading of the singeras a narrative discourse,we find thatmany authors create alternative spaces for the singer,away from static,clichdd song paradigms. These alternative narrative spaces range from the ineffableof Mignon'sproto-linguistic songs to the overlyconfessional tonc of Thunay'sFloretta, a properBildungsroman heroine, who consciouslydismantles the fantasyof her own illusion by giving a detailedaccount of her life, herstruggles and her emancipationfrom illusorysong clichds. Some of thesealternative spaces for the singerto escapepre-conceivcd song aesthetics are developed more radically, as in Fischer'spolemics of songand ideal femininity, in whichher heroines discard the feminineideal and, by doingso, obtain a proper,narrative voice. Other authors like Hoffmann,Balzac and Berlioz seem to conformat first glanceto moretraditional songimagery and their textsrequire a veryclose, critical readingin orderto identify spacesof personaland artistic freedom and integrity for the singerwho, contrary to traditionalreadings, in fact representsa positive potential. Berlioz is perhapsthe authorof the latergeneration of Romanticswho mostof all contraststhe staticideal of Romanticsong, fantasized about by themale onlooker, with thesinger's quest for an alternativevoice, and her continuous search for autonomyand the resulting, inevitabledismantling of the singingmuse. Havingidentified these key issuesin the literarytreatment of thewoman singer, I concludethat theauthors discussed in my thesisnot merelydrew upon contemporary,stereotypical imagery associated with femalesong, but significantly rewroteand undermined a simplifiedview of singerand song through a careful narrativeconstruction of the characterand her communication, beyond iconic, one- dimensionalsong imagery. However, although I identifiedsuch tendencies in both canonicaland non-canonical works, it hasalso become evident that not all the authorssucceeded equally well in inscribingtheir texts in the literarydiscourse. This problemseems to affectthe femaleauthors more than the maleauthors. Although I

270 deliberatelychose to discusseach case study on the basisof its individual merit in writing the woman singer,discovering important potential for female song in both male- and female-authoredworks, it hasbecome obvious that the women authors, more than the men, arguedthe casefor the professionalwoman artist, and treatedthe discrepancybetween the ideal of musical femininity and the questof the female artist for self-expressionand autonomymore directly. Therefore,it is crucial to discusscarefully and critically the singer and her song in prosefiction of the late 18thand early to mid- I 9thcentury. While it seemsinitially enticing to readthe motif along simplistic lines of thought suggestedby contemporaryaesthetics, it is in fact part of a more complex, literary discourse, markedby a fluidity which seemsto fit well with that ineffable, enigmaticessence of the singer herself. What I infer from my researchis that a critical readingof an iconic motif suchas femalesong significantly contributesto a reassessmentof the woman artist in literature,who so strongly reflectedlarge-scale developments of femaleartistry in society and aesthetics,yet who losesnothing of the controversyand polemics associatedwith professionalfemale musicality. The motif of the woman singer is by no meansconfined to the casestudies I chosefor this thesis-although they constitutesome of the most fascinatingand relevantcases for a discussionof female song. I was naturally limited in the numberof authorsdiscussed, so there is further scopefor researchinto the period coveredby my thesis,which could imply a re- assessmentof canonicalauthors in Franceand Germanyas well as a widening of the literary discussionto non-canonicalauthors. I hopeto have set an examplefor a new readingof 19'h-centurytexts treating an iconic motif like the singer,through my comparativistreading and interdisciplinaryapproach to the topic. My examplecould be equally fruitful for an investigationof both the evolution of the motif in the post- Romanticera, and the singertransgressing national and genericboundaries across Europeanliteratures.

271 Bibliography

For abbreviationsin referencetojournal titles, seethe list of abbreviations,pp. vii- viii.

The edition cited in the bibliography is the one usedfor quotationsand references throughoutthe thesis. WhereI havenot usedthe first edition of a work, I indicate in squarebrackets at the end of the entry the date of the original work.

1. CORPUS OF MAIN PRIMARY TEXTS

Balzac, Honord de, La Comidie humaine,ed. Pieffe-GeorgesCastex, 12 vol. (Paris: Gallimard Pidiade, 1976-1981).

-, Contesmusicaur. Sarrasine, Gambara, Massimilla Doni, ed. Pierre Brunei (Paris: Folio, 1995).

Lettres 6 Madame-Ilanska,cd. Roger Pieffot, 4 vol. (Paris: Editions du Delta, 1967-1971).

Crdpet(Paris: A. BI 1910). -, Pensies,Sujets, Fragments, ed. Jacques aizot,

Berlioz, Hector, (Euvreslittiraires: Les soireesde Vorchestre,Les grotesquesde la musique,A travers chants,ed. Ldon Guichard(Paris: GrUnd,1968-1971).

-, Correspondanceginirale, ed. Pierre Citron, 8 vol. (Paris: Flammarion, 1972-2003).

Mimoires, ed. PierreCitron (Paris: Flammarion,1991).

Nouvelleslettres, 1830-1868,ed. JacquesBarzun (New York: Columbia University Press,1954).

Desbordes-Valmore, Marceline,Domenica, ed. Marc Bertrand(Gen6ve: Droz, 1992) [first edition 1843].

Fischer,Caroline AugusteFemandine, Gesammelte Werke, ed. Anita Runge,6 vol. (Hildesheim: Georg Olms Veriag, 1987ff. ).

Goethe,Johann Wolfgang von, FrankfurterAusgabe (FA): Sdmiliche Werke.Briefe, Tagebiicherund Gesprache,ed. Dieter Borchmeyeret al., 40 vol. in 2 parts (Frankfurt/Main: DeutscherKlassiker Verlag 1985ff. ).

272 Artemis-Gedenkausgabe(GA): Gedenkausgabe ' der Werke,Briefe und Gespräche,ed. Ernst Beutler, 24 vol. (Zürich: Artemis-Verlag 1948-54;3 Ergänzungs-Bände,1960-71).

HamburgerAusgabe (HA): , Werke,ed. Erich Trunz, 14 vol. (Hamburg: Chr. Wegner, 1948-60;Register-Band, 1964).

Münchner -, Ausgabe(MA): SämtlicheWerke nach Epochenseines Schaffens,ed. Karl Richter et al., 20 vol. (München:Hanser, 1985ff. ).

Weimarer ' oder Sophienausgabe(WA): Werke,herausgegeben im Auftrage der GroßherzoginSophie von Sachsen,Abteilung 1-1V.133 Bände in 143 Teilen (Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1887-1919)(Reprint, München: Deutscher TaschenbuchVerlag 1987).3 Nachtrags-Bändezu Abteilung IV, Briefe, ed. Paul Raabe(München: DeutscherTaschenbuch Verlag 1990).

Hoffmann, Ernst TheodorAmadeus, Sämtliche Werke in sechsBänden, cd. Hartmut Steinecke,Wulf Segebrecht,Gerhard Allroggen et al. (Frankfurt/Main: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1985-2004).

-, Briefwechsel,ed. Friedrich Schnapp,3 vol. (München: Winkler, 1967- 1960).

-, Tagebücher,ed. Friedrich Schnapp(München: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft,1971).

Sand,George [Jules], Ta Prima Donna', Revuede Paris, 25 (april 1831),234-48.

Stadl-Holstein,Anne-Louise Germaine, Baronne de, CorrespondanceGinirale, ed. Bdatrice W. Jasinski,6 vol. (Paris:Pauvert, 1960-1993).

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Emmeline,ou lajeune musicienne(Paris: Didier, 1836).

273 2. OTHER PRIMARY WORKS

Barrett Browning, Elizabeth,Aurora Leigh, ed. Kery McSweeney(Oxford: OUP, 2008) [first edition 1856].

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Cabanis,Pierre JeanGeorges, Rapports du physiqueet du moral de I'homme. (Euvresphilosophiques1, ed. CharlesWirz/Pierre Burgelin (Paris: Presses universitairesde France, 1956)[first edition 1802].

Campe,Joachim Heinrich, VäterlicherRathfür meineTochter. Ein Gegenstückzum Theophron.Der erwachsenenweiblichen Jugendgewidmet (Braunschweig: Schulbuchhandlung,1809) [first edition 1796].

Cather,Willa, YheSong ofthe Lark, ed. A. S. Byatt (London: Virago, 1982)[flrst edition 1915].

Charri&re,Isabelle de, (Euvrescompl&es, ed. G. A. van Oorschot(Gen6ve: Slatkine, 1980).

Diderot, Denis, (Euvrescomplites, ed. RogerLewinter (Paris: Le club frangaisdu livre/Socidtdencyclopddique frangaise, 1971).

Engelbrunner,Nina d'Aubigny von, Briefe an Nathalie fiber den Gesang(Leipzig: Voss, 1803).

Fischer,Christian August, Über den Umgangder Weibermit den Männern. Ein nothwendigerAnhang zu der bekanntenSchrift: Elisa, oder das Weibwie es seyn sollte'(Leipzig: H. Gräff, 1799).

Forneret,Xavier, Conteset ricits, ed. JacquesRdmi Dahan(Paris: Corti, 1994).

Fouqud,Caroline de la Motte, AusgewählteWerke, ed. PetraKabus, 3 vol. (Hildesheim: Olms, 2003-).

Genlis, StdphanieFdlicitd du Crest de Saint-Aubin,Comtesse de, AdHe et Theodore,- ou lettres sur ViducatIon: Contenanttous lesprincipes relatifs aux trois diffirents plans ddducation desprinces,desjeunespersonnes, & des hommes(London: G.G. & J. Robinson, 1796).

Gleim, Betty, Erziehungund Unterricht des weiblichenGeschlechts (Leipzig: Göschen,1810).

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,Ästhetik, ed. Friedrich Bassenge(1844), 2 vol. (Frankfurt/Main: EuropäischeVerlagsanstalt 1966).

274 Heine,Heinrich, Historisch-Kritische Gesamtausgabe der Werke,cd. Manfred Windfuhr(Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1979).

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