In This Issue

Vol. 1, Issue 2. Dec. 2005

Wild CatThe CougarNews Network’s tri-annual publication dedicated to the scientific research of North American wild cats

IN THIS ISSUE

Camera Trapping Ocelots in Belize

The Margays of El Cielo

Bobcats and Vehicles in Southern Illinois

Status of Lynx in New Brunswick

Cougars in Michigan’s Sleeping Bear Dunes?

Mountain Lions of New Mexico

DNA and the Origin of North American Pumas

Cougar Management Guidelines

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Clay Nielsen • IL Harley Shaw • NM Ken Miller • MA Mark Dowling • CT Bob Wilson • KS ______

SCIENTIFIC ADVISORS

Adrian P. Wydeven • WI Bill Watkins • MB Ron Andrews • IA Darrell Land • FL Dave Hamilton • MO Jay Tischendorf • MT ______

by Adam Dillon Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences

Ocelots (Leopardus padalis) are a From the 1950s to the mid-1980s, listed on Appendix I of the Convention bobcat-sized feline that weigh approxi- animal pelts were in high demand for on International Trade in Endangered mately 20 pounds and live in a variety international trade, and ocelots were Species (CITES), and laws have been of dense habitats, from the southern heavily exploited throughout their created in many countries to restrict United States to northern Argentina. range. Since then, ocelots have been hunting. Although these laws have They are solitary, nocturnal decreased hunting pres- hunters that establish terri- sure, habitat destruction is tories, with males defend- currently threatening ing larger home ranges ocelot populations. Many than females. Ocelots have of the dense forests they unique patterns of dark prefer are being converted spots, swirls, and stripes to pastures and croplands. that run down their neck, Ocelots are incred- back, and sides. ibly secretive and elusive Historically, ocelots animals, often living in occurred in relatively large dense and remote habi- numbers throughout their tats, making them notori- range, but over the past ously hard to study. The half century, their popula- lack of data on ocelot tion numbers have ecology and population declined dramatically. parameters make it difficult to design appropriate plans for conservation. In GULF OF MEXICO CUBA the late 1980s and early 1990s, a hand- ful of radio telemetry studies were conducted on ocelots to study their behavior and ecology (Texas: Navarro BELIZE 1985, Tewes 1986, Laack 1991; Belize: MEXICO Konecny 1989; Brazil: Crawshaw 1995; Peru: Emmons 1988; Venezuela: Belize City CAYMAN Belmopan Ludlow and Sunquist 1987, Sunquist et ISLANDS San Ignacio al. 1989). CARIBBEAN SEA Recently, a new technique called

LAS CUEVAS Dangriga “camera-trapping” was developed to BELIZE Cockscomb Basin study elusive felids (Karanth 1995, Bladen Nature Reserve Karanth and Nichols 1998). Remote GUATEMALA cameras that measure motion and temperature via a sensor are placed HONDURAS throughout the study site. When an animal passes in front of the camera, EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA (Continued on Next Page)

Wild Cat News Page 1 www.cougarnet.org Camera Trapping Ocelots in Belize, Central America

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motion and temperature changes bance in the form of hurricanes, detected by the sensor trigger the whereas the tropical pine forest, as a camera to take a photograph. For result of decimation by the Southern animals possessing unique coat patterns pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) such as ocelots, individuals can be from 1999 to 2003, is a much more identified and a population estimate can open habitat. This research was based be determined. When the cameras are out of the Las Cuevas Research Station set up in a grid formation, each (LCRS), which was jointly adminis- animal’s movement can be tracked tered by the Belize Forest Department from camera to camera. This move- and the British Natural History ment distance is used to determine a Museum at the time of this study. buffer strip, which is applied to the Five remote camera grids of vary- entire camera grid resulting in a final ing camera spacing were conducted in trapping area. To estimate the density, the broadleaf rainforest habitat, and two the estimated population size is divided remote camera grids of varying camera by the trapping area. This camera trap- spacing were conducted in the pine ping technique was originally designed forest habitat between January 2002 to estimate the density of tigers and June 2004. A history of all ocelot (Panthera tigris) (Karanth 1995, captures and recaptures was created for Karanth and Nichols 1998, Carbone et each separate camera grid and run al. 2001, Karanth et al. 2004) and has through the program CAPTURE (Otis since been adapted to jaguars et al. 1978, White et al. 1982, Rexstad (Panthera onca) (Silver et al. 2004) and and Burnham 1991) to estimate the ocelots (Trolle and Kery 2003, Di population size. Each estimated popu- Bitetti et al. Under Review, Haines et lation size was divided by its respective al. Under Review, Maffei et al. Under trapping area to determine the Review, This study). estimated ocelot density for each For this particular study, the camera grid. The estimated ocelot camera trapping technique was used to density for the rainforest habitat was estimate the density of ocelots in the 18.91 to 20.75 ocelots per 100 km2, Chiquibul Forest Reserve and National whereas the estimated ocelot density in Park (CFRNP) of western Belize. This the pine forest habitat was 2.31 to 3.80 area, together with the Peten region of ocelots per 100 km2. northern Guatemala and southern In addition to the remote camera Mexico, makes up the largest contigu- technique, ocelots were trapped in the ous tropical broadleaf forest remaining rainforest habitat and fitted with radio in Central America. Ocelot density was collars in order to estimate their home estimated in two dominant habitats of range size. Ocelots were tracked from the CFRNP: the broadleaf rainforest August 2003 to August 2004, and a and the tropical pine forest. The broad- 95% fixed kernel home range was leaf rainforest is a secondary rainforest subjected to frequent natural distur- (Concluded on Next Page)

Wild Cat News Page 2 www.cougarnet.org Camera Trapping Ocelots in Belize, Central America

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estimates from a relatively intact rainforest habitat and the first density estimate of ocelots in Central America. These estimates can be compared to estimates in other areas as well as provide baseline information for continued ocelot monitoring in western Belize. Although the start-up costs of camera trapping can be prohibitive, it is an effective tool for studying elusive felids and providing valuable data aiding in conservation of these species. For more information on this study, contact the author at [email protected].

than the pine forest. This may indicate that although ocelots have a wide range of habitats, they may require more dense cover than is Acknowledgements: currently available in the pine forest. This ocelot study was done as part Or, perhaps the destruction of the pine of the author’s Master’s degree at forest by the Southern bark beetle has Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State affected ocelot prey density, resulting University (Advisor: Dr. Marcella determined for each ocelot. The aver- in a decrease in ocelot population. Kelly). age home range in the rainforest for the When the estimated ocelot density and two collared male ocelots was 33.01 home ranges from the broadleaf rain- Literature cited: km2, whereas the average home range forest habitat of western Belize were Dillon, A. 2005. Ocelot home in the rainforest for the three collared compared to those in other areas of its range and density in Belize, Central female ocelots was 21.05 km2. range, the density was smaller and America: Camera-trapping and radio When comparing the two habi- home ranges were larger than most telemetry. M.S. Thesis. Virginia Poly- tats, the broadleaf rainforest showed a other studies. technic Institute and State University, much higher estimated ocelot density This study provided home range Blacksburg, VA, USA.

Wild Cat News Page 3 www.cougarnet.org The Margays of El Cielo

by Patricia Downey Oklahoma State University and the Oklahoma City Zoo margays was determined to be 4.03 km2. Results of this study showed the margay to display a strongly nocturnal activity pattern with peak travel rates from 1600 to 0400. Morphometric data was also collected on all captured margays. Other species captured during this study included gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), opossums (Didelphis virgin- iana), and coatimundi (Nasua narica). Only one published study (Konency 1989) had collected data on the home range and activity patterns of margay prior to Carvajal’s study. This information was gathered for six Left to Right: Arturo Caso, Patricia Downey, Sasha Carvajal (Continued on Next Page)

In 2001, the Oklahoma City Zoo Tecnologico De Ciudad sponsored three researchers to carry out Victoria, and Patricia the first ecological study of the margay Downey of Oklahoma (Leopardus wiedii), an endangered State University and neotropical felid listed on Appendix 1 employee of the Oklahoma of CITES. The margay closely City Zoo, comprised the resembles and is often mistaken for the research team. ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) because of Carvajal’s aim was to the similarities in size, color, and spot- determine the home range ting pattern. In some areas of South and activity patterns of the America, the margay is even referred to margay through radio as “little ocelot.” The margay is arbo- telemetry. Downey’s goal real and strongly associated with was to conduct a hair-snare wooded habitats, primarily tropical survey to assess the distri- evergreen lowland forests and cloud bution and seasonal habitat forest. use of the margay inhabit- The study took place in El Cielo ing the reserve. Biosphere Reserve, Tamaulipas Carvajal captured Mexico, a reserve situated in the north- eight margays, five males ernmost extension of cloud forest in the and three females, from Americas. The project leader, wildlife June 2001 through August biologist Arturo Caso, and graduate 2004. The average home students Sasha Carvajal of the Instituto range of the radio-collared

Wild Cat News Page 4 www.cougarnet.org The Margays of El Cielo

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months in Belize between 1985 and surveys revealed clear patterns in the turned away. It is recommended to 1986 on a young radio-collared male. success of this technique. The hair- abandon the hair-snare survey tech- The home range of this individual was snare method succeeds only outside the nique to survey felids in the presence of found to be 10.95 km2. range of gray fox and fails within the grey fox. The scent-station survey is a Downey conducted eight hair- range of gray fox. In all failed studies, more appropriate protocol in this snare surveys (four wet-season and four the predominant species detected is instance. dry-season) from November 2002 to consistently gray fox. It is suspected For a species to be conserved it October 2004. Each survey consisted the skunk-like odor emitted from gray must first be understood. Today scien- of 30 hair-snare stations placed along a fox while marking renders hair-snare tists know much more of the spatial transect spanning three habitats. Each stations unattractive to felids. This requirements, habitat use, and physical hair-snare station was baited with Cat observation is supported by the success attributes of the margay due to Call™, a lure created to Carvajal’s study. Also, safe elicit the face rubbing and effective trapping and behavior in felids. Species sedation protocols were analysis did not detect established, which will lay margay on any pad. Gray the foundation for future fox, a canid that also studies. Downey’s research displays the face rubbing brought to light the ineffec- behavior, was the tiveness of a commonly predominantly detected used technique to survey species. An in-depth com- felids. Recommendations parison of unpublished were made to steer future and published hair-snare felid research to more successful outcomes. This project is a shin- ing example of the contri- bution and difference that zoos can make in securing a brighter future for many of scent-station surveys to detect felids endangered species. The support of the in the presence of gray fox. The differ- Oklahoma City Zoo is an expression of ing success rate between the hair-snare the strong commitment to conservation and scent-station techniques is a result held by its executive director, Norberto of the method of detection. Hair- “Bert” Castro. This partnership snares rely on the felid to face rub and ultimately produced the greatest leave hair behind. Microscopic evalu- volume of ecological information ation or genetic analysis of the hair known of the margay. Today, research- then identifies the species. Scent- ers are a big step closer to securing the stations, however, rely only on track future of the “little ocelot.” identification for species determina- tion. It is possible therefore to detect Photographs courtesy: species that approached the pad but Fred Hanson

Wild Cat News Page 5 www.cougarnet.org Bobcats and Vehicles in Southern Illinois: Can’t We All Just Get Along?

by Dr. Clay Nielsen, Director of Scientific Research, Cougar Network Wildlife Ecologist, Southern Illinois University Carbondale

CWRL researchers were interested to see 1) whether bobcats avoided roads within home ranges, and 2) if habitat differed at road-crossing areas where bobcats survived versus where they died from vehicle collisions. This article reviews and reports the CWRL findings, with the overall goal of better understanding how carnivores avoid risks that humans add to the landscape. Do bobcats avoid roads within home ranges? CWRL researchers captured, radio-collared, and radio-tracked 76 bobcats as part of their larger study from 1995 to 2000. Adequate home range (comprising 95% Highly mobile carnivores with dominated by wildlife, knowledge of of radio locations) and core area large home ranges such as bobcats face carnivore-road interactions is important (comprising the innermost 50% of loca- multiple perils in human-dominated for conservation. tions, or most intensive area of use) landscapes. Roads are one of these Recent research (1995-2000) information was gathered from 54 of dangers. Research shows that roads conducted by this author and these individuals. The CWRL calcu- have been an important limiting factor colleagues at the Cooperative Wildlife lated habitat type and road densities for several carnivore species, causing Research Laboratory (CWRL) at within home ranges versus core areas mortalities via vehicular collisions or Southern Illinois University Carbon- and from these data, determined allowing access by hunters and trap- dale has offered much insight about whether bobcats were avoiding roads pers. Other studies have indicated that bobcat ecology in a human-dominated within their core areas relative to their carnivores actively avoid roads. For landscape. Although annual adult home ranges. example, Wisconsin researchers survival of 75 radio-collared bobcats The CWRL hypothesized that concluded that traffic levels and habitat was among the highest rates reported core areas may be placed in areas of composition around roads influenced for the species (83%), a high rate of fewer roads and railroads relative to bobcat selection of road types, such that vehicle-caused mortality (10%) was elsewhere in their home ranges, thereby bobcats used home ranges containing also reported. Because vehicle-caused providing bobcats refugia from mortal- high densities of unpaved trails and low mortality was the most important limit- ity sources. However, use of transpor- densities of secondary highways. ing factor for bobcats in southern tation cover types was similar between Clearly, as human populations increase Illinois and habitat suitability was good and expand spatially into areas once to excellent for much of the region, (Continued on Next Page)

Wild Cat News Page 6 www.cougarnet.org Bobcats and Vehicles in Southern Illinois: Can’t We All Just Get Along?

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home ranges and core areas, indicating available from 62 bobcat roadkill loca- around each location, and 100 habitat that bobcat habitat use was not terribly tions, 106 locations where bobcats variables were calculated within each sensitive to roads. These results differ crossed roads and lived (from radio- buffered area. Then, the habitat vari- from other studies; the differences are tracking data), and 106 control loca- ables that best differentiated among the likely due to relatively high road densi- tions (areas where bobcats were not three areas of interest were determined ties (1.5 km of road/1 km2 of land area) known to have crossed roads). A 113- using multivariate statistical methods. and bobcat densities (30 bobcats/100 meter-radius circular buffer was created Finally, a map of bobcat risk of mortal- km2 of land area) in southern Illinois. Because habitat use may have been constrained by territoriality, and because roads were abundant, and uniformly distributed, bobcats were not able to avoid roads within their home range. Do bobcats cross roads in areas of particular habitat? For this part of the study, objectives were to: 1) determine landscape variables that differentiate between areas where bobcats cross roads versus where killed versus control areas, and 2) create a spatial map of risk for vehicle-caused mortality. Data were

ity when crossing roads was created. It was found that seven habitat variables significantly influenced bobcat road crossing and mortality locations. Briefly, these variables represented characteristics of forest and grassland cover patches, as well as traffic volume and slope. For example, bobcats were killed in areas with greater traffic volume and more edge habitat, which may indicate some attraction of bobcats to roads with brushy right-of-ways. Risk of bobcat

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Wild Cat News Page 7 www.cougarnet.org Bobcats and Vehicles in Southern Illinois: Can’t We All Just Get Along?

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mortality was generally high through- understand. 126-R, Status of the Bobcat in Illinois), out southern Illinois; 64% of roads Although bobcats are currently the Cooperative Wildlife Research were surrounded by habitat most corre- thriving in southern Illinois, their future Laboratory at Southern Illinois Univer- lated to areas where bobcats were killed is somewhat uncertain given that sity Carbondale and the Division of when crossing roads. humans now inhabit once-rural land- Wildlife Resources, Illinois Department scapes at escalating rates, thereby of Natural Resources, cooperating. Conclusions: increasing road densities and risk of The author thanks B. Bluett of the So, in terms of bobcats and mortality to bobcats. Clearly, bobcats Illinois Department of Natural vehicles on the landscape, can we all can not survive in paved landscapes or Resources for support and encourage- just get along? Simply put, people may those otherwise stripped of woody ment. Thanks is also extended to all have no choice but to try. This author cover. Wildlife researchers will need to cooperating trappers and landowners suggests that in well-roaded areas study human influences on bobcats and for their assistance and access to prop- within otherwise suitable habitat, other carnivores as human populations erty. C. Greene, E. Horton, D. Ken- generalist carnivores such as bobcats expand, and insight from this research nedy, J. Kolowski, M. Krecja, C. adapt to road presence and may use will be the key to humans and carni- Schieler, C. Vincent, J. Waddell and M. rather than avoid roads. In many cases, vores getting along. Woodruff provided field assistance with they don’t have a choice, especially bobcat trapping and radiotelemetry. A. when population densities are relatively Acknowledgments: Woolf initiated the bobcat study and G. high and animals are territorial. This bobcat study was funded Mohr provided valuable GIS expertise Despite the causes of mortality that through the Federal Aid in Wildlife to the project. roads represent, roads can also be Restoration program (Project W- somewhat beneficial to bobcats. Roads were not a movement barrier to bobcats in southern Illinois, and roads were frequently used as travel corridors. Brushy right-of-ways provided high-prey densities for hunting and roadkilled animals for scavenging, and bobcats were seen at roadsides feeding on roadkilled white-tailed deer on several occasions. Further, although much of southern Illinois contains potentially risky habitat surrounding roads, bobcats generally cross roads safely at areas with specific landscape signatures. Like many carnivores, bobcats are highly adaptable animals capable of feats we are only beginning to

Wild Cat News Page 8 www.cougarnet.org Status of Lynx in New Brunswick

by Cade Libby, Wildlife Biologist Fish & Wildlife Branch, New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources

The Canada lynx is a regionally Lynx Occurrences in New Brunswick: endangered furbearer in New Bruns- 1992 to 2001 N wick. Its listing as “Regionally Endan- gered” under the New Brunswick Endangered Species Act has resulted in prohibitions against harvest, posses- sion, and trade. Occasionally, Canada lynx are killed by hunting and trapping activi- ties, vehicle collisions, etc. It is manda- tory that all Canada lynx accidentally killed be forfeited to the Department of Natural Resources. Lynx carcasses that

0 20 40 60 80 100 Kilometers are forfeited to the Department of Natu- provide useful and important informa- tracts of females are taken and placental ral Resources are sent to the Fish and tion. Location (typically GPS coordi- scars counted to help determine litter Wildlife Branch where they are nates), date, cause of death, sex, age, size. processed. and weight are all collected from each The Canada lynx carcasses carcass. In addition, reproductive (Continued on Next Page)

Wild Cat News Page 9 www.cougarnet.org Status of Lynx in New Brunswick

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Once the appropriate data is sect survey to monitor the distribution recent past. collected, all Canada lynx pelts and and relative abundance of marten in the New Brunswick has been a carcasses are used either in education province. Although this program was member of the Northern Appalachian or forwarded to the New Brunswick designed for marten, all other furbearer Lynx Science Team and has collabo- Museum. tracks (including Canada lynx) and rated with other wildlife agencies about New Brunswick has also contrib- associated prey species (i.e. snowshoe regional conservation issues regarding uted Canada lynx DNA tissue samples hare, red squirrel, porcupine, and Canada lynx. to a Northeast genetic project coordi- grouse) are counted. As a result, The ongoing biological data nated by the National Cancer Institute. Canada lynx tracks have been detected collection and surveys that currently The objective of the project was to on several winter track transect survey exist, in combination with continued identify genetic similarities or differ- routes in Northern and Central New collaboration with other agencies ences of Canada lynx in the Northeast. Brunswick. These findings provide responsible for Canada lynx manage- The highest density of Canada useful information on Canada lynx ment, will hopefully provide a better lynx are found in Northern and Central distribution within the province. understanding of Canada lynx popula- New Brunswick. However, lynx have Snowshoe hare populations have tion dynamics in New Brunswick and been found in the Southern portion of increased in several localized areas will help with future management the province (see map on previous throughout the province. Given the initiatives. page). foregoing, many people believe that the In 2002, the New Brunswick Canada lynx population is also increas- Photographs courtesy: Department of Natural Resources ing as lynx sightings (of actual animals Jennifer Vashon, Maine DIFW modified an existing winter track tran- and tracks) have increased over the

Wild Cat News Page 10 www.cougarnet.org Do Cougars Inhabit Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore?

by Jerrold L. Belant, Stephen E. Yancho, and Kimberly S. Struthers National Park Service

Numerous sightings of cougars numerous sightings of cougars and The study was conducted from have been reported throughout eastern their sign have been reported. These November 2004 through April 2005 in North America but physical evidence reports included a person followed by a the 161 km2 mainland portion of providing confirmation is typically cougar in September 2003. Because of SBDNL. Dominant overstory vegeta- lacking. In recent years, however, these sightings and considering human tion was coastal and mixed northern substantiated physical evidence of injuries and deaths from cougars, hardwood forests. Primary prey of cougars has been obtained from several SBDNL took a cautionary approach mountain lions at SBDNL would Midwestern states. Controversy exists which emphasized public safety. Fol- undoubtedly be white-tailed deer which regarding the presence of cougars in lowing the September 2003 incident, occurred at densities of about 7- Michigan. Population estimates of up SBDNL personnel placed signs at all 10/km2. There were 83 km of desig- to 80 cougars have been reported in mainland trailheads alerting visitors nated trails and 158 km of roads distrib- state newspapers but not substantiated. that observations of cougars had been uted throughout the mainland portion Little physical evidence is available to reported and how to respond if a cougar of SBDNL. During 2004, about 1.1 support claims of a wild population of was encountered. In response to million recreational visits were this size. controversy about their warning signs, reported for SBDNL. Sleeping Bear Dunes National SBDNL required additional informa- Three methods were used to Lakeshore (SBDNL) is located in the tion on cougar presence to make more assess cougar presence; remote camera northwest Lower Peninsula of Michi- informed management decisions. This systems, track surveys, and investiga- gan. Although SBDNL lacked physical included NPS work to determine if tions of reported observations of evidence confirming cougar presence, cougars were present in SBDNL. cougars or their sign. Cameras were positioned throughout SBDNL with locations selected based on reported observations of cougars, evidence of substantial white-tailed deer activity, and habitat corridors that would serve as travel routes. At each location, a portion of a deer carcass was wired to the base of a tree, and the area was then scented with commercial cougar urine, skunk essence, and catnip oil. Snow track surveys were conducted once each month from January-March. During surveys, trails were walked by foot except those containing large areas of Raccoon surrounded by three bobcats (Continued on Next Page)

Wild Cat News Page 11 www.cougarnet.org Do Cougars Inhabit Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore?

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unvegetated dune and beach habitat. conducted with 457 km during tions. Of the reported cougar observa- Unplowed roads were traversed primar- January-March. This equaled a mean tions, bobcat tracks were found at one ily using snowmobiles and occasionally monthly search effort of 0.95km/km2. (1) location, coyote tracks at one (1) by foot. Because deer typically move In addition, 36 km of track surveys location, and bobcat and coyote tracks into the beach dune/pine forest inter- were conducted along the beach at two (2) locations. The reported face during spring, track surveys were dune/pine forest interface. Overall, cougar tracks, shown by the individual also conducted by foot along this more than 460 identifiable carnivore that made the report, were made by a ecotone during April. All discernable track sets were detected including domestic dog. tracks encountered by species, were bobcat, coyote, and red fox. The same No evidence was found to suggest recorded. species were detected during track the presence of cougars at SBDNL. During track and camera surveys, surveys as during the camera survey in The techniques employed have been cougar sightings and sign that were addition to observing tracks of striped used previously to document cougar reported by the general public within skunk, river otter, mink, and weasel. presence. These efforts were consider- 24 hrs of the observation were investi- Numerous deer tracks were observed ably greater than those of these previ- gated. Locations where observations throughout the lakeshore during all ous studies, suggesting that if any occurred and the surrounding areas months of the study. No tracks of cougars were resident, they would have were thoroughly searched, typically by cougars were observed. been detected. two observers. Four (4) cougar reports were It has been suggested that cougar Cameras were established at 30 investigated and one report of cougar observations in Michigan could repre- locations for an overall density of one tracks. In each instance, the specific sent dispersing individuals from west- camera every 5.4km2. Cameras were location of the observation was deter- ern populations. Although cougars operational at a location for an average mined based on a detailed description rarely disperse distances greater than of 29 nights for a total of 863 nights. by the observer or by the observer 200 km, considerably greater distances Images of 226 animals were obtained taking us to the actual location. Loca- have been reported. The longest including bobcat, coyote, red fox, tions were searched within 24 hours of reported dispersal was of a radio- domestic dog, house cat, raccoon and reporting; inclement weather did not collared subadult male cougar traveling deer. No images of cougars were occur between the observations and our greater than 1,000 km from the Black obtained. investigation. No evidence of cougars 493 km of track surveys were was found at any of the five (5) loca- (Concluded on Next Page)

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Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming to northern Oklahoma. The distance between the Black Hills and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan is about 1,200 km. This event provides evidence that subadult male cougars from western populations can disperse into the Mid- west, which may explain the increased number of confirmed cougars in the Midwest. If a breeding population of up to 80 individuals occurred in Michigan (the geographic extent of some population estimates included SBDNL), one would expect physical evidence of cougars to be more common. For example, South Dakota has an estimated population of 165 cougars of which 6-9 individuals were killed by vehicles in 2004. An additional 12 cougars were killed by humans in South Dakota during 2004 in non- vehicle related situations. Of an estimated population of 70-100 individuals in Florida (D. Land, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Com- mission, personal communication), seven (7) cougars died from collisions with vehicles between July 2003 and Coyote visits bait station June 2004. In Florida, collisions with vehicles are the third largest source of mortality for cougars and represented increased in many parts of western gan from established western popula- 19% of total mortalities for radiocol- United States and Canada, possibly due tions. The authors conclude that lared cougars between 1981 and June to removal of bounties and more strin- although cougar sightings are reported 2004. If Michigan had the number of gent harvest regulations. The increased on a regular basis, no evidence has been resident cougars purported in popular abundance of cougars in western North found to support their occurrence in media, the authors would have America has contributed in part to the SBDNL. expected more than the single cougar- increase in documented cougars east- vehicle collision recently documented ward into the Great Plains and some Photographs courtesy: by the Michigan DNR to have Midwest states. Based on recent move- National Park Service occurred. ment data, cougars (at least males) Cougar populations have could theoretically disperse to Michi-

Wild Cat News Page 13 www.cougarnet.org Mountain Lions of New Mexico

by Rick Winslow, Large Carnivore Biologist New Mexico Department of Game and Fish

New Mexico, a state with varied Mountain lions prey on a wide sheep, elk, javelina, antelope terrain features, retains a topographic variety of species. Some of the more (occasionally, when the opportunity relief and associated vegetation condu- common in New Mexico include: mule presents itself), domestic animals, cive to supporting mountain lions. In and white-tailed deer, desert bighorn porcupines, rabbits and hares, and New Mexico, this varied many of the smaller carnivore species. relief and vegetation is found For the most part, deer – in the South- in most of the state. On the west – are considered to be the eastern plains, lion habitat preferred prey species for lions, but elk quality is low; there is little may play an important part of their diet relief, little cover, and few in the more mountainous areas. Intro- prey species. But by and duced species, such as feral hogs and large, that is the only part of Barbary sheep can also be an important the state that does not typi- component of mountain lion diet. cally support a resident Domestic animals, from cattle and mountain lion population. horses to family pets, are also preyed Generally, the only places upon; this creates a conflict with the lions do not occupy are the human population, something that flat areas. These are regions occurs in this state on an annual basis. with the least amount of One of the major conflicts for the cover – cover that is missing, New Mexico Department of Game and either because of a lack of vegetation or because of a (Continued on Next Page) scarcity of landscape features. As the name implies, mountain lions are truly creatures of the mountains. How- ever, they are equally at home in hills, riverine valleys, or deserts. The predominant reason for the mountain lion’s choice of habitat is associated with prey and prey location. The flattest and lowest portions of New Mexico support little if any prey, with the exception of the fleetfooted Ameri- can antelope, which are difficult to catch for an ambush predator like the lion. Historically, the rugged nature of habitats that cougars favor also prob- ably protected the mountain lion from competition with predators, such as wolves that preferred more open habitats.

Wild Cat News Page 14 www.cougarnet.org Mountain Lions of New Mexico

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Fish resulting from mountain lion desert bighorn sheep is endangered in pied ranges. Due to changes in land predation is their occasional use of New Mexico, and the state is actively management practices, overgrazing, desert bighorn sheep as prey. The reintroducing sheep to formerly occu- fire suppression, and various other factors, many desert mountain ranges have become brushy and overgrown. Below: shaded areas represent the best This increase in cover and forage species, for mule and white-tailed deer, mountain lion habitat in New Mexico has allowed the mountain lion to increase its range in some areas. For these areas, this creates a management problem when attempting to reintro- duce desert bighorns, as the mountain lions prey upon the sheep. Mountain lions are a hunted species in New Mexico. They are man- aged by a zone management system with annual harvest limits based upon population estimates. New Mexico allows the annual take of 233 cougars from a population of 1,500 to 2,500 adult cougars. This is based upon population estimates. A few Game Management Units in the state do not have a harvest limit in an attempt to protect reintroduced desert bighorn sheep herds. Because of the cryptic and solitary nature of the mountain lion, an exact population estimate is difficult to determine. Most successful hunters use hounds to pursue and tree a lion before it is shot. For more information on mountain lions or mountain lion hunting in New Mexico, please contact Rick Winslow, Large Carnivore Biologist, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, at [email protected], or visit www.wildlife.state.nm.us.

Photographs courtesy: New Mexico Department of Game and Fish

Wild Cat News Page 15 www.cougarnet.org DNA and the Origin of North American Pumas

by Dr. Melanie Culver The University of Arizona, School of Natural Resources The puma is one of the most istics and thus not under selection) and geographically diverse species living independent (not on the same chromo- today. It occupies the largest latitudinal some). Neutral markers are important range of any new world terrestrial because they give an indication of the mammal (110 degrees in latitude), as amount of time that non-interbreeding well as a large altitudinal range (from populations have been separated; inde- sea level to 14,800 feet above sea pendent markers are important because level). In the early 1900s, the puma they allow acquisition of several sepa- (Puma concolor) was described with rate lines of evidence towards a conclu- high subspecies diversity, with 32 sion, and if most of the markers provide distinctly named subspecies that were the same result, it can be assumed that fairly evenly distributed throughout the conclusion is not guided by a single their broad geographical range. These anomalous marker. Molecular genetic subspecies descriptions were based on markers can be used to resolve subspe- several morphological features (coat cies divisions, relying on the assump- color, pelage, skull, and skeletal mea- tion that genetic changes accumulate in surements); however, not all specimens a predictable manner over time. If populations do not interbreed, given enough time, these changes can be used to distinguish among those populations. Two classes of molecular genetic compared were full adults, and markers were used to examine many of the subspecies were subspecies-level subdivision in pumas: described based on one or a few DNA sequence variation for mitochon- individuals. Molecular genetic drial genes, which occur outside the tools provide an alternate nucleus of the cell, and DNA fragment method to describe subdivisions length variation for 10 nuclear micro- within a species and to examine satellite loci. Mitochondrial sequence the accuracy of 32 subdivisions variation is widely used as a genetic for pumas. marker to resolve species or Morphological methods subspecies-level taxonomy, population provide an important tool for subdivision, gene flow, and maternal taxonomy as do molecular lineage assessment. Highly polymor- genetic methods. Yet if the phic nuclear microsatellite markers are incorrect marker or trait is useful to estimate relatedness among selected, both methods can lead individuals, population subdivision, to anomalous results. The gene flow, subspecies-level taxonomy, advantage of using molecular and can distinguish among all individu- markers over morphometrics is als of a species. When combined, these that they allow the selection of markers provided 11 independent lines markers that are neutral (having no effect on physical character- (Continued on Next Page)

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of evidence to examine subspecies Another method to estimate the timing possible extirpation and re-colonization designations in pumas. for species existence is the fossil has occurred in North America. The When more than 300 pumas were record. In the case of pumas, the oldest potential timing of this re-colonization analyzed, throughout North and South fossils are approximately 300,000 years event is subsequent to the most recent America, all 11 markers were in agree- old, remarkably similar to the molecu- ice age which ended approximately ment. These molecular data indicated lar date; however the fossil record does 10,000 years ago. 3) Molecular data that South American pumas contain not indicate that North American does not support 32 subdivisions for high levels of genetic diversity for both pumas are a more recent lineage (puma pumas; instead six subspecies-level mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA. fossils on both continents are equally groups are indicated. 4) Within these In contrast, pumas throughout Central old). The disagreement of the North six groups pumas are fairly panmictic. and North America (north of Nicara- American fossil record (which indi- These conclusions are relevant to gua) had almost no mitochondrial DNA cates equal age for North and South current conservation efforts in pumas. variation and only moderate levels of American pumas) with the molecular Since pumas appeared to be fairly microsatellite DNA variation. This data (which indicates North American panmictic within the six broadly pattern of variation formed the basis for to be more recent than South American defined groups, fragmentation of habi- establishing one puma subdivision pumas), leads to the conclusion that tat will drastically change the observed, north of Nicaragua. The level of pumas were extirpated in North historically determined, patterns of genetic variation observed in South America more recently than 300,000 subdivision. Managers should strive to America resulted in recognizing five years ago. If this is true then pumas in maintain historical habitat connectivity puma subdivisions south of Nicaragua. North America today are the result of a within the six large groups defined by Furthermore, the presumed boundaries relatively recent re-colonization event. this data set. Additionally, managers for these six groups of pumas incorpo- The most likely timing of the extirpa- should take into account the revised rated major geographical features. tion would be 9,000 to 12,000 years ago subspecies designations suggested by Extending from north to south within to coincide with the Pleistocene extinc- this data set, with respect to restoration the geographical range of pumas, the tions. Therefore, the North American of populations that are declining or first boundary occurs in Nicaragua puma lineage may be only a few thou- endangered. (potentially in the “lake region”), and sand years old. This presumed young the other boundaries incorporate age for North American pumas is several major rivers in South America directly related to the lack of (Amazon River, Rio Parana, Rio genetic diversity and differentia- Negro, Paraguay River). tion observed in current North Molecular markers that are neutral American pumas. Given the poten- can estimate time elapsed since popula- tially young age of North American tions became isolated. In estimating pumas, it is no surprise that genetic timing for the subdivision of puma analyses indicated only one subspe- populations, two themes emerge; North cies in North America. America is the most recently founded In summary, several conclu- population and the population inhabit- sions can be made regarding subdivi- ing the Brazilian Highlands is the sion and population genetics in pumas. oldest. Additionally, molecular 1) Pumas originated in the Brazilian evidence indicates that pumas, as a Highlands approximately species, are only 390,000 years old. 300,000 years ago. 2) A © Daniel J. Cox/NaturalExposures.com

Wild Cat News Page 17 www.cougarnet.org Cougar Management Guidelines for North America

Cougar Network – Special Report

In July 2005, the first edition of Modern cougar research began been held, providing opportunities for Cougar Management Guidelines was during the late 1960s with the pioneer- presentation of papers and reports from published by Opal Creek Press of ing work of Maurice Hornocker in the United States and Canada, with Salem, Oregon. The concept of Cougar Idaho. Studies following Hornocker’s some participation from Latin America. Management Guidelines The 1976 workshop had 25 originated during the sixth registered participants Mountain Lion Workshop representing eight western in San Antonio, Texas, in states who carried out infor- 2001. At that gathering, mal roundtable reports and several concerned indi- discussion over a two-day viduals felt that a process period. The most recent was needed to synthesize workshop, held during May research results and man- 2005, had 149 registered agement experience so that participants representing 20 it could be incorporated states, four provinces, and more quickly into cougar two Mexican states. management programs. While a high percent- The best model for such a age of attendees are process was the manage- employed by state and ment guidelines that provincial wildlife agencies already existed for other responsible for cougar man- wildlife species, including agement, federal animal pronghorn and bighorn damage control and land sheep. With this in mind, a management agencies are concerned NGO, Wild also increasingly present. Futures, began assembling In addition to governmental a working group made up representation and increas- of 13 individuals with long ing numbers of NGO’s, experience in cougar those with interests in research and/or manage- animal rights, conservation, ment. The selected indi- ranching and hunter/ viduals had a cumulative conservation, and legisla- experience of over 200 tion also attended. working years in 10 west- In addition to presen- ern states and one Cana- tations at the Mountain dian province. Unfortu- Lion Workshops, the nately, the working group was reduced example and building upon his proce- number of cougar papers in the Journal to 12 members with the untimely death dures expanded into Arizona, Califor- of Wildlife Management, The Wildlife of Ian Ross in an airplane crash during nia, Utah, and ultimately to virtually Society Bulletin, and the Journal of a study of African lions. The newly- every state with extant populations of Mammalogy has grown. While there published guidelines have been dedi- the species. Between 1976 and 2005, cated to the memory of Ian. eight Mountain Lion Workshops have (Continued on Next Page)

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was virtually no published research on meeting, the group formulated the been established as an ongoing process, cougars in 1965, when Maurice Hor- initial concept, objectives, and general not a one-time, authoritarian rule book. nocker undertook his first field study, a outline of the guidelines and allocated They are now considered to be a func- plethora of data from a wide writing assignments for the chapters. tion of the Mountain Lion Workshops, geographic base now exists. Within Once assignments were made, the which will be held every three years. this accumulating information base, various individuals or teams wrote first In establishing an approach, the harvest strategies and livestock depre- drafts of their chapters. These were working group recognized that all dation continue to be major manage- then compiled by one member of the aspects of cougar management outlined ment issues, but human attacks, urban workgroup and circulated to the entire in these guidelines do not apply to each cougar occurrences, and seeming group for comment. At this point, a state or province equally. They further expansion of the cougar into the Mid- second “cleaning up” was accom- recognize that many unknowns and western United States and Canada are plished and the manuscript was sent to uncertainties about cougars and cougar also becoming important. a select group outside of the guidelines management exist, and they attempt to Cougar Management Guidelines working group for comment and present conflicting viewpoints and Working Group first met in Boise, review. Comments from these review- point out where information is lacking. Idaho, in October 2002. At the Boise ers were sent to the individual authors The group felt that cougar management for consideration and incorpora- should be structured on the following tion, and revised chapters were principles: once again compiled. The A large-landscape approach, on Working Group manuscript was then submitted the order of thousands of square kilo- to a second tier of reviewers, meters of well-connected habitat with Tom Beck CO with an emphasis on individu- thriving natural prey populations, is John Beecham ID als working for state wildlife necessary for healthy, self-sustaining agencies responsibile for cougar populations. This is based upon Paul Beier AZ cougar management. One accumulating research that indicates Terry Hofstra CA member of the working group the following: Maurice Hornocker ID made a brief presentation to 1. Cougars are large obligate Fred Lindzey WY the Western Association of carnivores that exist in relatively low Fish and Wildlife Agencies densities and require large areas to Kenneth Logan CO (WAFWA), notifying them of maintain self-sustaining populations Becky Pierce CA the groups effort. (Beier 1996, Logan and Sweanor Howard Quigley WY WAFWA requested that 2001). Dispersal of most male cougar Ian Ross AB the workgroup resubmit the offspring, a large proportion of female current manuscript to several offspring, and immigration of male and Harley Shaw NM agencies for further review. female cougars is essential for main- Rollin Sparrowe WY The group complied with this taining cougar populations and for Steve Torres CA request, even though it had regional gene flow (Beier 1993, Culver Sharon Negri* WA hoped to go to press in time to et al. 2000, Sweanor et al. 2000, Logan have the published guidelines and Sweanor 2001, Ernest et al. 2003, available at the eighth Moun- McRae 2004). *Project Director tain Lion Workshop in May 2005. Thus, guidelines have (Concluded on Next Page)

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2. Given uncertainties about basic demographic parameters, responses of populations to management prescrip- tions or hunter selectivity, temporal and spatial variation, and understanding that cougar habitat is changing, cougar management should adopt an adaptive management process. 3. Cougar management should reflect the full array of human values and input from all stakeholders. 4. Funding cougar management programs will always be an issue. Sup- port from other sources will be needed to support management if hunting- based resources are reduced. With these principles, the guidelines addressed cougar-prey relationships, habitat, assessing populations, depredation, sport hunting, cougar- human conflicts, and research needs. The authors of this first edition envi- sion it mainly as a tool for biologists and administrators responsible for management of cougars. The hope is to bring the available information on the species into mainstream thinking as rapidly as possible, thereby helping to avoid uninformed or inappropriate management decisions. Copies of the guidelines can be purchased from Opal Creek Press for $21.95 (Phone: 866-375-9015; email: [email protected]).

Acknowledgements: The Cougar Network is indebted to Harley Shaw for his assistance in compiling this report. We would also like to thank Maurice Hornocker for Maurice Hornocker, Big Creek, Idaho, 1966 the use of his photograph.

Wild Cat News Page 20 www.cougarnet.org The Cougar Network Memberships

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