JRCA Vol. 19, No. 1 (2018), pp.83-114 83
Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique1: Centers of Gravity used for Ballroom Dance Walking and Japanese Nanba Style Walking
Akemi Itagaki Department of Human Sciences, Yokohama City University
Abstract This paper presents the author’s observations of three- dimensional (3D) motion analysis of ballroom dance and aims to contribute to the study of human walking. Specific examination was applied to the state of being center-balanced. This term differentiates the center of gravity (COG) used in the ballroom dance walk and that of everyday walking by Japanese people, which is instead front-balanced. This study clarifies the COG placement when center-balanced walking is achieved, with examination of differences between movement of the COG during the usual daily walking of Japanese people and during a standard ballroom dance walk. Furthermore, reasons for recommending a center-balanced walk in ballroom dance are discussed.
1 I am appreciative of all the support for my research from my ballroom instructors in Tokyo, Yokohama, London, and Kuala Lumpur, as well as the whole professional dance community. I would also like to thank Prof. Shigeru Muramatsu of Yokohama City University, Dr. Takuichi Nishimura of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), staff members of nac Image Technology Inc., and the dancers and students who participated in my three-dimensional motion analyses. Last but not least, I am grateful to Prof. Itaru Ohta of Kyoto University and Ms. Anette Bonelli for reading a draft of this paper. 84 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique Akemi Itagaki 85
Observation and 3D motion analysis demonstrate that the notion of corporeal (body) techniques (les techniques du corps). center-balanced standard dance walk is one in which the COG Through the ages, people have known how to use their body remains near the sacrum within the pelvis; it does not move according to the particular traditions of their respective societies. In a forward when the leg swings out after the point at which both broad sense, corporeal techniques are a part of culture. Such legs come together. Therefore, with this COG, the balance does techniques constitute a habitus: a set of methods of using the body not move forward after the legs come together. By contrast, the that are learned. Mauss identified walking as one corporeal technique COG of everyday usual walking moves forward after the legs and pointed out differences in the marching styles of British and come together. French infantry soldiers. He also contrasted the gait of his nurse in New York with that of girls in Paris. Key words: Anthropology, Techniques of the Body, Center-balanced, Bipedalism is one common feature among all humans, yet we all COG, Culture, Participant observation, Standard dance walk using various styles. As explained in the following section, walk, Three-dimensional motion analysis although walking in ballroom dance is called natural, its characteristics, according to the author’s observations of dance classes, are not natural for Japanese trainees. The Japanese dancers were Purpose and Significance of the Research noticeably trying to adopt a walking method that differed from the method to which they had been accustomed. The intent of this study of ballroom walking2 as a corporeal Several key words to explain the walking method, such as (body) technique is to clarify differences between ballroom dance center-balanced, centered gravity, connection, and toward were detected walking and Japanese everyday walking with special reference to the through participant observation. While pursuing the positions the center of gravity (COG3). Rather than assuming a universally correct terms center-balanced and centered gravity indicate, the author walking method, we assume that no one walking method is identified COG as a key concept to elucidate the ballroom dancing universally correct. walk. French anthropologist Marcel Mauss (1950: 365) presented the This study also used observations, written materials, and three-dimensional (3D) motion analyses. Earlier studies of Japanese 2 For ease of comprehension, the walk of ballroom dance is italicized to walking reported in the field of anthropology (Kohara 1975, Nomura differentiate it from everyday “walking.” 1983, 1996, Kawada 1992, 2014) were analyses with observations, 3 The center of gravity (COG), is the center of mass for the direction defined by gravity. For calculation of the COG of a human body, we divide a body into photographs and written materials. The COG position was not several parts such as the head and neck, trunk, upper arms, forearms, feet, visualized in those studies. By contrast, the COG position was shanks, thighs, and calculate each COG. Subsequently, one can calculate the detected using 3D analysis as complementary to direct observations COG of the whole body, which is located in the pelvis, using the COGs of each part of the body, . in this research. Consequently, this comparative study of walking was 84 Akemi Itagaki 85
notion of corporeal (body) techniques (les techniques du corps). Through the ages, people have known how to use their body according to the particular traditions of their respective societies. In a broad sense, corporeal techniques are a part of culture. Such techniques constitute a habitus: a set of methods of using the body that are learned. Mauss identified walking as one corporeal technique and pointed out differences in the marching styles of British and French infantry soldiers. He also contrasted the gait of his nurse in New York with that of girls in Paris. Bipedalism is one common feature among all humans, yet we all walk using various styles. As explained in the following section, although walking in ballroom dance is called natural, its characteristics, according to the author’s observations of dance classes, are not natural for Japanese trainees. The Japanese dancers were noticeably trying to adopt a walking method that differed from the method to which they had been accustomed. Several key words to explain the walking method, such as center-balanced, centered gravity, connection, and toward were detected through participant observation. While pursuing the positions the terms center-balanced and centered gravity indicate, the author identified COG as a key concept to elucidate the ballroom dancing walk. This study also used observations, written materials, and three-dimensional (3D) motion analyses. Earlier studies of Japanese walking reported in the field of anthropology (Kohara 1975, Nomura 1983, 1996, Kawada 1992, 2014) were analyses with observations, photographs and written materials. The COG position was not visualized in those studies. By contrast, the COG position was detected using 3D analysis as complementary to direct observations in this research. Consequently, this comparative study of walking was 86 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique Akemi Itagaki 87 conducted more accurately and from various perspectives. body swings side to side, knees and hip make pendulum movements Researchers in the field of biomechanics (Winter 2009) might not be separately, bouncing the body, unless suriashi (sliding the feet) as one interested in cultural diversity, but new avenues for investigation in does walking in Noh dance is employed (Nomura 1996: 21). this field of study are expected to arise along with more Junzo Kawada (1992) compared three walking styles: knee walking culturally-oriented studies. in modern Japan, hip walking in France, and torso-hip walking in West Africa. He argued that differences among those styles derive Earlier Studies from the methods that people traditionally used to carry belongings or other burdens. Japanese people used poles on their shoulders or Walking as a Corporeal Technique racks on their backs. French people wore their backpacks high by Yukinari Kohara (1975) argued that Japanese people walk leaning putting belts on both shoulders, creating a high COG, or else carried forward, with their knees flexed. Furthermore, Masaichi Nomura their baskets with their forearms bent. West African people placed (1996: 12) pointed out that modern Japanese people place their baskets atop their head. Burden transportation of these types affected weight on their first toe because Japanese people traditionally wore the development of walking styles in the respective regions (Kawada thong sandals, whereas Westerners place their weight on the ball of 1992). The characteristics of Japanese knee walking (Kawada 2014: the foot. Referring to Kohara (Kohara 1975: 104-111), Nomura 146-147) and the Japanese classic, peaceful manner of movement are described Japanese walking as: leaning forward and knee walking in apparent in current Japanese daily life (Yatabe 2011: 9-21). Nanba4 style, body weight is placed heavily on the forefoot, and the Yoshinori Kōno, a martial arts instructor, and Satoshi Tanaka, a writer, studied the Nanba style of movement as well. They say Nanba 4 According to Nomura (1996), Nanba (南蛮 or なんば) is the name of a style walking is used in Japanese martial arts, sports, and modern form in Japanese traditional performing arts; diagonal stance in which the same everyday life. They pointed out that weight is placed on top of the side of the body and the leg are forward, for example the right body/arm and the right leg move simultaneously forward. It is said that Mr. Tetsuji Takechi, a forefoot or ahead of the foot when the foot lands on the ground. researcher of Japanese traditional performing arts, first reported this Moreover, the center of gravity (COG) is placed forward, and the phenomenon. Borrowing Takechi’s words, Nomura describes Nanba as a upper body is not twisted. And they say, with the Nanba style farmer’s posture using a hoe in the field. _ Today, Japanese people do not walk with the right leg and the right arm walking, it is easy to climb slopes/stairways, and the kimono (Japanese moving simultaneously forward, but we can observe forward-leaning, without traditional cloth) will not become untidy (Kōno 2004; Kōno and contrary body movement (contrary body movement means that the lower body Tanaka 2005). Nanba style walking is physically reasonable in certain and upper body make an opposite rotation), and knee walking, which is so-called Nanba style walking. Nomura (1983: 14-15) wrote that the Japanese government tried to change Nanba style walking of Japanese people through education in the Meiji era. But some elements of Nanba style walking have walking in which the same side of the body and the leg move simultaneously, is remaind to this day. Dr. Tom Gill, Meiji Gakuin University, suggested the called ‘side leading’. Nanba style walking might not be unique to Japan. We similarity between Nanba walking and ipsirateral walking. In ballroom dance, need further research on this topic. 86 Akemi Itagaki 87
body swings side to side, knees and hip make pendulum movements separately, bouncing the body, unless suriashi (sliding the feet) as one does walking in Noh dance is employed (Nomura 1996: 21). Junzo Kawada (1992) compared three walking styles: knee walking in modern Japan, hip walking in France, and torso-hip walking in West Africa. He argued that differences among those styles derive from the methods that people traditionally used to carry belongings or other burdens. Japanese people used poles on their shoulders or racks on their backs. French people wore their backpacks high by putting belts on both shoulders, creating a high COG, or else carried their baskets with their forearms bent. West African people placed baskets atop their head. Burden transportation of these types affected the development of walking styles in the respective regions (Kawada 1992). The characteristics of Japanese knee walking (Kawada 2014: 146-147) and the Japanese classic, peaceful manner of movement are apparent in current Japanese daily life (Yatabe 2011: 9-21). Yoshinori Kōno, a martial arts instructor, and Satoshi Tanaka, a writer, studied the Nanba style of movement as well. They say Nanba style walking is used in Japanese martial arts, sports, and modern everyday life. They pointed out that weight is placed on top of the forefoot or ahead of the foot when the foot lands on the ground. Moreover, the center of gravity (COG) is placed forward, and the upper body is not twisted. And they say, with the Nanba style walking, it is easy to climb slopes/stairways, and the kimono (Japanese traditional cloth) will not become untidy (Kōno 2004; Kōno and Tanaka 2005). Nanba style walking is physically reasonable in certain
walking in which the same side of the body and the leg move simultaneously, is called ‘side leading’. Nanba style walking might not be unique to Japan. We need further research on this topic. 88 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique Akemi Itagaki 89 situations, and also it is integrated in Japanese culture. The results of these studies demonstrate that the characteristics of Japanese walking Ballroom Dance differ from those of ballroom dance walking. The ballroom dance genre is one in which a couple, usually a man Comments and the Response of the Body and a woman, walks to the music on the dance floor. Traditionally the According to his research on the Nishiura-dengaku (a traditional man leads and the woman follows. The role of the leading dancer is dance handed down through the generations by local people), to decide the timing of starting and stopping, the direction, and the Sugawara et al. (2005: 183) reported that everybody responds dance steps, in communication with the following dancer, in response beautifully to a comment or voice, and that comments or voices have to the music and the circumstances of the ballroom. The dance a clear effect on body movement. By contrast, according to his own develops along with the reactions of the following dancer. experience in Japanese martial art classes, Kurashima (2005: 220) Dancers might receive training at dance schools, participate in reported that he always reconstructed the teacher's words through his recitals, practice with friends, and attend parties. At competitions, ten body when listening to a teacher’s words (in Japanese). ballroom dance styles are divided into two categories: the Teachers’ comments are one form of feedback. If the feedback Standard/Smooth category consists of the Waltz (photo 1), the Tango, structure is established and shared between teachers and trainees, and the Slow Foxtrot, the Quickstep, and the Viennese Waltz, whereas the if the body is free from prejudice, then the comments are expected to Latin/Rhythm category consists of the Rumba (photo 2), the be effective. Because walking is tacit knowledge (Polanyi 1966), Cha-Cha-Cha, the Samba, the Paso Doble, and the Jive. trainees must understand walking more than the expressions of words According to The Ballroom Technique, a renowned guide of the of the teachers: they must know it through observation and sensation. Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (ISTD), the basic steps Furthermore, Ikuta (2007[1987]: 24-30) wrote, for real deep mastery consist of three to six steps: forward walk, backward walk, walk with of the movement, one starts with mimicry of the outlook of forms turn, side walk, and so on (ISTD 1998: 10-160). In other words, one (形) and one reaches habitus (型). walks by combining steps in time with the music. Taking steps one Influenced by their teacher’s forms and words, trainees reach a after another, one begins to feel as though floating, which is one of habitus by mimicking their teacher’s forms. This is a process to learn the pleasures of ballroom dance. Fundamentally, ballroom dance is a corporeal techniques. If a movement belongs to a habitus to which walking dance: walking around on the dance floor with a partner and one is not accustomed, one will face difficulty in mastering the with the music is fun. movement. Especially, to master corporeal techniques imported from The author conducted a case study particularly addressing walking another culture, to overcome cultural barriers, one must know the in ballroom dance, called social dance in Japan. Instructors and difference between usual daily techniques and newly learned dancers strive to achieve seamless movements, walking lightly as techniques. though flying in perfect harmony with their partner. Although the 88 Akemi Itagaki 89
Ballroom Dance
The ballroom dance genre is one in which a couple, usually a man and a woman, walks to the music on the dance floor. Traditionally the man leads and the woman follows. The role of the leading dancer is to decide the timing of starting and stopping, the direction, and the dance steps, in communication with the following dancer, in response to the music and the circumstances of the ballroom. The dance develops along with the reactions of the following dancer. Dancers might receive training at dance schools, participate in recitals, practice with friends, and attend parties. At competitions, ten ballroom dance styles are divided into two categories: the Standard/Smooth category consists of the Waltz (photo 1), the Tango, the Slow Foxtrot, the Quickstep, and the Viennese Waltz, whereas the Latin/Rhythm category consists of the Rumba (photo 2), the Cha-Cha-Cha, the Samba, the Paso Doble, and the Jive. According to The Ballroom Technique, a renowned guide of the Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (ISTD), the basic steps consist of three to six steps: forward walk, backward walk, walk with turn, side walk, and so on (ISTD 1998: 10-160). In other words, one walks by combining steps in time with the music. Taking steps one after another, one begins to feel as though floating, which is one of the pleasures of ballroom dance. Fundamentally, ballroom dance is a walking dance: walking around on the dance floor with a partner and with the music is fun. The author conducted a case study particularly addressing walking in ballroom dance, called social dance in Japan. Instructors and dancers strive to achieve seamless movements, walking lightly as though flying in perfect harmony with their partner. Although the 90 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 91
Photo 1. Waltz. The leading dancer is in the black suit with tails. The following dancer is in the gown. Main connection points are the left hand of the leading dancer and right hand of following dancer, the right upper arm of the leading dancer, the left hand of the following dancer, the right hand of leading dancer underarm of the following dancer, and the right front ribcage of each dancer. Photo by Miyashita Kyoko. July 2017 in Yokohama, Japan. Reproduced with permission from Sawa Naoki and Matsushita Nao.
Photo 2. Rumba. (Latin American dance). The leading dancer can dance without a jacket when performing Latin American dance. Main connection points are holding of the left hand of the leading dancer and the right hand of the following dancer. Photo by Video Rekku. 2012 in Yokohama, Japan. Reproduced with permission from Sawa Naoki and Matsushita Nao. 90 Akemi Itagaki 91
beauty of the dance arises from the integration of various elements such as the fluent walk, usage of joints, posture, timing that matches the music, and communication of individual couples, it is not possible to maintain the timing and communication of individual couples without a controlled stable walk. Furthermore, walking technique, one important basic element, makes lovely ballroom style improvisation possible. Dancers must improvise a seamless combination of steps in time to the music while carefully observing the crowded floor to avoid a collision. The leading dancer must stop and proceed smoothly in cooperation with the following dancer. Both in the Standard/Smooth category and the Latin/Rhythm category, two dancers communicate through connection points such as holding hands, placing the hand on the shoulder, touching ribcages and so on. To avoid uncomfortable push and pull on the connection points between pair dancers, stable upper body and stable distance between the COG of dancers are necessary. Therefore a ballroom dancer must be able to walk with centered-balance or center-gravity. The following sections present a specific examination of such walking.
Natural Movement with the Proper Adjustment of Balance
In general, walking in ballroom dance is considered natural movement; the body is not framed in forms as in ballet. This consideration reflects an aspect of modernism: attempting to liberate the body from forms (Scott 1920; Malnig 1992). To understand the term natural, one must know more about the history of dance. Itagaki (2017) summarized the history of dance related to the development of ballroom dance as explained hereinafter. Malnig (1992: 2) reported that “exhibition ballroom dance emerged 92 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 93 from the ‘social dance revolution’ of the early twentieth century”, establishing “freer, less restrictive forms.” Nagai (1994: 84) also argued that the rise of ballroom dance originated as an antithesis to classical ballet’s constrained movements. Silvester (2005: 12) described the rise of the natural movement revolution in ballroom dance, writing that “the younger generation ... who danced at the clubs before the 1914 War” introduced “a free and easy go-as-you-please style based more or less on the natural movements used in walking.” Furthermore, Scott (1920: 158), a professional dancer of the era, described that “lightness in walking depends solely upon the proper adjustment of balance and the avoidance of friction when the foot slides over the floor.” Novack (1990: 30-31) described the evolution of modern dance in her work, Sharing the Dance: Contact Improvisation and American Culture:
Choreographer Eric Hawkins pursued dance ideas in the postwar period…He studied kinesiology...as well as writings in dance, philosophy, and religion, especially Zen Buddhism. From these studies, Hawkins developed a philosophy of movement training which emphasized sensations of moving combined with techniques seen to be based on scientific and philosophical principles … ... For example, twentieth-century ballet proposes the body as an instrument which must be trained to conform to the classical movement vocabulary ... In contrast, modern dancers in the ’30s and ’40s subscribed to a more expressionistic view of the body, one in which internal feelings were realized in external movement. … Zen, claimed Hawkins, encouraged him to find a way of 92 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique Akemi Itagaki 93 from the ‘social dance revolution’ of the early twentieth century”, allowing movement to happen, of learning to dance without establishing “freer, less restrictive forms.” Nagai (1994: 84) also forcing the body (Novack 1990: 30-31). argued that the rise of ballroom dance originated as an antithesis to classical ballet’s constrained movements. Both ballroom dance and modern dance had significance in the Silvester (2005: 12) described the rise of the natural movement Modernist movement in terms of liberating the body from forms. revolution in ballroom dance, writing that “the younger generation ... However, the “natural walk” pursued by the former depends upon the who danced at the clubs before the 1914 War” introduced “a free and proper adjustment of balance, whereas the latter sought easy go-as-you-please style based more or less on the natural expressiveness of the body and dance without forcing the body. movements used in walking.” Furthermore, Scott (1920: 158), a Several approaches were used in modern dance for liberating the professional dancer of the era, described that “lightness in walking body from forms. depends solely upon the proper adjustment of balance and the The Ballroom Technique (ISTD 1998: 8) explains the forward walk avoidance of friction when the foot slides over the floor.” as presented below. Novack (1990: 30-31) described the evolution of modern dance in her work, Sharing the Dance: Contact Improvisation and American “Stand in an upright position with the feet together and the Culture: weight held slightly forward towards the balls of the feet. “Swing the leg forward from the hip with the ball of the foot Choreographer Eric Hawkins pursued dance ideas in the in contact with the floor then with the heel lightly skimming postwar period…He studied kinesiology...as well as writings in the floor with the toe slightly raised. As soon as the front heel dance, philosophy, and religion, especially Zen Buddhism. From moves past the back toe, the back heel will be released from the these studies, Hawkins developed a philosophy of movement floor and at the extent of the stride the weight will be equally training which emphasized sensations of moving combined with divided between the heel of the front foot and the ball of the techniques seen to be based on scientific and philosophical back foot with the front knee straight and the back knee slightly principles … flexed. The front toe will then immediately lower as the weight ... For example, twentieth-century ballet proposes the body as of the body moves forward. The back foot commences to move an instrument which must be trained to conform to the classical forward with first the toe then the ball of the foot skimming the movement vocabulary ... In contrast, modern dancers in the ’30s floor until the feet are level and the back foot then continues and ’40s subscribed to a more expressionistic view of the body, forward into the next step” (ISTD 1998: 8) . one in which internal feelings were realized in external movement. Using the word weight and the detailed timing of footwork in the … Zen, claimed Hawkins, encouraged him to find a way of description above, they are apparently describing a transition of the 94 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 95
COG. Among details of the movement, the following three elements stand out: 1) distribution of the weight and the degree to which the knees are bent, 2) the order in which the parts of the feet land on the floor, and 3) the fact that the back foot never leaves the floor entirely while moving forward.
Observations
We are puzzled by Center-Balancing The author conducted participant observations as a trainee in dance classes while taking personal lessons in Tokyo and Yokohama (Japan, 1998-2008, 2018), London (United Kingdom, 2007, 2008), and Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia, 2017). The following explanation begins with observations of group lessons given by an instructor: Ms. M in Yokohama. Before stepping together in a pair, each student first practices alone. When the instructor calls the students for a walking drill, they line up facing the mirror and practice moving forward and backward. When moving in either direction, dancers are expected to be “center-balanced (sentā-baransu/chūkan-baransu).” She often pointed out the lack of balance in walking, such as “front-balanced (mae-baransu)” during forward walking and “back-balanced (bakku-baransu)” during backward walking. She continually admonished her students to “stand straight (massugu-tatte),” “remain center-balanced,” and “distribute your weight equally on your fore foot and your back foot (taijū wa ryouashi no aida).” However, most of the students (around 20 middle-aged men and women joined her lesson) wobbled and strained excessively. Our footwork was nothing like our teacher’s demonstration. Most students became very tired in a short while. It was good exercise but it was far from the smooth movement we had sought. Although my own balance felt 94 Akemi Itagaki 95
well-centered to me she still asked me to remain “center-balanced.” The other students also seemed puzzled by her advice, not knowing the meaning of center-balanced that she had advised us to strive for and maintain. During personal ballroom dance lessons taken when researching in London, one instructor, Mr. B (born in Ukraine, but now living in London), demonstrated a forward-leaning Japanese walking style when the lesson finished. He continued, “Japanese people walk like this. It’s your culture. There’s nothing wrong with it. But, in ballroom dance, you need centered gravity.” He demonstrated a simple ballroom dance step with centered gravity. Ms. M used the words “center-balanced”. Mr. B used the words centered gravity to correct the front-balanced walking of trainees. This led me to infer that center-balanced and centered gravity were used to correct a tendency related to characteristics shared by Japanese people. The expression “centered gravity” indicates awareness of an ingrained cultural habit: so-called Nanba style walking (as explained before, placing the COG in front of the body without contrary body movement). Moreover, the expression guides trainees to other footwork related to ballroom dance. The author’s instructor in Kuala Lumpur used neither center-balanced nor centered gravity. She repeated other phrases: “toe up” “use your heel,” “use CBM.” The acronym CBM stands for contrary body movement: the lower body and upper body make an opposite rotation. In ballroom dancing, CBM is used to create and control the momentum of movement and to maintain posture. She tried to control the front-balance, by which a dancer stays on the toes too much, using the words presented above. The “toe up” advice is effective to make a dancer use the ball and heel more, stay 96 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 97 center-balanced, and avoid front-balanced movement. All instructors advised that the feet were not supposed to be lifted from the floor. Another comment was advice to keep the weight behind one’s leg and to remain center-balanced. For many students, and for the author as well, when the heel of the front foot reached the floor, the toe of the trailing leg would be lifted from the floor unconsciously. Center-balanced ballroom dance walk is not natural for Japanese. However, it is not impossible. One day, during the walking drill of Ms. M’s group lesson (she was walking between the trainees giving advice to each trainee), one lady ran to her shouting “I got it!” and she demonstrated her walk, to which Ms. M responded “that’s it.” Itagaki (1996 b) also reported her experience of achieving walking when the teacher corrected her hip joint position. With this movement, walking is clearly more fluid and stable: even when a partner pushes or changes direction quickly, a partner can maintain balance and continue dancing with a sense of fun. It is sensational to shift to and from walking into ballroom dance and to enjoy a smooth walk, although it is difficult to continue a ballroom dance walk while living with Nanba style walking every day. Itagaki (2007a, b) integrated observations in dance class and characteristics of Japanese movements to try to understand the word “natural” from the body sensations of movement. The author has concluded that “natural” in ballroom dance does not mean that the movement is the same movement as that of everyday life. Instead, it means that the movement is comfortable without stress. Anthropology, as described by Kohara (1975), Nomura (1983, 1996), Kawada (1992, 2014) and Itagaki (2006 a, b, 2007 a, b), participant observation as the author reported above, and biomechanics can be integrated to clarify slight but important 96 Akemi Itagaki 97
differences between Japanese everyday walking and dance walking.
“Connection” and “Towards” Instructors’ comments during dance sessions in Tokyo and Yokohama were examined using element analyses of items of dance vocabulary in those comments and two-dimensional (2D) motion analysis along with movement (Itagaki 2006 a, b). Nevertheless, COG-related questions persisted. The ballroom instructor in London described earlier, Mr. B, advised trainees to shift weight towards the partner when stepping in a pair. Usually, the preposition “toward” is used to indicate that someone or something is moving in a direction. However, it does not link the movement to a specific endpoint or the result of the action. When one uses this key word, for example “towards!” in the context of ballroom dance, the meaning is that one shifts weight towards the partner without breaking into the partner’s personal space or collapsing into the partner. The London instructor often used this word to teach connection: how a pair communicates through weight shifts to exchange information related to their current physical or mental condition, and to move in tandem. An instructor in Tokyo, Mr. C, also advised trainee that dancers have to shift a part of their weight towards each other and always keep personal COG. Taking this advice into account, it is important to know that a dancer controls weight for communication between partners through their body connection in dancing. Nevertheless, dancers maintain their personal COG in the core of the body calmly to maintain their own balance. Furthermore, some dancers comment about a couple’s common center. As their dance technique develops, partners feel the common center of a couple as a whole. Ms. T, one instructor in Yokohama, reported feeling it especially when turning in unity. She 98 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 99 continued that the stability of each dancer’s balance with upper body rotation is important to produce a common center for a pair.5 The following discussion presents an exploration of the meaning of center-balanced and how to walk while maintaining balance. Ms. M said, “The center of gravity is placed neither on your feet nor at the connection point with your partner. It stays inside your body and draws its own track as the body moves.” The COG is often discussed along with “weight” and “center.” Other related comments included the following explanations: . ・ You make your partner uneasy unless you give your weight to him. ・ Don’t collapse into your partner. He’s going to feel too heavy. You must keep your own center of balance.
Center-balancing to have centered gravity is important not only for personal balance but also for balance as a unit with the connection and communication of the pair.
Methodology of Analysis
Where do ballroom dancers place the COG when they walk? Using the COG as an index, the characteristics of walking in ballroom dance were identified through 3D motion analysis with the cooperation of Prof. Shigeru Muramatsu, a sports scientist, technical staff of NAC Image Technology Inc., two dancers (male and female),
5 Further research about common center is necessary. An American ballroom pair Mr. A and Ms. K said to the researcher that they feel a common center on their connection point (basically front right of their ribcage); at the same time they must keep their individual stable COGs. 98 Akemi Itagaki 99
and a university student (male). Two advanced Japanese dancers and one student participated in this project. The dancers hold a grade-A competition license for Latin and Standard dances. Using a 3D motion analysis system developed by NAC Image Technology Inc., we recorded the walk and everyday walk of these dancers and the walk of a student in 2008. In bipedalism, one places one’s weight alternately on each leg. With this in mind, we investigated whether the COG also shifts accordingly. First, a high-speed camera captured each subject’s motion after markers were attached to their body. Markers were 1 cm balls, which did not disturb body movement. This study used a motion capture system (MAC3D system) to produce a 3D moving stickman image in the laboratory in real time. Subsequently, we used software for interactive musculoskeletal modeling (SIMM) to calculate the COG location. The results were converted and rendered into 3D stickman images, which helped identify COG characteristics related to the position and transition of the COG. The images portray the following situations: 1) the solo standard dance walk of a dancer (female), 2) solo everyday usual walk of the dancer, 3) the solo everyday usual walk of a student (male), and 4) a pair of dancers taking steps to music. The difference between pair dancing and solo walking is relatively minor for ballroom dancing compared to other dances. Ballroom dancers do solo work as preparation for pair dancing. Like shadow boxing, it is called shadow dancing. For all movements, the position of the COG was analyzed and its trajectory was tracked. Subsequently, the results were examined by linking them to the ballroom dance attributes. We analyzed the following (female) dancer's solo standard dance walk for nine steps in 8.63 seconds (s) and the duo basic rumba step for 12 steps in 8.85s. 100 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 101
Results and Analysis
Figures 1 and 2 respectively portray a front view and a side view of trajectories of the COG in the 3D stickman images of a dancer’s standard dance walk. The COG is located in the pelvis slightly below the triangle made by left and right anterior superior iliac spine and the first sacral bone. Figure 3 shows a scene of a pair of dancers dancing the rumba. The COG of both dancers is located in the triangles made by left and right anterior superior iliac spine and the first sacral bone position, as with solo walking. Figure 4 depicts trajectories of the COG when dancing as a pair. The triangles in the figure are the triangles formed by the left and right anterior superior iliac spine and the first sacral bone. The COGs of both dancers remain in the triangle, just as in solo walking. The trajectory of the following dancer’s COG while she took steps with her partner was a smooth curve, without a zigzag. Although the leading (male) dancer’s trajectory is not as smooth as hers, still the COG remains inside the triangle of the pelvis. There is no off-balance rolling or zigzag action in the basic rumba movement. It is basically composed of walking. Figure 5 shows the three trajectories of the COG in the pelvis (top view): 1) standard dance walk of dancer, 2) everyday usual walk of dancer, and 3) everyday usual walk of a student. The upper part of the figure is the front side of the body; the lower part is the back. In this figure, the horizontal axis is parallel to the line connecting the upper left and right anterior superior iliac spine. The vertical axis is parallel to the floor surface, crossing perpendicularly to the horizontal axis. It is a trajectory of the COG as viewed from above. The upper left anterior iliac spine is defined as the control point (zero point) to detect the trajectory of the COG in the moving body. 100 Akemi Itagaki 101
Figure 1. Location of the center of gravity while walking (front view in 3D).
Figure 2. Trajectory of the center of gravity while walking (side view in 3D). 102 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 103
Figure 3. Stickman image and location of the center of gravity when dancing the basic rumba: leading dancer (left) and following dancer (right).
③ ①
② 50 cm ④
50 cm
Figure 4. Trajectories of the center of gravity of a pair rumba basic dance (bottom view): (1) starting point of leading dancer’s center of gravity, (2) starting point of following dancer’s center of gravity, and (3)(4) end. 102 Akemi Itagaki 103
We reconfirmed our own data: three trajectories show an infinity-sign shape: “∞”. In these trajectories of the COG, left-right and front-back swings are, respectively, 21 (147 – 126) and 34 (90 – 56) mm in the standard dance walk, 24 (144 – 120) and 31 (85 – 54) mm in the everyday usual walking of the dancer, and 22 (128 – 106) and 41 (91 – 50) mm in the everyday usual walking of a student. We estimated the range of movement of the COG of the standard dance walk as smaller, but it is 3 mm longer in front-back swings in the standard dance walk of a dancer than that of everyday usual walking. No clear difference was found in these COG trajectories. Figure 6 and Figure 7 respectively show horizontal and vertical COG trajectories. Figure 6 shows the horizontal (side-to-side) trajectories of the COG. The vertical axis shows the horizontal side-to-side wave range of the COG in millimeters. The horizontal axis shows the walking distance in millimeters. The zero point is the mid-point of the walking distance. The direction of walking is from -3000 to 3000 mm. Figure 7 shows the vertical (up-and-down) trajectories of the COG. The vertical axis shows the change of distance from the floor to the COG in millimeters. The horizontal axis shows the walking distance in millimeters, as in Figure 6. From these figures, one finds that the stride in everyday usual walking is smaller than that of dance walking. The COG of the standard dance walk of a dancer is waving side to side more (30 mm on -1000 mm walking distance) than in everyday walking (10 mm on -1000 mm walking distance). Other than these points, we were unable to find differences between the standard dance walk and everyday usual walking with these indices. From Figures 6 and 7, the COG trajectory shows no clear difference between the standard dance walk and everyday usual walking. To detect differences between the standard dance walk and 104 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 105
(1) standard dance walk of dancer
(2) everyday usual walk of dancer (3) everyday usual walk of a student
Figure 5. Three trajectories of the center of gravity in the pelvis (top view).
The horizontal axis is parallel to the line connecting the upper left and right anterior superior iliac spine. The vertical axis is parallel to the floor surface. The upper left anterior iliac spine is defined as the control (0) point.
(1) standard dance walk of dancer
(2) everyday usual walk of dancer
(3) everyday usual walk of a student
Figure 6. Trajectories of the center of gravity of horizontal (waves side-to-side).
The vertical axis shows the side-to-side wave range of the center of gravity in millimeters. The horizontal axis shows the walking distance in millimeters. 0 point is the middle of the walking distance. Direction of walking is from -3000 to 3000 mm. 104 Akemi Itagaki 105
(1) standard dance walk of dancer
(2) everyday usual walk of dancer
(3) everyday usual walk of a student
Figure 7. Trajectories of the center of gravity of vertical (waves up-and-down).
The vertical axis shows the change of distance (waves up-and-down) from the floor to the center of gravity in millimeters. The horizontal axis shows the walking distance in millimeters. 0 point is the middle of the walking distance. Direction of walking is from -3000 to 3000 mm.
everyday usual walking, some other analytical method must be used. Next, to detect the characteristics of the respective walks, we analyzed the relation between the movement of the COG and the timing of the swinging of legs. As presented in Figure 5, during walking, the COG in the body located in the pelvis moves from the back to the front in long elliptic loops. From the comparative observation of a stick man motion image, the author observed that the COG moves more forward with the swing out of the leg in everyday usual walking than with a standard dance walk. To capture the front and back movement of the COG in the moving body, we set the first sacrum bone located at the center of the back of the body as a control point (zero point). Then the distance between the first sacrum bone and the COG was calculated as an index of the front 106 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 107 and back movement of the COG. Figures 8 to 10 respectively depict the timing of the movement of the COG and the swinging of the legs, with movement of the COG detected by the distance between the COG and the first sacral bone (ls: l for length and s for sacral) and the swing of the legs detected by the distance between ankles (lf: l for length and f for feet). Furthermore, the stickman images show the gaits at the time when the distances between the COG and the first sacral bone (ls) are the largest and the smallest. The time change of ls and lf is shown on the line graph with the horizontal axis as time and the vertical axis as distance. These graphs highlight the difference between standard dance walking and everyday usual walking. Figure 8 shows the gaits using stickman images, with ls and lf of the standard dance walk. The distance between the COG and the sacral bone (ls) is largest when the leg distance (lf) is smallest. When the legs are together, the COG starts to swing back behind. By contrast, Figure 9 (everyday usual walk of a dancer) and Figure 10 (everyday usual walk of a student) respectively portray conditions when the distance between the sacral bone and the COG (ls) is the largest; the leg distance (lf) is not at its smallest. The timing of the swing of the COG in relation to the timing of the swing of the legs is not the same for the standard dance walk and the everyday usual walk. The COG of the standard dance walk starts to move forward slightly after the leg distance (lf) is the largest and starts to swing back behind when the legs are together (lf is the smallest). For the COGs of the everyday usual walk, those of both the dancer and the student start to move forward slightly after the leg distance (lf) is the largest (same as standard dance walk). However they start to swing back behind after the legs swing out (lf are in between the smallest and the largest). These results demonstrate that a student’s and a dancer’s everyday usual walking are more front-balanced than the dancer’s ballroom dance walk. 106 Akemi Itagaki 107
Figure 8. Relation between the movement of the center of gravity and the timing of the swinging of legs1) for the standard dance walk gait, ls2), lf3).
1) The horizontal axis shows the walking time in seconds. The vertical axis shows ls and lf in millimeters. 2) Distance between the center of gravity and the first sacral bone. 3) Distance between the ankles.
Figure 9. Relation between the movement of the center of gravity and the timing of the swinging of legs1) for the everyday usual walk gait, ls2), lf3) of a dancer.
1) The horizontal axis shows the walking time in seconds. The vertical axis shows ls and lf in millimeters. 2) Distance between the center of gravity and the first sacral bone. 3) Distance between the ankles. 108 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 109
Figure 10. Relation between the movement of the center of gravity and the timing of the swinging of legs1) for the everyday usual walk gait, ls2), lf3) of a student.
1) The horizontal axis shows the walking time in seconds. The vertical axis shows the ls and lf in millimeters. 2) Distance between the center of gravity and the first sacral bone. 3) Distance between the ankles.
Discussion and Conclusion
Observations and 3D motion analyses yielded the following conclusions.
Center-balanced standard dance walking requires that one’s COG remains near the sacrum within the pelvis6. It does not move forward with the swinging out of the leg after both legs come together. With this COG, the balance does not move forward
6 For now, I refrain from concluding whether the position considered as the center in the UK is within the sacrum–ilium triangle in the pelvis, as found in my three-dimensional motion analysis of Japanese dancers. Future studies will use data from other three-dimensional motion analyses of British competitive dancers’ walking and basic steps to elucidate walking as a corporeal technique. 108 Akemi Itagaki 109
after the legs come together. In the pair dance also, the COG remains in the same position. Its trajectory in motion floats smoothly, with movement of the dance becoming smooth, too.7 Everyday walking has the characteristic of front-balanced Nanba style walking with the COG moving forward with the swinging out of the leg after both legs come together..
We detected characteristics of center-balanced standard dance walking and Nanba style walking of Japanese people. Results suggest that if the COG moves forward together with the swinging out of the leg, then the body weight might also move forward and stay more on the front foot. Further study of this point is needed. This difference of movement of the COG, which puzzles many Japanese students of ballroom dance, alters the movement, body sensation, and outlook of the dance. These two styles of walking can be regarded as two corporeal techniques, each with their respective benefits and shortcomings. When walking with center-balance, a person will feel the body’s sensation and stability in a line from the spine to the top of the head. A person might be relaxed and confident, and feel as though floating or swinging, when one’s body weight of one side of the body (e.g. the right side) shifts forward beyond the center of balance with the swinging out of the leg (right leg). When one’s legs are together, the COG moving behind allows a dancer to keep half of the weight on
7 We also recorded a waltz pair dance, but were unable to calculate the COG because there were too many blind spots. Dr. Nishimura took a motion capture video exhibiting the movement of the pelvis (the COG was not shown, but we use it as a representative example in sports science instruction) of a world champion ballroom dancer. That picture shows the pelvis trajectory as very smooth too. These results will be presented in a future report. 110 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 111 the supporting leg (left leg) behind. This sensation is enjoyable in the same way that playing on a swing can be. The method of walking by stabilizing one’s COG and shifting a part of one’s weight towards a partner is important when dancing in a pair. It helps to achieve a common center for the pair and maintain balance between the two dancers’ respective centers of gravity. It also telegraphs the direction of the subsequent moves to the partner. This relation between the two centers of gravity is defined as connection in ballroom dancing. Maintaining the COG within the confines of the body helps dancers to take actions at suitable times and to maintain the unity of the pair. Choosing the swing-bounce walk that Kohara (1975) and Nomura (1996) described as a Japanese style might cause difficulties in taking steps with a dance partner: partners might collide, or have non-synchronized timing, making it difficult to continue dancing. As described in this paper, differences between ballroom dance walking and Japanese everyday walking can be detected. The center-balanced standard ballroom dance walk is one by which the COG remains near the sacrum within the pelvis; it does not move forward with the swinging out of the leg after the point at which both legs come together. Therefore, with this COG, the balance does not move forward after the legs come together. The COG of everyday usual walking moves forward until after the legs come together. Ballroom dance walk, which teachers describe in various words, and which Japanese trainees struggle to master, differs from the Japanese everyday walk. Future studies will analyze British and American dancers’ COG and compare them with those of Japanese dancers and students. Weight shift and contrary body movement of standard dance walk, contrasted to those of everyday usual walking, will also be studied. 110 Akemi Itagaki 111
References
Ikuta Kumiko 生田久美子 2007[1987] 『「わざ」から知る』 (Learning from “Waza”: Inquiry into the New Form of Human Knowledge). (Cognitive Science Series [Reprinted Editions] 6 First Published in 1987 as Cognitive Science Series 14, University of Tokyo Press, 2007) 東京：東京大学出版会 (Tokyo: Tokyodaigaku Shuppankai) Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing 1994 The Ballroom Technique. London: Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing. ISTD (Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing) 1998 『ボールルームテクニック（第４版）』 (The Ballroom Technique). (translated into Japanese by the License Committee of the Japan Ballroom Dance Federation). 東京：日本ボールルームダンス連盟 (Tokyo: Japan Ballroom Dance Federation). Itagaki Akemi 板垣明美 2006a 「身体感覚・感情の手がかり―ボールルーム・ダンス指導場面 を事例として」 (Clues about the Body’s Sensations and Feelings: A Case Study of Ballroom Dance Instruction). 『文化人類学会研究大 会 2006 発表要旨集』 (Summaries of Presentations at the 2006 Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology) p.129. 東京： 文化人類学会 (Tokyo: Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology). 2006b 「ボールルーム・ダンスの身体技法：歩行とコネクションに着 目して」 (Body Techniques Used in Ballroom Dancing: Walking and Connection). 『横浜市立大学叢人文科学系列第58巻第３号』 (Bulletin of Yokohama City University on Art and Humanities, Vol.58, No.3), pp.25-52. 横浜：横浜市立大学 (Yokohama: Yokohama City University, 2007). 2007a 「身体感覚として『わかる』―ボールルーム・ダンスの練習場 面を事例として」 (Understanding the Body’s Sensations: A Case Study of Ballroom Dance Drills). 『ＫＪ法研究 第 30 号』(Journal of KJ Method Research, Vol.30), pp.23-34. 東京：ＫＪ法学会 (Tokyo: 112 Ballroom Dance Walk as a Corporeal Technique 113
Society of KJ Method). 2007b 「人類の歩行とダンス―ＫＪ法と３Ｄ解析」 (Human Walking and Dancing: KJ Method and Three-Dimensional Motion Analysis). 第31回ＫＪ法学会口頭発表 (Presentation at the 31st Annual Meeting of the KJ Method Society) 2008 「ラテン・アメリカンおよびボールルーム・ダンスの歩行とコ ネクション：ＫＪ法と３次元動作解析」 (Walking and Connection in Latin American and Ballroom Dances: KJ Method and Three-Dimensional Motion Analysis). 『文化人類学会研究大会 2008 発表要旨集』 (Summaries of Presentations at the 2008 Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology), p.240. 東京： 文化人類学会 (Tokyo: Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology). 2018 「ボールルーム・ダンスの歩行に関する比較人類学の試み―歩 行を身体技法として分析する―」 (A Comparative Anthropology of Walking as a Body Technique: A 3D Motion Analysis of Walking In a Ballroom Dance) 『横浜市立大学叢社会科学系列第 69 巻第１号』 (Bulletin of Yokohama City University on Social Science, Vol.69, No.1), pp.123-142. 横浜：横浜市立大学 (Yokohama: Yokohama City University, 2018). Kawada Junzō 川田順造 1992 『西の風、南の風―文化論の組みかえのために』 (West Wind, South Wind: Reconfiguring Cultural Studies). 東京：河出書房新社 (Tokyo: Kawade Shobō Shinsha). 2014 『「運ぶ人」の人類学』 (An anthropology of
の事例研究を通して―」 (Respecifying Body Techniques: Via a Rereading of Mauss’ ‘Les Techniques du Corps’ and a case study at a Martial Art School (
Scott, Edward 1920 Dancing Artistic and Social. London: G. Bell and Sons, revised and enlarged edition. Silvester, Victor 2005 Modern Ballroom Dancing: All the Steps You Need to Get You Dancing. London: Ebury Publishing, New Edition. Silvester, Victor 2005 『モダン・ボールルーム・ダンシング』 (Modern Ballroom Dancing: All the Steps You Need to Get You Dancing), 神元誠・神元久子（訳） (translated into Japanese by Makoto Kammoto and Hisako Kammoto). 東京：白夜書房 (Tokyo: Byakuya-Shobō). Sugawara Kazutaka 菅原和孝、Fujita Takanori 藤田隆則、Hosoma Hiromichi 細馬宏通 2005 「民俗芸能の継承における身体資源の再配分―西浦田楽から の試論―」 (Redistribution of Bodily Resources in the Succession of a Traditional Folk Dance: An Attempt to Understand the Transformation of Nishiura Dengaku in Central Japan, 『文化人類学』 (Japanese Journal of Cultural Anthropology) Vol.70. No.2, pp.182-205, 東京：日本文化人 類学会 (Tokyo: Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology) Winter, David A. 2009 Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement: Fourth edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Yatabe Hidemasa 矢田部英正 2011 『たたずまいの美学―日本人の身体技法』(Aesthetic of appearance: Japanese corporeal Technique). 東京：中央公論新社 (Tokyo: Chūōkōron- Shinsha).