(WRB) to Describe and Classify Chernozemic Soils in Central Europe

Home , Calcisol, Kastanozem, Phaeozem

244 C. KABA£A, P. CHARZYÑSKI, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY, TIBOR J. NOVÁK, MARTIN SAKSA,SOIL M.SCIENCE ŒWITONIAK ANNUAL DOI: 10.2478/ssa-2019-0022 Vol. 70 No. 3/2019: 244–257

CEZARY KABA£A1*, PRZEMYS£AW CHARZYÑSKI2, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY3, TIBOR J. NOVÁK4, MARTIN SAKSA5, MARCIN ŒWITONIAK2

1 Wroc³aw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Institute of Soil Science and Environmental Protection ul. Grunwaldzka 53, 50-375 Wroc³aw, Poland 2 Nicolaus Copernicus University, Department of Soil Science and Landscape Management ul. Lwowska 1, 87-100, Toruñ, Poland 3 University of Pécs, Department of Physical and Environmental Geography 6 Ifjúság u., 7624 Pécs, Hungary 4 University of Debrecen, Department for Landscape Protection and Environmental Geography Egyetem tér 1, 4002 Debrecen, Hungary 5 National Agricultural and Food Centre, Soil Science and Conservation Research Institute Gagarinova 10, 82713 Bratislava, Slovakia

Suitability of World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe

Abstract: Chernozemic soils are distinguished based on the presence of thick, black or very dark, rich in humus, well-structural and base-saturated topsoil horizon, and the accumulation of secondary carbonates within soil profile. In Central Europe these soils occur in variable forms, respectively to climate gradients, position in the landscape, moisture regime, land use, and erosion/ accumulation intensity. "Typical" chernozems, correlated with Calcic or Haplic Chernozems, are similarly positioned at basic classification level in the national soil classifications in Poland, Slovakia and Hungary, and in WRB. Chernozemic soils at various stages of their transformation are placed in Chernozems, Phaeozems or Kastanozems, supplied with respective qualifiers, e.g. Cambic, Luvic, Salic/Protosalic, Sodic/Protosodic etc. Some primeval Chernozems thinned by erosion may still fulfil criteria of Chernozems, but commonly are shifted to Calcisols. Soils upbuilt (aggraded) with colluvial additions may also retain their original placement in Chernozems, getting supplementary qualifier Colluvic. "Hydromorphic" chernozemic soils, in many CE systems are placed as separate soil type ("czarne ziemie" or "èiernice") at the same level with "typical" chernozems. Classification of these soils in WRB depends on the presence of chernic horizon, depth of secondary carbonate accumulation and depth of gleyic/stagnic properties, and may vary from Gleyic/Stagnic Chernozems/Phaeozems to Mollic Gleysols/Stagnosols. Although WRB classification differs from national classifications in the concepts and priorities of classification, it provides large opportunity to reflect the spatial variability and various stages of transformation/degradation of chernozemic soils in Central Europe. Keywords: Calcisols, Chernozems, Gleysols, Kastanozems, Phaeozems, soil classification

INTRODUCTION of chernozemic soils at the margins or beyond the present-day steppe zone. These inconsistencies have Chernozems are iconic soils for global soil science their source (a) in the transitional character of climate due to their special fertility and agricultural usefulness and vegetation that influence the soil forming (trans- (Pozniak and Havrysh 2019). Chernozems are sub- forming) processes, and (b) in the subsequent changes jected to continuous interest of pedologists and agro- of the environmental conditions during the Holocene nomists, and, in many countries, are under legal pro- period which made chernozems polygenetic soils – pre- tection as strategic reserves for national and global sently existing under different climate and vegetation food security. Thus, the standardization of the inven- than these in the time of their development and further tory, evaluation and mapping of chernozems on a transformation (Vyslouñilová et al. 2014a, 2014b; global scale should have a scientific priority. However, Kaba³a 2019a). Also, the land use and other human chernozem definition is based on strictly zonal impacts may greatly influence the direction and scale concept invented by Dokuchaev and his followers, of chernozem evolution or degradation, sometimes closely related to steppe vegetation, fauna and specific shifting them to the other classification units (Kalinina parent material (Eckmeier et al. 2007; Drewnik et al. et al. 2011; Lorz and Saile 2011; Zádorová et al. 2013; 2014; Vyslouñilová et al. 2016). If the properties and Alexandrovskiy et al. 2014; Novák et al. 2014; Chendev classification of chernozems developed in the conti- et al. 2017; Smetanová et al. 2017; ðíñala et al. 2019). nental steppe zones have not been questioned, there In general, there is continuous discussion on the are different opinions on the origin and classification extent of "zonal" chernozems in Europe and the status

* Prof. dr hab. C. Kaba³a, [email protected] http://ssa.ptg.sggw.pl/issue/703 Suitability of WRB to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe 245 of "extrazonal" chernozems, considered to be "degra- METHODS ded" compared to "typical" zonal chernozems. Local classification systems may have tendency to "preserve" Soil profiles were selected and prepared in majority various chernozemic soils under the name of cherno- during the workshops of the FACES project consor- zem, even if their properties differ from these of tium in years 2016–2018 in various parts of Poland, "typical" zonal chernozems (Šály et al. 2000; Nìmeèek Slovakia and Hungary (Fig. 1). Localization of the et al. 2011; Gerasimova and Khitrov 2012; Kaba³a et profiles and basic environmental characteristics for al. 2019). To keep the soil names and maps under- the sites are briefly summarized in table 1. Soil hori- standable to international society it is necessary to draw zons were distinguished and described according to the minimum requirements for chernozems, a set of modernised FAO guidelines, suited to Central Euro- absolutely necessary properties, which guarantee the pean conditions (Œwitoniak et al. 2018). Only the uniqueness of chernozems among other chernozemic crucial soil characteristics are displayed in table 2, soils (Skalský et al. 2009; Zádorová and Peníñek 2011). including the soil colour (moist), structure, consisten- Therefore, it is important to develop uniform inter- ce, texture and diagnostic horizons/properties. national criteria and terminology for soil naming and Samples from all distinguished horizons were collected classification. Two international classification systems for analysis. Particle-size distribution was determined theoretically offer this possibility, i.e. US Soil Taxo- by hydrometer or pipette method after sample disper- nomy (Soil Survey Staff 2014) and WRB (World sion with sodium hexametaphosphate. Texture class Reference Base for Soil Resources; IUSS Working was established according to USDA classification, ad- Group WRB 2015). Although the Soil Taxonomy opted by WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015). applies climatic criteria to soil classification at high Organic carbon content was measured by dry combu- level of classification, the concept of Mollisols order stion method with spectrometric detection of released does not offer reliable identification of soils traditio- CO2 (after carbonate removal). Calcium carbonate nally considered as Chernozems. The definitions of content was analysed using volumetric method on many Reference Soil Groups (RSGs) of WRB classi- Scheibler apparatus and soil pHw was analysed in fication more clearly refer to the zonal origin and distilled water (at soil:water ratio 1:2.5) using poten- distribution of soils (Driessen et al. 2001). Three RSGs tiometric method. Base saturation was calculated as involve major variability of chernozemic soils: Cher- the percentage ratio of the content of base cations nozems, Kastanozems and Phaeozems, accompanied extracted with 1M ammonium acetate at pH 7 to eventually by at least two other RSGs: Mollic Gley- cation exchange capacity. In general, base saturation sols and Mollic Stagnosols. Recently, various projects was very high, between 81 and 100% (tab. 2), thus in have been launched to compare criteria and rules of some soils the analysis was omitted with an assumption soil classification and mapping aimed on unification that it exceeds 50%, if its pHw is higher than 5.5 (Ka- of knowledge on soil resources in Europe and world- ba³a and £abaz 2018). Soil classification/names have wide (Bieganowski et al. 2013; Tóth et al. 2013; been established following the WRB classification International Network of Black Soils 2019). The (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015) and national clas- FACES project (Freely Accessible Central European sifications (Stefanovits 1992; Michéli et al. 2006; Soils, managed by Nicolaus Copernicus University of Societas Pedologica Slovaca 2014; Kaba³a et al. Toruñ, Poland) has also created a platform for testing 2019a), respectively to location of soil profile under the suitability of WRB to properly describe and name investigation (fig. 2a-d). the soils, taking into account an original soil classification in the local (national) soil classification RESULTS AND DISCUSSION systems in Central European countries (Œwitoniak et al. 2018). Poland The aim of the paper is to analyse the approaches to soil naming in WRB and national soil classifica- Although Poland, with its moist temperate climate, tions of various chernozemic soils present in Central has been considered to extend beyond the continental Europe, in relation to factors of their origin or trans- zone, numerous spots of chernozemic soils have formation, using mainly the soil profiles discussed persisted mostly in the South Poland loess belt (£abaz under the FACES project (Soil Database 2019). et al. 2018), probably as remnants of much more extensive cover of chernozems developed in the late Pleistocene/early Holocene or in the Neolithic periods (Kabala et al. 2019b). Chernozemic soils developed from glacial tills characterized by natural poor 246 C. KABA£A, P. CHARZYÑSKI, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY, TIBOR J. NOVÁK, MARTIN SAKSA, M. ŒWITONIAK

FIGURE 1. Sketch map of Central Europe with the location of soil profiles under study drainage and waterlogging are also found on the the WRB criteria (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015) moraine plateaus in northern Poland (Cieœla 1965; D³u- for colour, thickness, structure, organic carbon gosz et al. 1997). content and base saturation (table 2). Soils located in In SW Poland (the Lower Silesia region), cherno- flat and lower landscape positions, most often hydro- zemic soils are developed in two main varieties, the morphic like PL2, have a darker, less saturated soil naturally well-drained ("dry") and the waterlogged or colour and higher organic carbon content compared artificially drained ("hydromorphic") forms. The to soils located in the higher landscape positions, like hydromorphic forms, called in Poland black earths – PL1 (table 2). The structure of humus horizon is czarne ziemie (£abaz and Kaba³a 2014), cover an granular (fine and medium) or blocky subangular or extensive flat areas in the Wroclaw Plain, whereas the angular with secondary granular aggregates. The "dry" forms ("czarnoziemy") are present exceptionally blocky subangular and angular aggregates prevail in on some gentle hill-slopes only (Kaba³a et al. 2015). plough horizons of soils located in lower positions, Both "dry" and "hydromorphic" chernozemic soils are while granular aggregates prevail typically in well- developed in SW Poland from thick loess or loess-like drained soils of hill-slopes. These chernozemic soils materials and typically have a texture of silt loam thro- typically have secondary carbonate accumulations in ughout the profile, or sometimes are underlain with form of hard nodules in the profile and the resulting glacial till or glaciofluvial sand (table 1 and 2; profiles calcic horizon is present at various depths: in soils on PL1 and PL2). Main morphological feature is the slopes or elevations it typically starts below 100 cm presence of thick (50–70 cm and more) and dark- from the surface, while in the soils of depressions it coloured topsoil humus horizon, that meets the criteria often starts at 50–80 cm (some dispersed carbonates of mollic and chernic diagnostic horizons, following may be present throughout the profile). The most Suitability of WRB to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe 247

TABLE 1. Profile location and outline of climate, topography and lsnd use

DIeliforP noitacoL setanidrooC yhpargopoT noitavelE TAAM PAM tneraP esudnaL noisorE lairetam noitalumucca/ .l.s.am oC mm 1LP ,dnaloPWS 05N o ,'94 gnilloryltneg 661 0.8 026 sseol elbara enon neteduS 61E o '15 dnaleroF 2LP ,dnaloPWS 05N o '95 talf 731 5.8 085 nosseol elbara enon naiseliS 61E o '65 llitlaicalg dnalwoL 3LP ,dnaloPEN 35N o ,'60 yltnegyrev 49 3.7 025 llitlaicalg elbara dedore onm³ehC gnillor dnalekaL 4LP ,dnaloPEN 35N o '02 gnilloryltneg 98 8.6 055 muivulloc elbara noitalumucca acindorB 91E o '81 laicalgno dnalekaL llit 1KS ,aikavolSWS 84N o '71 talf 931 0.01 005 sseol elbara enon ebunaD 71E o '33 dnalwoL 2KS ,aikavolSWS 84N o '71 gnipolsyltneg 624 0.9 085 nosseol yradnoces enon ebunaD '22°12E -itsalcoryp tserof dnalwoL sc 1UH ,yragnuHEN 84N o '70 gnipolsyltneg 624 0.9 085 nosseol yradnoces enon lliH-jakoT '22°12E scitsalcoryp tserof 2UHWS ,yragnuH 64N o '20 talf 231 0.11 016 sseol elbara enon slliHaynaraB '30°81E 3UH lartneC '91°74N talf 911 6.01 065 sseol elbara enon yragnuH '74°81E dlöfõzeM 4UH lartneC '91°74N talf 311 6.01 065 sseol elbara dedore ,yragnuH '74°81E dlöfõzeM 5UH ,yragnuHE '71°74N talf 19 5.01 035 -tlislaivulf nedrag enon térráS-ygaN '51°12E yalc 6UH ,yragnuHE '43°74N talf 98 5.01 035 nosseol dnalssarg enon ygábotroH '51°12E -tlislaivulf yalc important morphological difference between "dry" and Thus, the "typical chernozems" that have the secon- "hydromorphic" chernozemic soils is the presence of dary carbonates no deeper than 100 cm from the a well-expressed gleyic or stagnic properties in the surface (following the requirements of the Polish Soil bottom and sometimes also in a middle part of Classification) belong to Chernozems group in WRB, "hydromorphic" chernozemic soil profile. Whereas, the and the "leached chernozems" that have carbonates well-drained ("dry") chernozemic soils do not have deeper than 100 cm from the soil surface, in majority gleyic or stagnic properties at all, or have it very belong to Phaeozems group (Kaba³a et al. 2019a). The poorly expressed. soils with a thick mollic (or chernic) horizon, having According to the Polish Soil Classification (Kaba- high base saturation (throughout the soil profile), but ³a et al. 2019a), soils having a mollic horizon (thicker featured with strong stagnic or gleyic properties than 30 cm) and secondary carbonate accumulation belong to typical black earths (czarne ziemie typowe) (comparable with calcic horizon or protocalcic after Polish Soil Classification. According to WRB, properties of WRB) starting no deeper than 150 cm these soils refer to Gleyic/Stagnic Chernozems, as the from the surface, but lacking the stagnic or gleyic redoximorphic features, if present deeper than 40 cm properties, are classified in a chernozem type ("czar- from the surface, are less important in WRB scheme noziemy"). These soils, in large majority, refer to Cher- than the presence of mollic/chernic horizon and nozems in WRB; however, may also belong to secondary carbonate accumulation. In some soils Phaeozems, if the layer with carbonate accumulation located in the depressions or in other sites with imper- starts deeper than 50 cm below the mollic horizon. fect drainage systems, the strong redoximorphic 248 C. KABA£A, P. CHARZYÑSKI, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY, TIBOR J. NOVÁK, MARTIN SAKSA, M. ŒWITONIAK features (gleyic properties) may start less than 40 cm variants under comparison in north Poland (both the from the surface or even directly below the plough eroded and covered by colluvial material) are classified layer. In such sites, the soils with mollic horizon may as black earths according to Polish Soils Classification be classified (according to WRB) as Mollic Gleysols (Kaba³a et al. 2019a). According to WRB (IUSS (Gerasimova and Khitrov 2012), even if contain large Working Group WRB 2015), the soil PL3, although amounts of secondary carbonates. eroded, still meets the criteria of Calcic Chernozems, The above mentioned "dry" and "hydromorphic" and soil PL4 belongs to Eutric Chernic Gleysols (Col- chernozemic soils may occur even in one slope catena, luvic). in a following order (starting from the upper slope): Phaeozem (leached chernozem) – Calcic Chernozem Slovakia ("typical chernozem") – Gleyic Chernozem – Mollic Gleysol (typical black earth). The main reason for this Similarly like in other Central European countries, spatial variability is the natural climate humidity, which in Slovakia are also distinguished two varieties of presumably turned the originally "dry" Chernozems chernozemic soils differing in moisture regime, i.e. into "hydromorphic" Chernozems (Polish "black "dry" or well-drained èernozeme and "hydromorphic" earths") in the late Holocene period (£abaz et al. 2018; èiernice – black earths (Societas Pedologica Slovaca Kaba³a et al. 2019b). The surface relief is a factor 2014). Both forms occur mainly in Danube lowland supporting the spatial soil variability, as the concave in the southwest of Slovakia. Èiernice are common and flat-low positioned landscape forms foster water mainly on Danube flat land, on loess sediments in accumulation, whereas convex landscape forms foster mixture with loamy calcareous alluvial deposits, water drainage and also soil leaching and erosion. while èernozeme occur mainly in Danube hilly lands Accumulation of the humus-rich soil material in the dominantly constructed from loess. Èernozeme in SW foot-slopes and in the local depressions, followed by Slovakia are developed from loess and loess-like thickening of humus horizon of "moist" chernozemic materials, have a loamy or silt-loamy texture and soils (Gleyic Chernozem (Colluvic)) may be the other secondary carbonates accumulation starting within the expression of spatial variability of chernozemic soils upper 100 cm of soil. The topsoil humus horizon often in the region (£abaz et al. 2019a); however, mostly fulfil the criteria for chernic horizon according to WRB human-driven (Zádorová et al. 2013; Œwitoniak 2014). (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015), thus soils typi- Chernozemic soils of north Poland commonly are cally meet the requirements for Calcic Chernozems similar to the "hydromorphic" forms described above, (tab. 2; profile SK1). in relation both to the humid climate and soil location The development of these chernozems began with in concave/low-positioned landscape forms. Because the formation of chernic/mollic horizons under steppe they occur in areas intensively used by agriculture, vegetation during the Boreal period of Holocene the soils in many places, when they are located on (Hraško 1966). During the Atlantic period, the convex terrain positions, are often affected by erosion warmest and most humid period of Holocene, the steppe (profile PL3). The topsoil humus horizons of these was presumably replaced with broadleaf forests eroded soils still fulfil criteria of mollic or chernic (Krippel 1986). The soils were exposed to higher horizons but their thickness is restricted to the depth precipitation and leaching of carbonates under forest of ploughing – approximately 30 cm. As a result of vegetation (under beech forests in particular) resulting subsoil admixing during ploughing, calcareous material in decalcification of the upper part of the soil profile. is partly incorporated into Ap horizons. As a consequ- Decalcification and permanent forest cover have ence, despite the climate favourable for leaching, the encouraged further processes, such as weathering, clay topsoil chernic horizons are rich in carbonates and have translocation and decomposition of soil organic matter. a slightly lighter colour compared to non-eroded The chernic/mollic horizon became thinner and horizons (tab. 2). On the other hand, chernozemic poorer in humus, and illuvial argic horizons have soils located in shallow depressions and concave formed (table 2; profile SK2). These transformed sections of slopes are often covered by colluvial material humus horizons very often do not fulfil the criteria for (PL4). These slope deposits have high pH values, are mollic horizon according to WRB (IUSS Working relatively rich in organic carbon, have dark colour and Group WRB 2015) and Slovak classification system well developed granular or fine subangular soil struc- (Societas Pedologica Slovaca 2014), thus soil have to ture, thus may meet criteria for mollic horizon. be classified as Luvisols (Luvizeme in Slovak). The Whereas, the buried native humus horizons may meet existence of transitional forms of the Luvic Cherno- criteria for chernic horizon (tab. 2). Because of the zems/Kastanozems is also possible. presence of strong redoximorphic features, the two soil Suitability of WRB to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe 249

TABLE 2. Soil morphology, physicochemical properties, diagnostic horizons and properties

eliforP noziroH htpeD ruoloC erutcurtS -isnoC erutxeT COT wHp SB OCaC 3 scitsongaiD DI mc )tsiom( ecnets ssalc % % 1LP pA 62–0 2/3RY01 f,rg rfv LiS 32.1 9.6 29 0 cinrehc A 27–62 2/3RY01 m/f,bs/rg rfv LiS 06.0 2.7 59 0 cillom BA 39–27 4/4RY01 m/f,bs rf LiS 62.0 6.7 001 0 cibmac CB 511–39 8/5RY01 m,ba rf LiS 41.0 0.8 001 0 cibmac ckC 051–511 6/6RY01 c,ba rf LiS 11.0 3.8 001 0.61 ciclac 2LP pA 53–0 1/2Y5 m,bs/rg rf LiS 61.2 9.7 001 5.2 cinrehc khA 55–53 1/2Y5 m,rg rf LiS 46.1 1.8 001 0.5 cinrehc lkBA 57–55 2/3Y5 m,ba/bs rf LiS 82.0 2.8 001 6.91om ciclac,cill lckC 501–57 +1/6Y01 m,ba if LiS 30.0 4.8 001 8.51 ciyelg,ciclac 6/6RY01 rkC2 051–501 1/6Y01 pm rf LS 20.0 5.8 001 1.2 ciyelg 3LP pA 03–0 2/3Y5.2 f,bs rf L 18.1 3.8 001 8.51 cinrehc gkC 08–03 RY01+3/5Y5 pm rf L 13.0 5.8 001 7.51 cingats,ciclac 4/4 4LP pA 23–0 3/2RY01 f,bs rf LS 42.1 0.7 18 0.2 cillom bA 57–23 1/2RY5.7 m,rg rf LS 52.1 3.7 38 0.2 cinrehc rkC 001–57 2/7Y01 pm rf LS – 5.8 001 2.9 ,ciyelg ciclacotorp 1KS pA 52–0 2/2RY01 bs,rg rf LCiS 9.1 1.7 dn 1.0< cinrehc hA 54–52 2/2RY01 rg rf LCiS 4.1 3.7 dn 1.0< cinrehc 2A 56–54 3/3RY01 rg rf LCiS dn dn dn dn cillom kCA 59–56 4/5RY01 ba rf CiS 09.0 6.7 dn 6.51 – 3/5.3+ kC )011(–59 6/5.6RY01 pm,bs if LCiS 02.0 6.7 dn 2.23 ciclac 2KS iO 2–3 – – – dn 4.64 5.5 dn dn – eO 0–2 – – – dn 1.42 3.6 dn dn – hA 01–0 3/3RY01 rg rf LiS 01.2 6.4 dn 0 – wBA 03–01 4/4RY5.7 bs rf LiS 11.1 1.5 dn 0 – 1tB 06–03 4/3RY5.7 ba rf L dn 7.5 dn 0 cigra 2tB 09–06 6/5RY01 bs,ba rf L dn 2.5 dn 0 cigra ktBC 501–09 6/6RY01 bs,ba if LiS dn 0.7 dn 2.4 – kC )031(–501 4/6Y5.2 bs,ba if LiS dn 6.7 dn 9.62 ciclac 1UH hA 55–0 2/3RY01 f,bs/rg rf LiS 06.2 9.6 dn 1.3 cinrehc BA 38–55 2/4RY01 m/f,bs rf LiS 02.1 1.8 dn 0.5 cibmac kC 011–38 4/4Y5.2 m/f,bs rf LiS 05.0 3.8 dn 5.51 ciclac 2UH pA 02–0 2/3RY01 fv/f,bs rfv LiS 34.1 8.6 dn 0 cinrehc 2pA 04–02 2/3RY01 fv/f,bs rfv LiS 35.1 8.6 dn 0 cinrehc A 55–04 2/3RY01 f,bs/rg rf LiS 66.0 3.7 dn 8.92 cillom BA 08–55 3/4RY01 fv,bs/rg rf LiS 49.0 3.7 dn 5.02ac ciclac,cibm kCB 021–08 4/5Y5.2 m/f,ba rf LiS 83.0 4.7 dn 6.62ac ciclac,cibm kC 061–021 4/5Y5.2 m/f,ba rf LiS 72.0 1.8 dn 6.13 ciclac 3UH pA 82–0 1/2RY01 m/f,bs/rg rfv LC 06.1 0.7 dn 1.1 cinrehc 1hA 05–82 1/2RY01 m/f,bs/rg rfv LC 46.1 3.7 dn 5.1 cinrehc 2hA 08–05 2/3RY01 m,bs rf LC 03.1 2.8 dn 8.1 cillom kCA 011–08 3/5Y5.2 m,bs rf LiS 06.0 4.8 dn 9.62 ciclac kC 531–011 4/6Y5.2 m,bs rf LiS dn 6.8 dn 1.82 ciclac 250 C. KABA£A, P. CHARZYÑSKI, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY, TIBOR J. NOVÁK, MARTIN SAKSA, M. ŒWITONIAK

Table 2. continued

eliforP noziroH htpeD ruoloC erutcurtS -isnoC erutxeT COT wHp SB OCaC 3 scitsongaiD DI mc )tsiom( ecnets ssalc % % 4UH pA 53–0 2/3Y5.2 m,bs/rg rfv LC 02.1 0.8 dn 6.7 cinrehc kCB 06–53 3/5Y5.2 c/m,bs rfv L dn 6.8 dn 4.31 ciclacotorp kC 08–06 4/6Y5.2 c/m,bs rf LS dn 7.8 dn 2.22 ciclac 5UH pA 02–0 1/2RY01 f,rg rf L 07.1 9.6 dn 0 cinrehc hA 53–02 1/2RY01 m/f,bs/lp rf LC 05.1 6.7 dn 0 cinrehc tBA2 55–53 1/2RY01 m/f,rp rf C 01.1 7.7 dn 0 cillom gtB2 07–55 1/3Y5.2 m/f,rp rf C 07.0 1.8 dn 1.1 cillom kCB2 011–07 2/3Y5.2 m,bs rf C 03.0 6.8 dn 4.71 ciclac 2kCB2 031–011 3/4Y5.2 m,bs if C 02.0 8.8 dn 1.61 ciclac 6UH pA 02–0 2/2RY01 f,rg rfv LCiS 09.2 4.7 001 9.1 cinrehc hA 05–02 1/2RY01 m/f,bs/rg rf LCiS 03.2 8.7 001 9.3 cinrehc kB 59–05 2/4RY01 f,bs rf LCiS 09.0 4.8 001 6.71 ciclac kCB 011–59 4/5Y5.2 am rf LC 02.0 1.9 001 5.51 ciclac kC +011 4/6Y5.2 am if C 81.0 3.9 001 7.21 ,ciclacotorp cilasotorp

Explanation: texture class: C – clay, CL – clay loam, L – loam, SiCL – silty clay loam, SiL – silt loam, SL – sandy loam; structure type: gr – granular, sb – blocky subangular, ab – blocky angular, pr – prismatic, pl – platy, ma – massive; aggregate size: f – fine, m – medium, c – coarse; consistence: vfr – very friable, fr – friable, fi – firm; TOC – total organic carbon, pHw – pH in distilled water; BS – base saturation; nd – not determined.

Such transformation of Chernozems into Luvisols light (sandy) or heavy (shrink-swell clays) textures took place mainly in the moister, peripheral parts of are absent (Várallyay 2015). Correlation of the prin- the Danube hilly lands. The intensity of soil forming cipally genesis-based Hungarian soil taxa with WRB processes varied across hilly lands from warmer and units, and their mutual conversion are often challen- drier parts towards the cooler, moister and more ging (Michéli et al. 2006; Pásztor et al. 2014). The elevated peripheral foot slopes (in this case foots of approximate equivalents of the Hungarian chernozemic the Little Carpathians Mts.). That resulted in the soils in the WRB classification are Phaeozems, formation of various soils with chernic/mollic Kastanozems and Chernozems (Michéli et al. 2014), horizons combined with argic or cambic horizons, or in some cases they are interpreted as Mollic Verti- known as soil piedmont zonality (Bedrna 1966; sols and Mollic Gleysols. Chernozemic soils, in many Fulajtár et al. 2016). In a drier central parts of the places, have been cultivated since the Neolithic age hilly land, the mollic/chernic horizons were preserved, (ca. 8,000 years BP), and have been affected by but intense farming followed by surface erosion led in profound anthropogenic, climatic and land use influ- many cases to significant degradation (reduction in ences over the past few thousand years (Farsang et al. thickness) of the topsoil humus horizons, as reported 2015). from Czech Republic (Zádorová et al. 2013). Driving factors of the differentiation of various chernozem subtypes are vegetation, texture and Hungary moisture regime and dynamics, which may result in either gleyic (or stagnic) features or saline and alkaline Chernozems or chernozem-like soils, according to properties (Michéli et al. 2019). Soil types transitional the genesis-based current Hungarian soil classifica- to "forest brown soils" (presumably correlated with tion system (Földvári 1966; Stefanovits 1992; Michéli Luvisols) are typical on elevated, partially forested and Krasilnikov 2009), cover 22.4% of Hungary, foothill areas (in Hungary called leached and eluviated being one of the most important soil types in terms of chernozems, and chernozems with "forest remnants", agricultural productivity. Considered as zonal soils of fig. 2c, HU1) (Láng et al. 2013). They are distingu- the Hungarian lowland steppe and forest steppe vege- ished from other chernozems by their relatively low tation, chernozems are widespread on flat and slightly pH in the topsoil, high, but unstable organic carbon sloping hilly areas and foothills, where the limiting contents and, partially, by the presence of clay and soil forming factors, such as shallow consolidated humus cutans (Michéli et al. 2019). Archetypical cher- parent material, shallow (saline) groundwater and nozems cover the flat, loess covered plains made up Suitability of WRB to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe 251

FIGURE 2a. Morphology and classification (local and WRB classifications) of soil profiles of carbonate rich unconsolidated silty materials as a result of very heavy erosion, it may be considered where even the deeper parts of the soil profile are Calcisol (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015). This pro- unaffected by groundwater. Calcic horizons, often cess is extensive on the rolling hills of the loess plains distinctive for chernozems, are frequently characterized and plateaus and leads to the exclusion of many of by pseudomycelia, considered as the evidence of chernozem-like soils (based on Hungarian classifica- vertical carbonate fluctuation within the profile (fig. tion) from the Chernozems defined by WRB (Novák 2c, profiles HU2 and HU3). Deep mixing of the organic et al. 2018a). materials due to high biological activity is sometimes The "meadow chernozems" located on low-lying observed in the form of earthworm channel infillings plains and especially floodplains with seasonally (HU2) or in form of burrows of small soil-dwelling shallow groundwater levels are typically characterized mammals, i.e. krotovinas (fig. 2c-d, profiles HU3 and by gleyic features (Fuchs et al. 2011). On the plains HU6). The stability of organic matter in these soils covered by clayey sediments, gleyic and stagnic produces high organic carbon contents even after features are often paralelly present in the profile. several millennia of cultivation. Slightly undulating However, the very dark (blackish) colour of the landforms may also lead to heavy erosion during the humus rich horizon may cover these features creating prolonged periods of cultivation. Hence the original a blurry and hardly recognizable appearance (Farkas chernic horizon, having been continuously mixed with et al. 2009; Dóka 2013). Due to the river regulation the subsoil, has been thinning and its lower boundary and drainage of extensive areas in the 18th and 19th is often abrupt (HU4), indicating a ploughed topsoil centuries, the gleyic and even stagnic features (except as a common anthropogenic feature of these soils. As of relictistagnic/relictigleyic properties) regularly do a consequence of further erosion, the chernic horizon not meet the corresponding diagnostic criteria (Fuchs loses its favourable granular structure and its organic et al. 2011). Some of the lowland sediments in Hunga- carbon content decreases. According to requirements ry are clay-rich, which has a significant impact on the of the present version of WRB, the eroded soil with structure of these soils. The structure of soil HU5 in medium or even coarser subangular or angular bloc- its uppermost two horizons fulfils the criteria of cher- ky aggregates typically classifies as Kastanozem, or nic, but in many cases clay-rich chernozemic 252 C. KABA£A, P. CHARZYÑSKI, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY, TIBOR J. NOVÁK, MARTIN SAKSA, M. ŒWITONIAK

PL4: Czarna ziemia typowa (przykryta) SK1: Èernozem kultizemná karbonátová SK2: Luvizem modálna nasýtená WRB2015: Eutric Chernic Gleysol WRB2015: Calcic Chernozem WRB2015: Haplic Luvisol (Aric, Colluvic, Humic, Pantoloamic, Pachic) (Loamic, Aric, Pachic) (Cutanic, Hypereutric, Ochric, Siltic, Bathycalcic)

FIGURE 2b. Morphology and classification (local and WRB classifications) of soil profiles (continued) soils of the eastern part of the Great Hungarian Plain and Hungary) has shown that these soils occur in (GHP) have significantly coarser, subangular or various variants, which reflect the influences of prismatic structure (Novák et al. 2018a). They may climate, topography, vegetation, but also land use and also have anthropogenically compacted, degraded intensity of farming. structure due to machinery ploughing (Farsang et al. In all three countries, soils considered "typical cher- 2015). Therefore, they must be classified as Kastano- nozems" have been identified. All these soil have zems (according to present version of WRB). Another common morphological and physicochemical features way of transformation of chernozemic soils is related expected in chernozems, i.e. are developed from loess to intensive cultivation, e.g. gardening (Novák et al. or loess-like materials, have thick, humus-rich and 2018b). The development of a thick (more than 50 blackish topsoil horizon and also have accumulation cm) hortic or anthric features results in the transfor- of secondary carbonates in the profile (tab. 2, profiles mation of Chernozem into Anthrosol. PL1, SK1, HU2-HU3). All these soils fulfil criteria of Moreover, on extensive areas of the GHP the high Haplic/Calcic Chernozems (IUSS Working Group groundwater salinity generates solonetzic or saline WRB 2015), considered the most typical forms of features in the deeper soil horizons (profile HU6). Chernozems in a WRB (Driessen et al. 2001). Although These soils appear as small inclusions within large only few soil profiles are involved in this comparison, areas of salt affected soils. Aside from fulfilling the the properties of chernozems clearly change from so- criteria for Chernozems, they are often designated with uth to north. The organic carbon content is lower in either Bathysalic or Bathysodic qualifiers, and thus the upper 50 cm layer of chernozems in SW Poland represent transitional forms to Solonetzs and Solon- (0.6–1.2%) compared to soils in Slovakia (1.4–1.9%) chaks groups (Novák and Tóth 2016). and Hungary (1.2–2.6%). Significant accumulation of

secondary carbonates (>15% of CaCO3) starts in SW Soil variability identified by WRB Poland commonly deeper than 100 cm, whereas in and local soil classifications Slovakia and in Hungary at 40–80 cm (tab. 2). These single examples correspond well with numerous Brief overview of chernozemic soils features in available characteristics of chernozems in those three Central European countries (Poland, Slovakia countries (Hraško 1966; Turski 1985; Skalský et al. Suitability of WRB to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe 253

FIGURE 2c. Morphology and classification (local and WRB classifications) of soil profiles (continued)

2009; Novák et al. 2014, 2018a; Šimanský et al. 2016; profile, that disturb rapid mineralization and favour Vyslou•ilová et al. 2016; Jonczak et al. 2017; £abaz accumulation of humified organic matter, the topsoil et al. 2018, 2019b) and support a common opinion, horizons of these hydromorphic soils are more rich in that chernozems existing under more continental organic carbon compared to "typical" (well drained) climate are more enriched in humus and less leached chernozems and have nearly black colour of topsoil compared to chernozems existing under more humid horizon (PL2, PL4). Therefore, the soils are called climate; the latter therefore considered a "degraded" black earths - czarne ziemie in Poland and èiernice in variety (Borowiec 1968; Eckmeier et al. 2007; Kaba- Slovakia (fig. 2a-b). Czarne ziemie/èiernice typically ³a 2019). The differences between chernozems along have mollic (or chernic) horizon, respectively to their a transect Hungary – Slovakia – Poland are similar, name, and the gleyic or stagnic properties directly to some extent, to zonal differentiation of these soils below mollic horizon, respectively to their hydromor- from more southern steppe to more northern forest- phic identity (tab. 1). If the secondary carbonates are steppe zones in European Russia (Afanasyeva 1966; present forming the calcic horizon or protocalcic pro- Khitrov et al. 2019) or in Ukraine (Pozniak and Ha- perties, the soil may meet requirements for Gleyic/Sta- vrysh 2019). gnic Chernozems (fig. 2a, profiles PL2 and PL3). If The above mentioned climate-driven differentiation carbonates are leached more deeply (more than 50 cm is reflected in many other soil properties. Salt accu- below the bottom of mollic) or the topsoil horizon does mulation and protosalic conditions (profile HU6) are not fulfil criteria for chernic horizon, the soils are clas- present only in the chernozems in Hungary (the most sified as Gleyic/Stagnic Phaeozems (£abaz and continental and the driest of the countries under com- Kaba³a 2014, £abaz et al. 2019a). In a most "extre- parison). Whereas, many chernozemic soils located in me" case, where gleyic properties are present directly Poland, the most humid of the countries under compa- below mollic horizon and the reducing condition start rison, are featured by the presence of strongly develo- below the depth of 40 cm (even within the mollic/ ped redoximorphic features (fig. 2a). Due to prolon- chernic horizon), the soils must be recognized as ged seasonal or permanent reducing conditions, Mollic Gleysol (fig. 2b, profile PL4). The above com- commonly existing in a middle/upper part of soil parison reveals some difference between national clas- 254 C. KABA£A, P. CHARZYÑSKI, SZABOLCS CZIGÁNY, TIBOR J. NOVÁK, MARTIN SAKSA, M. ŒWITONIAK

FIGURE 2d. Morphology and classification (local and WRB classifications) of soil profiles (continued) sifications and WRB. The czarne ziemie/èiernice are leaching, clay eluviation and humus decomposition placed among chernozemic soils at the same level with under forest vegetation, typical for temperate humid chernozems that highlights the high priority given to climate, resulting in a complete chernozem transfor- hydromorphic features present in the upper and/or mation into Luvisol, displays the profile SL2 (fig. 2b). middle parts or the soil profile, equal to the presence Various transitional forms between Chernozems/Pha- of mollic/chernic horizons (Societas Pedologica eozems and Luvisols/Retisols have been reported from Slovaca 2014; Kaba³a et al. 2019b). Whereas in the Central and Eastern Europe (Borowiec 1968; Chen- WRB, the redoximorphic features (gleyic/stagnic dev et al. 2017; Khitrov et al. 2019), but the most properties) have secondary importance and are indi- spectacular documentation (including the dating) of cated at second/third level (as principal or supplemen- the processes of chernozem degradation provide the tary qualifiers) in Chernozems/Phaeozems. Alternati- studies in the archaeological sites, in particular on vely, soils with redoximorphic features present at par- kurgans (Barczi et al. 2006; Alexandrovskiy et al. ticularly shallow depth are recognised preferentially 2014; Vyslouñilová et al. 2014b; Kaba³a et al. 2019b). as hydromorphic Gleysols or Stagnosols, that makes Chernozems in Central Europe may acquire new the presence of mollic/chernic horizons a secondary morphological and physicochemical features under (accompanying) feature. natural influences of more or less humid climate; The other common, but variably developed feature however, the most serious threat for the presence of of chernozemic soils under study is the clay translocation these soils is related to intense gardening or farming within the profile and the development of illuvial ABt (Novák et al. 2018b), typically connected with land- or even Bt horizon. Weak to medium clay (and some- scape opening and topsoil ploughing, that may result times of humus) translocation may be hardly recogni- in accelerated sheet erosion. The phenomena, repor- sable in a profile morphology (fig. 2a, profiles PL1 ted from all hilly areas of Central Europe (Turski 1985; and HU3, HU5); however, it may be easily detected Zádorová et al. 2013; Œwitoniak 2014; Novák et al. during the careful structure/texture investigation. The 2016, 2018a; Smetanová et al. 2017), may lead to "extreme" stadium of chernozem degradation by significant thinning of humus horizon, finally equal to Suitability of WRB to describe and classify chernozemic soils in Central Europe 255 the thickness of a plough layer (fig. 2b-d, profiles PL3, distinguished at highest level in WRB system. HU4). Until the plough layer keeps the criteria for "Hydromorphic" chernozemic soils, particularly com- mollic/chernic horizon (including the thickness, colour, mon in Poland, in some national classifications are humus content and structure), the soil is classified as placed as separate soil type, paralelly (at the same Chernozem (typically – a Calcic Chernozem). If the level) to the "typical" chernozems (e.g. czarne ziemie admixture of lighter-coloured and humus-free subsoil or èiernice). In WRB these soils may belong to Gleyic/ to the plough layer places the topsoil horizon beyond Stagnic Chernozems/Phaeozems in the case of deeper the criteria for mollic/chernic horizon, the soil is "arti- presence of the redoximorphic features, or to Mollic/ ficially" shifted to Calcisols (Zádorová et al. 2013), Chernic Gleysols/Stagnosols, in case of very shallow correlated in the national classifications with various occurrence of reducing conditions and redoximorphic types of poorly developed soils, i.e. regosols or para- features. The placement of chernozemic soils at rendzinas (Drewnik and ¯y³a 2019). various stages of their transformation, in particular Complementary to eroded soils, which may not featured by base cations leaching, clay translocation fulfil the criteria for chernozems, the colluvial cher- or salt/sodium accumulation is similar in the national nozems may develop in the footslope and other low/ and WRB classifications. Significant differences concave landscape positions (Zádorová et al. 2013). between national classifications and WRB were iden- These "upbuilt" soils fulfil criteria for Chernozems tified in case of soils degraded by erosion or aggraded (with supplementary qualifier Colluvic, and typically by accumulation of colluvial materials. also Pachic) if the accumulated colluvial material is Although WRB classification differs from natio- rich enough in humified organic matter to meet the nal classifications in the concepts and priorities of clas- criteria for mollic/chernic horizon, like in profile PL4 sification, it provides large opportunity to reflect the (tab. 2, fig. 2b). This colluvial cover over native soil spatial variability and various stages of transformation/ profile that may significantly thicken the humus degradation of chernozemic soils in Central Europe, horizon (mollic/chernic), is differently recognised in using a simple, two-three-level system of soil naming. particular national classifications. Only the Polish system (Kaba³a et al. 2019b) classifies the chernoze- REFERENCES mic colluvial soils as separate unit at the basic level of soil classification (equal to chernozems), if the thick- Afanasyeva E.A., 1966. Chernozems of the middle Russian ness of colluvial material reaches 50 cm and more; Upland. Nauka, Moscow: 223 pp. whereas the international and other national systems Alexandrovskiy A.L., Sedov S.N., Shishkov V.A., 2014. The development of deep soil processes in ancient kurgans of the distinguishes colluvial features in chernozemic soils North Caucasus. 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