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Deep Ecology 456 Deep Ecology Taylor, Bron. “Resacralizing Earth: Pagan Environmental- pocentrism (human-centeredness), which values nature ism and the Restoration of Turtle Island.” In American exclusively in terms of its usefulness to humans. Anthro- Sacred Space. David Chidester and Edward. T. pocentrism, in turn, is viewed as grounded in Western Linenthal, eds. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, religion and philosophy, which many deep ecologists 1995, 97–151. believe must be rejected (or a deep ecological transform- See also: Abbey, Edward; Black Mesa; Church of ation of consciousness within them must occur) if humans Euthanasia; Earth First! and the Earth Liberation Front; are to learn to live sustainably on the Earth. Green Death Movement; Jeffers, John Robinson; Radical Thus, many deep ecologists believe that only by Environmentalism. “resacralizing” our perceptions of the natural world can we put ecosystems above narrow human interests and learn to live harmoniously with the natural world, thereby Deep Ecology averting ecological catastrophe. It is a common perception within the deep ecology movement that the religions of Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess (b. 1912) coined the indigenous cultures, the world’s remnant and newly term “Deep Ecology” in 1972 to express the idea that revitalized or invented pagan religions, and religions nature has intrinsic value, namely, value apart from its originating in Asia (especially Daoism, Buddhism, and usefulness to human beings, and that all life forms should Hinduism) provide superior grounds for ecological ethics, be allowed to flourish and fulfill their evolutionary des- and greater ecological wisdom, than do Occidental tinies. Naess invented the rubric to contrast such views religions. Theologians such as Matthew Fox and Thomas with what he considered to be “shallow” environmen- Berry, however, have shown that Western religions such as talism, namely, environmental concern rooted only in Christianity may be interpreted in ways largely compatible concern for humans. The term has since come to signify with the deep ecology movement. both its advocates’ deeply felt spiritual connections to the Although Naess coined the umbrella term, which is now Earth’s living systems and ethical obligations to protect a catchphrase for most non-anthropocentric environ- them, as well as the global environmental movement that mental ethics, a number of Americans were also criticizing bears its name. Moreover, some deep ecologists posit close anthropocentrism and laying the foundation for the connections between certain streams in world religions movement’s ideas at about the same time as Naess was and deep ecology. coining the term. One crucial event early in deep ecology’s Naess and most deep ecologists, however, trace their evolution was the 1974 “Rights of Non-Human Nature” perspective to personal experiences of connection to conference held at a college in Claremont, California. and wholeness in wild nature, experiences which are the Inspired by Christopher Stone’s influential 1972 law article ground of their intuitive, affective perception of the (and subsequent book) Should Trees Have Standing? – sacredness and interconnection of all life. Those who have Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects, the conference experienced such a transformation of consciousness drew many of those who would become the intellectual (experiencing what is sometimes called one’s “ecological architects of deep ecology. These included George Sessions self” in these movements) view the self not as separate who, like Naess, drew on Spinoza’s pantheism, later co- from and superior to all else, but rather as a small part authoring Deep Ecology with Bill Devall; Gary Snyder, of the entire cosmos. From such experience flows the con- whose remarkable, Pulitzer prize-winning Turtle clusion that all life and even ecosystems themselves have Island proclaimed the value of place-based spiritualities, inherent or intrinsic value – that is, value independently of indigenous cultures, and animistic perceptions, ideas that whether they are useful to humans. would become central within deep ecology subcultures; Although Naess coined the term, many deep ecologists and the late Paul Shepard (d. 1996), who in The Tender credit the American ecologist Aldo Leopold with suc- Carnivore and the Sacred Game, and subsequent works cinctly expressing such a deep ecological worldview in his such as Nature and Madness and the posthumously now famous “Land Ethic” essay, which was published published Coming Back to the Pleistocene, argued that posthumously in A Sand County Almanac in 1948. foraging societies were ecologically superior to and emo- Leopold argued that humans ought to act only in ways tionally healthier than agricultural societies. Shepard and designed to protect the long-term flourishing of all Snyder especially provided a cosmogony that explained ecosystems and each of their constituent parts. humanity’s fall from a pristine, natural paradise. Also Many deep ecologists call their perspective alter- extremely influential was Edward Abbey’s Desert Solitaire, natively “ecocentrism” or “biocentrism” (to convey, which viewed the desert as a sacred place uniquely able to respectively, an ecosystem-centered or life-centered value evoke in people a proper, non-anthropocentric under- system). As importantly, they believe humans have so standing of the value of nature. By the early 1970s the degraded the biosphere that its life-sustaining systems are above figures put in place the intellectual foundations of breaking down. They trace this tragic situation to anthro- deep ecology. Deep Ecology 457 Deep Ecology Platform 1. Human and nonhuman life alike have inherent value. Formulated by Arne Naess and George Sessions in April 2. Richness and diversity of life contribute to realizing 1984, during a camping trip in Death Valley, California, these values, and are themselves valuable. the Deep Ecology Platform (DEP) seeks to be agreeable to 3. Humans have no right to reduce richness or diversity environmentalists from many different persuasions. except to satisfy vital needs. Individuals may derive the DEP from their own ultimate 4. Human life can flourish with a substantial reduction premises and ecosophies (a term Naess coined for “eco- in human population, which is needed for the logical philosophy”), Buddhism, Christianity, Spinozism, flourishing of nonhuman life. or ecofeminism, or they may arrive at the DEP as a result 5. Present human interference with the nonhuman of deep questioning that moves from particular situ- world is already excessive and is worsening. ations toward more general norms and consequences. 6. Economic, technological, and ideological policies The DEP has been criticized, for example, by those must be changed, in a way that leads to states of who fear that its fourth plank, regarding population affairs deeply different from the present. reduction, could be used to justify draconian birth- 7. The ideological change must involve appreciating the control methods. In general, however, the DEP has won inherent value of all life, rather than continually assent from many environmentalists. increasing the material living standard. The eight-point platform may be summarized in this 8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an way: obligation to implement the necessary changes. Michael E. Zimmerman A corresponding movement soon followed and grew ducted “road shows” to transform consciousness and pro- rapidly, greatly influencing grassroots environmentalism, mote environmental action. Such events usually involve especially in Europe, North America, and Australia. speeches and music designed to evoke or reinforce Shortly after forming in 1980, for example, leaders of the peoples’ felt connections to nature, and inspires action. politically radical Earth First! movement (the exclamation Often, they also include photographic presentations con- point is part of its name) learned about Deep Ecology, and trasting intact and revered ecosystems with degraded and immediately embraced it as their own spiritual philosophy. defiled lands. Meanwhile, the green lifestyle-focused movement known Some activists have designed ritual processes to further as bioregionalism also began to embody a deep ecology deepen participants’ spiritual connections to nature and worldview. Given their natural affinities it was not political commitment to defend it. Joanna Macy and a long before bioregionalism became the prevailing social number of others, including John Seed, for example, philosophy among deep ecologists. developed a ritual process known as the Council of All As a philosophy and as a movement, deep ecology Beings, which endeavors to get activists to see the world spread in many ways. During the 1980s and early 1990s, from the perspective of nonhuman entities. Since the for example, Bill Devall and George Sessions published early 1980s, traveling widely around the world, Seed has their influential book, Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature labored especially hard spreading deep ecology through Mattered; Warwick Fox in Toward a Transpersonal Ecol- this and other newly invented ritual processes. The move- ogy linked deep ecology with transpersonal psychology, ment has also been disseminated through the writings of thereby furthering the development of what is now called its architects (often reaching college students in environ- ecopsychology; David Rothenberg translated and edited mental studies courses); through journalists reporting Arne Naess’s important
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