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A Comprehensive Evaluation Model of Ammonia Pollution Trends in a Groundwater Source Area Along a River in Residential Areas

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A Comprehensive Evaluation Model of Ammonia Pollution Trends in a Groundwater Source Area Along a River in Residential Areas water Article A Comprehensive Evaluation Model of Ammonia Pollution Trends in a Groundwater Source Area along a River in Residential Areas Zhuoran Wang 1,* , Xiaoguang Zhao 1,2, Tianyu Xie 3, Na Wen 1 and Jing Yao 1 1 College of Geology and Environment, Xi’an University of Science & Technology, No. 58 Yanta Road, Xi’an 710054, China; [email protected] (X.Z.); [email protected] (N.W.); [email protected] (J.Y.) 2 Institute of Mine Environmental Engineering, Xi’an University of Science & Technology, No. 58 Yanta Road, Xi’an 710054, China 3 Guodu Education Science and Technology Industrial Development Zone, School of Art, Xi’an International Studies University, No. 6 Wenyuan South Road, Xi’an 710128, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-187-9140-8020 Abstract: In this study, a comprehensive evaluation model of ammonia pollution trends in a ground- water source area along a river in residential areas is proposed. It consists of coupling models and their interrelated models, including (i) MODFLOW and (ii) MT3DMS. The study area is laid in a plain along a river, where a few workshops operate and groundwater is heavily contaminated by domestic pollutants, agricultural pollutants, and cultivation pollutants. According to the hydrogeological conditions of the study area and the emissions of ammonia calculated in the First National Pollution Source Census Report in China, this study calibrates and verifies the prediction model. The difference between the observed water level and the calculated water level of the model is within the confidence Citation: Wang, Z.; Zhao, X.; Xie, T.; Wen, N.; Yao, J. A Comprehensive interval of the test. This means that the model is reliable and that it can truly reflect changes in the Evaluation Model of Ammonia groundwater flow field and can be directly used to simulate the migration of ammonia. The simulation Pollution Trends in a Groundwater results show that, after 20 years, the center of the ammonia pollution plume will gradually flow east Source Area along a River in along with the groundwater over time, mainly affecting the groundwater, which is less than 200 m Residential Areas. Water 2021, 13, from the river, and the ammonia content near wells at a maximum extent of less than 0.3 mg/L. 1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w13141924 Keywords: ammonia pollution; model; MODFLOW; pollution plume; groundwater Academic Editors: Alexander Yakirevich and Andreas N. Angelakis 1. Introduction Received: 27 May 2021 Due to rapid growth of the global population, in order to meet growing food demands, Accepted: 5 July 2021 Published: 12 July 2021 the use of chemical fertilizers is also increasing, with nitrogen fertilizer consumption reach- ing almost 60 million t and occupying nearly 1/3 of the world total consumption in 2016, Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral which is 5 times and 2.5 times than that in the years 1985 and 2005, respectively [1–3]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in In some areas, nitrogen-containing pollutants are discharged into rivers. In this water published maps and institutional affil- environment, the main types of nitrogen are ammonia, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitro- iations. gen [4–6]. For example, after 20 years of Rhine River governance, although the ammonia concentration in the river water decreased by 76%, the nitrate concentration increased by approximately 35% because of the extensive use of chemical fertilizers [7]. Ammonia is toxic to aquatic organisms; it consumes oxygen in water and destroys the balance of the original ecosystem [8,9]. High concentrations of ammonia can affect human eyes, throat, Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. respiratory tract, etc. and can cause bronchitis, pneumonia, pulmonary edema, even coma, This article is an open access article and shock, posing non-carcinogenic risks to the human body [10]. distributed under the terms and Obviously, groundwater resources are one of the main sources of water for industrial conditions of the Creative Commons and agricultural purposes and in daily life [11–13]. Especially in some arid and semi-arid Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// areas, groundwater resources are the only source of water supply [14–17]. For example, in creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ China, domestic water consumption of 33% of the cities in arid areas are totally dependent 4.0/). on groundwater resources. Therefore, a large number of researchers have studied the Water 2021, 13, 1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141924 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 Water 2021, 13, 1924 2 of 17 areas, groundwater resources are the only source of water supply [14–17]. For example, in China, domestic water consumption of 33% of the cities in arid areas are totally depend- migrationent on groundwater of pollutants resources. between Therefore, rivers and a large groundwater. number of researchers Petry demonstrated have studied that the the nitratemigration concentration of pollutants is mainly between controlled rivers and by groundwater. hydrological Petry conditions demonstrated [18]. Ohte that and the Martin ni- showedtrate concentration that the groundwater is mainly controlled nitrate concentration by hydrological distribution conditions controls [18]. Ohte seasonal and Martin nitrate variationshowed that in the the stream groundwater [19]. Lapworth nitrate concentrat showed thation distribution shallow groundwater controls seasonal is both nitrate a source andvariation a sink in for the dissolved stream [19]. N and Lapworth that deoxidation showed that conditions shallow groundwater of riparian areas is both are a important source inand N transformationa sink for dissolved [20]. N and that deoxidation conditions of riparian areas are important in NWhen transformation river water [20]. replenishes groundwater, the solute in river water enters groundwa- ter orWhen coastal river pumping water wellsreplenishes through groundwater, a river infiltration the solute system in river by water nature. enters In this ground- process, pollutantswater or coastal in the riverpumping water wells are through affected a by river convection–diffusion, infiltration system by adsorption–desorption, nature. In this pro- biodegradation,cess, pollutants plantin the absorption,river water etc.,are affe andcted their by concentrationconvection–diffusion, is reduced adsorption–de- or eliminated; thus,sorption, the direct biodegradation, impact of aplant river absorption, pollutant on et groundwaterc., and their concentration quality is lessened. is reduced The or func- tionseliminated; related thus, to this the process direct impact are shown of a river in Figurepollutant1. Thereon groundwater are much quality research is lessened. on sewage purificationThe functions by arelated river filtrationto this process system. are For shown example, in Figure Jürgen 1. There Schubert are studiedmuch research the filtration on systemsewage of purification Rhine River by and a river found filtration that thesyst removalem. For example, rates of ammoniaJürgen Schubert and nitrite studied nitrogen the throughfiltration nitrification system of Rhine and denitrification River and found are that very the high removal [21]. Klaus-Dieterrates of ammonia Balke and et al.nitrite found thatnitrogen pollutants through are nitrification reduced by and natural denitrification attenuation are in very the processhigh [21]. of Klaus-Dieter river water infiltrationBalke et andal. found that clay that minerals, pollutants iron are hydroxide,reduced by humus,natural attenuation and underground in the process microorganisms of river water have infiltration and that clay minerals, iron hydroxide, humus, and underground microorgan- better decontamination abilities [22]. isms have better decontamination abilities [22]. Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the migration and transformation of pollutants in a river infiltration Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the migration and transformation of pollutants in a river infiltra- system. tion system. Alvarez-Cobelas et al. studied nitrogen (N) export rates from 946 rivers around the worldAlvarez-Cobelas as a function of et quantitative al. studied and nitrogen qualitative (N) export environmental rates from factors 946 rivers such aroundas land- the worlduse, population as a function density, of quantitative and dominant and qualitativehydrological environmental processes. They factors concluded such as that land-use, re- populationgional modeling density, approaches and dominant are more hydrological useful than processes. global large-scale They concluded analyses that[23]. regionalCou- modelingpled models approaches have thus arebeen more developed useful and than us globaled since large-scale the 1980s to analyses simulate [ 23N ].transfor- Coupled modelsmation haveat the thus field been scale developed (SOILN [24], and WAVE used since[25], theLEACHN 1980s to[26], simulate and CREAMS N transformation [27]) or atnitrate the field transfer scale at (SOILN the catchment [24], WAVE scale. [ 25Haiz], LEACHNhu Hu et al. [26 established], and CREAMS a two-dimensional [27]) or nitrate transferfinite element at the steady catchment flow scale.numerical Haizhu simula Hution et with al. established FEFLOW and a two-dimensionalsimulated the migra- finite elementtion and steady transformation flow numerical law of NO simulation3-, NH4+, DOC, with and FEFLOW DO solutes and in simulated a river–groundwater the migration 3− 4+ andsystem transformation under the
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