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Trade and Interaction on the Eastern Cape Frontier: an Historical Archaeological Study of the Xhosa and the British During the Early Nineteenth Century

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Trade and Interaction on the Eastern Cape Frontier: an Historical Archaeological Study of the Xhosa and the British During the Early Nineteenth Century TRADE AND INTERACTION ON THE EASTERN CAPE FRONTIER: AN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE XHOSA AND THE BRITISH DURING THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY 0.i\ By. FLORDELIZ T BUGARIN A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2002 Copyright 2002 by Flordeliz T. Bugarin This is dedicated to Cris Bugarin, my mom. Tern Bugarin, my father, and Marie Bugarin, my sister. Thank you for being the family that supports me. Also, this is in memory of my Uncle Jack who died while I was in South Africa. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Researching and writing this dissertation gave me an incredible chance to meet some generous, warm, and intelligent people. From South Africa to California to Florida, I have met people who challenged me, motivated me, and supported me. To them, I offer my heartfelt thanks. My advisor, longtime teacher, and good friend, Peter Schmidt, gave me unending support, faith in my abilities, encouragement when I had doubt, and advice when I needed direction I appreciate the many hours he set aside to advise me, seriously consider my ideas no matter how esoteric, and shape the development of my writing • skills. I thank him for pulling together my committee when I needed them and for choosing a cohort of students who will be my close, life long colleagues. I am very gratefiil for the opportunity to work with Hunt Davis. His enthusiasm, warm nature, and love for South Africa gave me inspiration and encouragement. Even when he came to visit my site in South Africa, got stuck in the mud, and found himself driving over a flooding weir and up a slippery hill, he was always in my corner I thank Steve Brandt for his interest in my research, time and effort, and the high standards he set for my work I am also grateful to him for his friendship, his support, and for creating an atmosphere at the University of Florida that fosters a community of African archaeologists. iv Many thanks also go to Mike Heckenburger who was extremely supportive, encouraging, and there for me at the last moment I value his time and effort and contributions to my dissertation. I would have never completed my work without the help and generosity of many South Africans I am in awe of their incredible generosity, hospitality, and wealth of knowledge Many thanks go to Lita Webley and Johan Binneman at the Albany Museum for pointing me in the direction of my site, supporting my research, and providing equipment and space for field and lab analysis They were always available to answer questions, help solve problems, and simply be my friends I am very grateful for the support, advice, and friendship of Alex Schoeman. Through her, I had a glimpse of what it was like to fight apartheid, I was privy to some secret techniques practiced by South African archaeologists, and I had a colleague that baked delicious bread in the field. With a calming voice of reason, she made me laugh during the difficult moments I am also grateful to Alfred Bikitsha, a trustworthy and reliable colleague who was always willing to lend a strong arm when loading and unloading the hakkie (truck) or a helpful hand when washing artifacts Cecil and Constance Nonquane were my adopted Xhosa parents. They gave me a place to stay, fed me, and treated me as a member of their family They showed me the ins and outs of Xhosa life, helped me find informants and assistants, and taught me how to be safe while pursuing information in the field Living with them in the township outside Grahamstown, I felt right at home I am privileged to have that unique and wonderful experience Cindy and Francesca Kulongowski were also a part of my extended family in South Africa. They provided a sunny retreat, a place to shower, and warm coconut tea. I am very appreciative for their support and friendship Paddy and Barbara Kuun also gave me a room in their house when I first visited South Africa. People at the Green Elephant offered me a place to call home and took care of my truck during my absence My good friends, Laura Mitchell, Jules Coxhill, Michiel Faber, and Rohald Van de Sande made me take much-needed breaks to enjoy the South African cuisine and coastal scenery. At the South African Museum in Cape Town, Graham Avery spent hours with me going over my faunal collection He gave me advice, lab space and equipment, and the tools needed to analyze most of my collection I am fortunate to have his guidance, generous support, and friendship I am also happy that I met inspiring colleagues at this museum, including Brian Fisher, Yin Lam, and Royden Yates. Many people at the University of Cape Town showed interest in my work, helped me with resources, and provided advice. I am especially gratefial to Jane Klose, who looked over my ceramic collection and gave me insight on the differences in American and South African ceramic analysis. Martin Hall took the time to listen to my project proposal, give me advice, and look over my permit applications. While I was in South Africa, many institutions gave me support I am grateful to Sandy Rowoldt and the helpful librarians at the Cory Library in Grahamstown. I am thankful that I had the opportunity to work with people from the University of Cape Town and Rhodes University. I am especially grateful to the Double Drift Game Reserve for allowing me to work on reserve land, and the Monuments Council for granting research permits. ^ v vi This work was funded by a Fulbright-Hays and grants from the African Studies Center and the Department of Anthropology at the University of Florida Final stages were supported by the University of Florida College of Letters and Science dissertation grant, a Ruth McQuown dissertation fellowship, and a Charles Fairbanks dissertation scholarship. A number of people assisted me in the field. Many thanks go to my close friend, Zukisani Jakavula, who risked his life and saved me from danger a number of times just to see me one day earn this Ph D Despite being chased by a rhino, Zuki stayed with the project He was a lucky star that saved me from a deadly puflf adder, rescued me after I slid down a sheer steep cliff and fell in a cactus patch, and carried a dead battery for miles after the lights on my truck were left on Mr Jakavula, Zuki's dad, ran my metal detector surveys with his associates from the South African Police Department, Dalinayebo D Bout and Mbuyiselo M Ndamane I cannot imagine what my field experiences would have been like without the presence of Zuki Jakavula and his family. My sincere gratitude goes to all the Xhosa chiefs who made my research possible, especially the Great Chief Kama and Chairman Dlamkile. My project was supported by their efforts and the contributions of many informants, assistants, students, and friends. They worked endless hours to help me finish this project My thanks go to my assistants: Zoleka Gedze, Simphiwe Ngeleza, Funeka Hloyi, Buyiswa, Nomawethu, Buyile Plaatjie, Vuyo Nqola, Cecil, B Qona, and B Sandi My sincere appreciation goes to my transcribers and translators: Mr Binda, Mr Klaas, Nkululeko, and Bulelwa. Noemi Arazi made a trip from England to work on my site Barbara Williams and Monica Mwale were welcome company in the field. I am gratefiil for her contributions. vii Horwitz, suffered from tick bite I am especially thankful for my good friend, David who fever after assisting me in the field at Fort Willshire He also helped me organize logistics and was always available to drive me from place to place. Another important friend from Florida, Ken Mease, survived the trials of the field by lending a hand at Fort Willshire. Many thanks go to him for helping me design the project, secure a Fulbright- Hays, find slag in the field, and complete the bead analysis I value his never-ending support and confidence in my abilities. I also owe much to my wonderful undergraduate mentors and friends, Jim Deetz, Irish Deetz, and Margot Winer Without them, I would not be a South Afi-ican historical archaeologist. Through their exciting work, stories of the field, and kind nature, they inspired and encouraged me They opened the doors to South Africa by introducing me to important contacts With glowing letters of recommendation, they got me into graduate school. Jim Deetz continued to serve on my committee until his death. He is greatly missed. Despite his warnings of low salaries and struggles to find jobs in the end, he made me desperately want to be an archaeologist He made archaeology fiin. My intellectual development was shaped by the insights of my wonderful professors and brilliant peers from the University of Florida I appreciate working with Kathy Deagan, Bill Marquardt, Elizabeth Wing, and John Mason. Many thanks go to Terry Weik, Matt Curtis, Kathy Weedman, John Arthur, Jim Ellison, Tim Schwartz, Brian Burns, Gifford Waters, Al Woods, Aline Gubrium, Fred Smith, Brigitta Kimura, and Agazi Negash. My gratitude also goes to the Fort Frederica group at the Florida Museum of Natural History, including Donna Ruhl, Ruth TrocoUi, Diane Kloetzer, Maureen Meyers, viii Darcie MacMahon, and Karen Jo Walker I thank them for donating equipment to my project, teaching me important lab skills, and providing valuable advice for my research design With their help, I completed my project with string.
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