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Determination of the Survival of Bacteriophage M13 from Chemical and Physical Challenges to Assist in Its Sustainable Bioprocessing

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Determination of the Survival of Bacteriophage M13 from Chemical and Physical Challenges to Assist in Its Sustainable Bioprocessing Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering 18: 560-566 (2013) DOI 10.1007/s12257-012-0776-9 RESEARCH PAPER Determination of the Survival of Bacteriophage M13 from Chemical and Physical Challenges to Assist in Its Sustainable Bioprocessing Steven D. Branston, Emma C. Stanley, John M. Ward, and Eli Keshavarz-Moore Received: 23 November 2012 / Revised: 8 January 2013 / Accepted: 17 January 2013 © The Korean Society for Biotechnology and Bioengineering and Springer 2013 Abstract Bacteriophages are naturally infectious particles towards their sustainable manufacture can be achieved. that replicate extremely efficiently in their bacterial hosts. Consequently, a facility processing bioproducts from a Keywords: filamentous, bacteriophage, M13, disinfectant, bacterial strain would be typically expected to focus on pH, temperature, desiccation, bioprocessing avoiding bacteriophage contamination. However, bacterio- phages themselves are now showing great promise as a whole new class of industrial agents, such as biologically 1. Introduction based nano-materials, delivery vectors and antimicrobials. This therefore raises a new challenge for their large-scale Bacteriophage-based products offer promise of a new manufacture, potentially in contracted facilities shared with generation of antimicrobial treatments, vaccines and gene the host organism. The key issue is that knowledge of therapy. There have been numerous discoveries and proof- individual bacteriophage behaviour in the face of physical of-concept demonstrations in recent years [1-4], and several and chemical challenges is frequently incomplete, compli- companies exist in the UK and abroad to commercialize cating decision-making regarding their safe introduction to many of these findings [5]. The Ff group of filamentous a facility. This study tackles this issue for the filamentous bacteriophages in particular show importance as a bacteriophage M13. It was found that experimentation to technological platform for future classes of gene therapy determine an effective decontamination agent was important: candidates [6] immunization agents [3] and nanomaterials Two of the three tested were ineffective. Virkon was [7], thanks to genetic engineering techniques to display considered to be the disinfectant of choice. Bacteriophage foreign proteins on their surface. M13 was confirmed to be highly desiccation resistant, Generating the quantity of bacteriophages needed for many exhibiting a half-life of up to 120 days. Conversely, it was of these applications will require industrial-scale production. completely inactivated by strongly acidic and alkaline For example, in the biomaterial arena approximately 2 mg conditions and by temperatures above 95oC. By understanding of filamentous bacteriophage are required per square the response of a bacteriophage to these challenges, steps centimetre of functioning lithium ion battery cathode [8], whereas a typical post-fermentation broth may contain only 3 ~ 30 mg of bacteriophage per litre [9]. Data to assist the Steven D. Branston, John M. Ward, Eli Keshavarz-Moore* The Advanced Centre for Biochemical Engineering, Department of task of scale-up from the laboratory to the production facility Biochemical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, is becoming more widespread, including fermentation [9], London, WC1E 7JE, UK primary purification [10] and chromatography [11] studies. Tel: +44-20-7679-2961; Fax: +44-20-7209-0703 E-mail: [email protected] Furthermore, the robustness of filamentous bacteriophages to turbulent fluid flow of the kind found within large-scale Emma C. Stanley† Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, equipment is now known [12]. University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK However, bacteriophages are infectious particles and †Current address: Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Limited, Horsham Research their manufacture in a facility that routinely handles their Centre, Wimblehurst Road, Horsham, West Sussex, RH12 5AB, UK host organism (E. coli in the case of Ff filamentous Determination of the Survival of Bacteriophage M13 from Chemical and Physical Challenges … 561 bacteriophages) for other uses raises concerns about their type M13 (ATCC 15669B1) was propagated in Escherichia persistence in the environment. Bacteriophage attack of coli Top10F' (Invitrogen, Paisley, UK) in overnight cultures industrial fermentations has a long history, especially in the of Nutrient Broth Number 2 (NB2, Oxoid, Hants., UK) at dairy industry [13]. Here, contamination of the fermenter 37oC. Bacteriophages were precipitated from culture or starter culture by virulent bacteriophages can result (at supernatants by 3.3% (w/v) polyethylene glycerol (PEG) best) in reduced product yield but total culture and product 6,000 and 330 mM sodium chloride and further purified by loss can commonly be expected. The costs can be cesium chloride density centrifugation. The resulting considerable and so consequently, extensive effort has been purified bacteriophage stocks were suspended in 10 mM devoted to controlling bacteriophage contamination Tris HCl (pH 7.6 at 25oC) and were of concentration 2 × [14,15]. The deliberate introduction of bacteriophages to a 1013 plaque forming units (pfu)/mL. production facility may therefore seem quixotic to many. But large-scale bacteriophage production needs are a 2.3. Effect of disinfectants on bacteriophage viability reality and the risks need to be understood and minimised. Three commercial disinfectant products were tested, each Achieving this in turn depends on understanding the comprised of various antimicrobial, detergent and chelating physical characteristics of the bacteriophage of interest, components. Tego 2001 (a liquid amphoteric disinfectant, such as its resistance to physical challenges of heat and based on alkyl amino acetic acid, alkyl diazapentane, alkyl desiccation (and therefore persistence in the environment) propylene diamine and alkyl alcohol ethoxylate in aqueous and identification of effective decontamination materials. solution, Johnson Diversey, Northants, UK), Virkon (an Only after understanding these can the debate move on to the oxidising disinfectant powder based on pentasodium necessity of other measures, such as biological containment bis(peroxymonosulphate) bis(sulphate), sulphamidic acid, (e.g. limiting bacteriophage propagation to a single bacterial sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS), and dipotassium species) and physical containment possibilities (e.g. peroxdisulphate, DuPont, Sudbury, Suffolk, UK) and prevention of aerosols and adapted plant design). Solquest (a liquid detergent based on tetrasodium EDTA, Bacteriophages can vary enormously in their resistance amino-tri(methylene phosphonic acid) and sodium hydroxide, to physical challenges [16-18] and therefore knowledge of Arrowmight Biosciences, Hereford, UK) were tested for individual bacteriophage behaviour is frequently incomplete. efficacy against caesium chloride purified bacteriophage This study contributes to the processing knowledge of M13. The typical working concentrations of Tego, Virkon, the Ff filamentous bacteriophage M13. It compares three and Solquest are 1 ~ 2% (v/v), 1% (w/v), and 1% (v/v), commercial disinfectants on their effectiveness of inactivating respectively. this virus, with the aim of identifying an effective decon- Tego was tested at concentrations of 0, 1, and 2% (v/v) tamination agent. The response of M13 to the physical at room temperature. Solutions (9 mL) of Tego in sterile challenges of heat, desiccation and pH is then assessed, RO water were made, to which 1 mL of bacteriophage parameters relevant for the assessment of its introduction to stock was added. Tubes were briefly mixed, and duplicate a facility. Additionally, since M13 is produced from the 20 µL samples were taken for bacteriophage enumeration non-lethal infection of E. coli, the persistence of infected E. after 10 sec, 1, 5, 10, and 20 min incubations at room coli cells under desiccated conditions was also investigated. temperature. Samples were immediately ten-fold serially The aim of this study is to assist in the sustainable diluted to 10-2 of their original concentration. Virkon was manufacture of bacteriophage M13-based products at the tested at concentrations of 0, 0.1, and 1% (w/v) at room industrial scale. temperature. Experimentation was conducted as described for Tego. Solquest, described for use in “hot” water, was tested at 2. Materials and Methods concentrations of 0, 0.5, and 1% (v/v) at 50oC and 70oC. Solutions (900 µL) of Solquest in sterile RO water were 2.1. Materials made in sterile 1.5 mL polypropylene tubes and incubated All chemicals, unless specified otherwise, were obtained at the appropriate temperature for 20 min in a pre-warmed from Sigma-Aldrich Co. Ltd. (Poole, Dorset, UK) and heat block (Thermomixer Comfort, Eppendorf, Cambridge, were of analytical grade. UK). Purified bacteriophages (100 µL) were added to each. Tubes were briefly mixed and experimentation proceeded 2.2. Bacteriophage propagation and purification as described for Tego. Bacteriophage M13 was propagated and purified for Post-serial dilution, bacteriophages were enumerated experimentation as previously described [12]. Briefly, wild- by the surface droplet technique, described below. All 562 Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering 18: 560-566 (2013) experiments were repeated three times. 1.0, 3.0, 7.0, 11.0, and 13.0, using 10% (v/v) sulphuric acid and 4 M sodium hydroxide (Seven
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