Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

The Concerns and Politics of Translation : Translation of Rita Chowdhury’s Makam Orisha Gogoi PG Student Department of English Tezpur University

Abstract: Makam, published in 2010 has been a monumental piece in Rita Chowdhury’s literary career. Eight years following the publication of the text , Chowdhury published an English version of the same Chinatown Days on 11 January , 2018. Like the source text, the target text also received a good amount of critical acclamation. Renowned writers like Amitav Ghosh, Anjum Hasan waxed lyrical about the great work involving the plightful chronicles of the innocent Indo- Chinese people. Yet, like any other translated text, the target text has many intentional as well as unintentional omissions( errors)which we shall bring in light by laying much emphasis on factors like the structure, cultural references, names of characters, proverbs and idioms and the like. In this paper, we shall address the subtle politics involved in translation, along with the concerns prevalent in the same. Chowdhury’s Makam has been chosen as the source text of the present analysis and it’s translation Chinatown Days as the target text. The politics and problems of translation , the strategies adopted by the translator along with the changes the source materials undergo have been analyzed. In doing the same, both the source text and the target text have been read in parallel.

Keywords: Translation ,translator, transfer, source text , target text

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Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

Translation is communication, a bridge through which people of different communities, having hold over different languages and having different cultures know about new cultures by reading texts from across the globe. The act of translating requires a huge amount of perseverance and dedication to convey the exact sense that the core text presents. This often makes the job of translation a ponderous task. In addition to the heavy load, the work of translation is also fraught with many other intricacies. It is common that while moving the content and the ideas from the source text to the target text, a substantial amount of changes take place. These changes also have a sense of loss in it. Often we see that the authentic sense of the source text goes missing in the target text. Reading the translated text i.e the target text does not give us the same amount of pleasure that we derived from reading the source text. There is a loss of authenticity backed by the loss of culture which again may include religious beliefs, social customs, proverbial wisdom which have been prevalent in the source culture since ages. Here the paper is going to discuss some key concerns found during the reading of the source text and the target text have been discussed along with examples from both the texts.

Structure of the text

While translating a text, change in the structure of the text is inevitable. It is not possible to maintain the structure of the source text without any alterations. There are a number of factors that contribute to this change, some of the primary ones are- omissions, additions, sentence splitting, sentence joining and the like. The very first chapter of source text Makam is a long one stretching over 22 pages. It is the very onset of the entire plot that introduces some characters who act as the foundation on which the entire plot is set. The character Arunav Bora through whose text Chowdhury voices the entire tale of betrayal of the Chinese origin Indians is introduced. Bora introduces himself and with this introduction starts the complexities of translation. Before disclosing his identity, he says:“Nirupai hezar manuhor bukuwe bukuwe lukai thoka ek bixador mohakabyor moi ejon okhyom rupkar matro” ( Chowdhury,11).

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Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

This when translated word for word in English is “ I am only an inept artist of the epic of the plight that has been hidden in the hearts of thousands of helpless people”. He then introduces Lailin Tham, a well known Chinese writer and narrates how she enlightened him with the facts of the Indo-China war and how those facts inspired him to pen the plightful saga of the Chinese people once residing in India. In Chinatown Days, our target text,the entire introduction is extracted from the first chapter and a fresh prologue is constructed . There in the prologue, the translator through the narrative voice of Bora, briefly narrates about a heated conversation taking place between him and Lailin Tham that led to Bora writing the rest of the novel. Adding a prologue before diving in the core plot might be a technique to give a clarity on the otherwise complexly woven narrative structure of the text to its target readers. The very first line “Nirupai….matro” though has been translated quite diligently, the original essence is somewhat lost in it.:“I am but an inept artist , the narrator of this epic saga of a people caught in the maelstrom of history”(Chowdhury,1). If we read the source line, we do not get any words that are equivalent to the words - ‘history’ and ‘maelstrom’. Yet the translator happened to install such words in the translation. Due to the installation of the prologue in the target text we find that the 1st chapter of the same is short in comparison to the source text stretching only over 7 pages. This is not the only instance where the structure has been meddled with .The entire fourth chapter of the 2nd part of the Assamese text has been cut short and merged with the 3rd chapter itself. Factors similar to this contributed to the structural transition of the target text. Translators while transferring the ideas from the core text to the target text, skip some part of the text. This omission is sometimes very violent to endure. Such omissions can at times be unintentional and at times, intentional. There are many such instances in the target text, where one can see such omissions.

Title of the text

Besides the aforementioned concern involved, we see a character in the source text saying “ Moi makam jabo”(Chowdhury,137) when the same is conveyed in English he says “I am going to Makum”. In this light, the question that becomes apparent is - If ‘Makam’ is conveyed as

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Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

‘Makum’ in the target text, why is the title of the translated text ‘Chinatown days’ and not ‘Makum’? After all, the title of the source text is based on the town in Upper Assam where almost 50% of the plot has been set. Chinatown could refer to any place in India where Chinese people resided. If viewed in this light, we can find a Chinatown in Kolkata and in other parts of India as well. ‘Chinatown’when translated in native language is ‘Cheenapatti’. Whereas , ‘Makam’ is the Cantonese word for the English term ‘Golden Horse’. Changing the title of the source text while translating it is akin to not being faithful to the very spirit of the text. “Makam” has a cultural connotation attached to it. It easily binds the heart of the reader to the spirit of the text with an emotional chord. Any reader will be able to connect to it without much effort. But “Chinatown Days” doesn’t have any such connotation. The translator while translating the text stripped it off its cultural essence and value. And the very title of the text is it’s onset.

Code Switching

A well known fact it is, that language and culture go hand in hand. Various cultures create various languages. A language of a place is not independent of its culture. A text in any language is written in conformity with the culture and the social conduct of the people residing in that place. In such a case when a text, full of cultural connotation is translated to another language which is alien to such cultures and social conduct, the source text loses it’s label. . Since language is embedded with culture, a certain amount of the language used clearly reflects the culture that envelops it. Sometimes, while translating a text, translators often meddle with the materials to meet the needs of the target readers. They do the same by minimizing the alienness of the source text .There’s a similar instance of the same with our concerned texts. In chapter 5 of the third part of the text,we read about the soldiers raising slogans in their own languages:

“Kalika mata ki jai Jo bole so nihaal, …. Jwala maata ki jai Aayo gurkhali”( Chowdhury, 314)

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Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

The lines above in the source text carry a considerable amount of significance in it for it shows the secularism and the integrity of Indian Army. It reflects the diversity of India as a nation . In the target text, these war cries in the respective mother tongues of the soldiers of different regiments is omitted and the entire scenario is described as: “The battlefield was deafening, filled with the agonizing howls and the battle cries of the warring soldiers of different regiments”( Chowdhury,213).

Perhaps such a transition must have taken place in order to familiarize the content of the text to the receiving culture. But this in return had led to shredding of the authenticity of the scene. The entirely unique heterogeneity of the source text has been adjusted by the translator to the target readers’ linguistic and cultural dimension. Lawrence Venuti regards such domestication of the source text as a domination of the Western culture. . Cultural Stripping

As a mediator it is the responsibility of the translator to convey the information of the source text to the target readers. Sometimes while translating the ideas of the source text, the translator intentionally skips some cultural information. Due to various reasons such omission brings in cultural loss of the core ideas. Instances of the same could be found in the target text which is an output of rigorous omission of the source elements specially the cultural ones. Many cultural artefacts have been lost in the process of transmission of materials to the target text. Some examples are ‘kala putli’, ‘leth kapda’, ‘khorom’, ‘mirijim’ and the like. Also many jewelleries holding cultural connotations are omitted and are given a homogenous unity in the target text. Example : ‘poyori’ , ‘jhutiya’, ‘chudi’, ‘baaju’, ‘chandrahaar’, ‘makori’, ‘naakful’ and ‘lola’ are all clubbed and are described as ‘silver jewelleries’. Here, a subtle politics of power play is evident. A form of cultural othering can also be seen sanctified..This cultural othering is a form of hegemonic oppression. Translation is a form of negotiation between two cultures and not cultural or linguistic homogenization. Therefore, maintaining the ethnic and cultural elements of the source text while transferring the materials always help in preserving the authentic cultural identity.

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Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

Another example of violent stripping of cultural references is the tale narrated by Yuyi’s grandfather to the children on the train which happens to be a modified version of the Legend of the White snake also known as Madame White Snake , one of China’s great Folktales. We find this tale in the source text . It chronicles a young boy Xu Xian and two snakes . The tale is quite a long one stretching over seven pages of the source text. The translator completely evades this Chinese tale. In a nutshell, such omission of key aspects which reflect one’s cultural nuances are perhaps deliberate attempts to subordinate the indigenous. Though maintaining equivalence is one of the key points the translator should keep in mind, achieving, the same is not always possible, also not appropriate. Equivalence binds the translator to the limitations of translation. In our case, there are some aspects of the original text that are left behind . An attempt on the translator’s behalf to deliver aestheticity to the target readers could be seen. Some translations are arbitrarily made without literally translating the content but by the inclusion of the essence of the original words in the target text. For instance: “Heitu maat nohoi jen baghor gujoroni hain” is translated as “His voice was ablaze with anger”. If translated word by word it should have been - As if it was not voice but the roar of a tiger .But to cater to the aesthetic need of the target readers, the translator makes some alterations with the materials. This type of translation is known as semantic translation, where the meaning or the sense of the source material is transferred to the target text by taking advantage of the semantic information. Translation is not an independent endeavor. It is a part of a process of intercultural transfer, which happens across linguistic and cultural boundaries. In such a case, the translator as a mediator has to present the aspects of social culture that is unfamiliar to the target readers. In the source text, we see Meihang dresses as a man and lifts a gada(bludgeon) and enters the stage: “hatot goda loi nasi nasi humai aahil Meihang. Hari ekhon suriyaar dore pinhise Meihang a. Sart pindhi tar upoorot belt marise . Murot tupi . Uthor uporot siga sulir mus” ( Chowdhury, 537) Apart from hinting towards the fact that Meihang dresses like a man, these lines reflect a cardinal element of Assamese culture – Bhaona. Bhaona is a spectacle which contains songs, acts, dances, dramatic monologues , dialogues and the like. One peculiarity of bhaona is that it always has a religious message and shows the victory of truth and virtue over vice in the climax The leave

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Insight: An International Journal for Arts and Humanities Peer Reviewed and Refereed Vol: 1; Issue: 3 ISSN: 2582-8002

out of the minute details reeks of the carelessness or the bleak outcome of a careless and hasty translation. Meihang enacts the role of Gadadhari Bheem, one of the protagonists of the greatest sanskrit epic of all time Mahabharata. In the source text, we see that after entering the stage, Meihang pronounces an infamous line : “Bheem Bheem nokoribi Bheemor agot- haar mur singi dim godar kubot.” Following her came Ming:“aahe Bahubali Bheem…..kouravkul shrestha Duryodhana” This entire scene is a comic dramatization of the contention between Bheem and Duyodhana . It is a trivialised scene of the original epic. But in the target text, these details are summed and said that “Mei Hang in male attire came to the stage with Ming to do a skit” .This omission of the little but important details of the cultural references is disguised in an attempt to create an inordinately ordinary discourse that does not challenge the sophisticated and developed cultural values of the West. In a way, it forces the orients to accept their subordination. Also, the heterogeneity of the Indian society and culture could be seen gliding over in the rush to appropriate themselves as per the pattern of Western culture. Culture also includes religious scriptures in it. There’s a mention of the great 700-verse Hindu scripture, Gita in the source text:“..teu kenekoi smriti hisape butoli aanisilsina hoinoi fali thoi jua gitakhonor emuthi tukura…”( Chowdhury, 577) But this reference is omitted in the target text.

Colloquialism, Proverbs and Idioms

When a text is created in compliance to the social standards, culture and norms of a particular place, it would embrace the total essence of the place right from its codes to languages to proverbs to the colloquialisms of the street. Such ideas of the source language might not find any sense in the target language .In such cases the translator, though being the inter cultural mediator is bound to take care of the reader’s aesthetic pleasure and in the process must leave behind many words and phrases due to their untranslatability. One such example is the word “banjhi pata”. If translated to the target language it will mean “sterile leaves” which probably has no meaning of value in the concerned language. Even if some are done, the translator is unable

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deliver the exact meaning of the source words. It is also due to lack of equivalence which leads to the deletion of words and phrases and in some cases substitution of the same with somewhat similar materials which would at least be closely equal as much as possible if not exactly equal to the source text . In our concerned source text , “ekepat sorot botrista data ughali dim”(Chowdhury, 345) means - with a tight slap I‘ll pluck all 32 teeth. But this translation does not succeed in delivering aesthetic pleasure to its readers. Also, it will not have any semantic value in the target language. Therefore in our target text, we find the mentioned phrase as “breaking one’s jaw”. It is certain that in translation, beauty and faith doesn’t go hand in hand. The proverbs , idioms even colloquialisms have cultural nuances in it . People outside the culture might find such phrases and words alien. It is the responsibility of the translator to maintain the equilibrium of both the texts and make the target readers familiar to the idea of the target text. Therefore at times, such compromise with some source materials is necessary. “Buba aatonkar adhar” is another instance of the same. The target readers will probably find no sense in “ dumb darkness of terror” . But the readers will easily connect with “ a grim fear” as given in the target text. Other such instances are “johorar pu”, “saali” which are untranslatable and hence are left unattended and eventually skipped.

Rhetorical questions also fall in this category. In the source text we find a line:“ Chao Mao’k Bharotok attack koriboloi kihe paisile?”. This in plain words means - Why did Cho Mao attack India?. But if translated word for word it will be - Who got Chow mow to attack India? . This clearly shows no semantic value . Rhetorical questions of one language may not have a semantic value in another language. This justifies the omission of the same in the process of translation..

Geographical Details

“manuhburok keibatau bhagot bhag kora hoise . Siliguri onsolor pora dhori ona manuh, ujoni oxom, namoni oxompor pora dhori ona manuh”. These lines from the source text clearly shows the primary geographical compartmentalization of Assam: Upper Assam and Lower Assam. The erasure of these lines in the target text makes the target readers miss out the primary division

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of Assam. Not only this, there are several other instances of geographical erasure. Names of places like Thagla Ridge, Nyamjang, Dhola, Boomla are erased in the target text. Places like Dibrugarh and Jorhat are not mentioned in the target text, unless the purpose they serve concern the details and concepts of the text. Such an instance is: Dibrugarh, a town in upper Assam is mentioned several times in the source text. But in the target text, the town goes missing in several instances. Even a tea factory with the name Jorhat Tea estate situated in Jorhat goes missing in the source text. Other than names of the places, there is a river we are unable to locate in the target text. Instance of the same is: Nyamka Chu river.Perhaps the geographical locations and rivers were not transferred to the target text for the information was assumed necessary for the source readers and not the target readers.

Names of the characters

Transfering proper names from the source text to the target text is not a simple task. In fact, this task requires a great amount of time and dedication. Translators are required to be extra cautious while transferring the source materials in the form of proper nouns. In this regard, Vermes stated that translation of proper names is a delicate decision -making process Proper names are common in every language. In some languages these names have connotations of culture and the language they belong to. They have particular implications. Discarding the nouns with such heavy and pivotal connotations may at times lead to a translated product which by no means can be rationalized. In Chowdhury’s Makam, there is a mention about a person named Swechi Khe who escapes the Deoli camp with the help of some influential people.The same is stated in Chinatown Days but the translator uses the word “someone” to refer to the character.“Someone from wing 1 had left the camp in the morning”( Chowdhury,295). Here, we see how the translator substituted the proper name “ Swechi Khe” with an indefinite proper noun “someone” Again, in Chapter 3, of the source text, we get a list of names called by the camp commander of those detainees who are to be sent to China. Some of these names are: Lee Chang, Ho Wang, Ahlin, C Hoi and like. But in the target text, there is no such mention of the names. In

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the place of enlisting the names in the target text, the translator just mentions that the commander “after reading out all the names on the list” had stopped. In the source text, we find a list of surnames of the different communities residing in India, especially the North Eastern part:“Gogoi, Barua, Narzari, Urang, Tati….. Lutha, Yamkuk --- Bisitro upadhir, bibhinno homprodaiyor bharotiyo naari..”( Chowdhury, 489). These surnames show the colorful communities of India and have a cultural idea deeply engrossed within. But in the target text, the translator omits all of them and in the place states “ There were women from different Indian communities with different surnames.”( Chowdhury, 320). Transfer of the proper nouns from the source text to the target text may depend on many factors. One such factor is the nature of the languages in action - if or not the two languages belong to the same linguistic family; whether the proper noun has the “trans cultural” property in it( if the proper noun is used in both the languages) . These characters affect the translator’s plan of action in achieving the goal. In the text concerned, there is a huge chasm between the languages in action. Our source language ( Assamese) is a branch of Indo – Aryan language evolved in the 7th century AD, having its roots in Sanskrit language . Whereas, our target language (English) is a West Germanic language that originated from Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain in the mid 5th to 7th centuries AD by Anglo-Saxon migrants . It is perhaps because of this gap the translator takes to omission of the proper nouns; the other reason being the chances of the text becoming ambiguous to the target readers. In chapter 3 of the third part of the text, there is a story which is narrated by Yuyi’s grandfather,chronicling a Chinese mythological tale about a dragon king and an emperor. This tale sees a harrowing amount of stripping of proper nouns and homogenization of the source materials. In the source text we are given the names of the two generals who barricade the ghost of the dragon king from entering the emperor’s room - Kwen Chu- Bang and Wei Si Jing – Dei . But in the target text, they are alluded as “two trusted generals”. Such exclusions and clubbings show how the source culture is homogenized and domesticated by the dominating culture . The polyphony of its heterogeneous existence is erased off and a monolithic view of that culture is created as truly legitimate.

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There is also a peculiar instance where a single character has two names in the two texts Strangely enough , he is introduced as Ting Lee Ying in the source text and Liang Ching Wan in the target text. In page 161 of the source text the character first appears: “… Uska naam Tinge Lee Ying hai. …” ( Chowdhury, 161). “… His name is Liang Ching Wan…” ( Chowdhury , 108). The reason behind the change in the name of a character who has a pivotal role in the latter part of the novel is altogether obscure and mysterious . It is undeniable that proper names serve a vital function in the text. Therefore any carelessness or controversial decision on the translator’s behalf may taint the text. A translated text should not only be seen as a target text in a new language but also in the context of the target culture. It is true that proper names are one of the basic mediums through which foreignness may be introduced and it is understandable if under this condition the translator takes the liberty to adapt the names from the target culture. An instance of such is Vladimir Nobakov’s alteration of the name of the protagonist of Adventures in Wonderland from Alice to Slavic sounding Anya. This no doubt is a form of domestication, yet under the given circumstances ,an alteration that can be warranted. But in our case, the alteration made can only be articulated as the result of an incautious indulgence in reading the source materials.

Some other miscellaneous omissions and alterations

There are many examples in Chowdhury’s Makam where references of movies, songs and song composers are skipped entirely. In chapter 8 of the third part of the source text, we find Lailin singing a song composed by Sri Keshav Mohonto and directed by Sri Romen Boruah. We are made knowledgeable about these facts because the character herself states the details.When we search for the same details in the target text, we utterly fail in our quest .Therein , the character simply happens to state that she is “going to sing a song.” Other than this, there is another instance in the same chapter where three girls namely_ Maina, Moni and Tunu sing a very popular Assamese song from the movie ‘Dr Bezbarua’. The movie is one of a kind for it happens to be the first motion picture of the industry in the thriller genre. The song goes along these lines:“Moina kun bidhitai haajile tumar podum sokuti.”(

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Chowdhury,536) . In the target text, this is described as :“..Maina, Moni aru Tunu,started singing a song from a popular Assamese film.”(Chowdhury,355). This again shows how the heterogeneity of the source materials are homogenized and are merged in a single uniformity to construct an uncomplicated and an unembellished target text that could effortlessly be read by the target readers. Perhaps the translator tapered with the text so that they do not turn outlandish to the receiving culture. But the translator should have considered the fact that we as readers from a once colonized nation come across several subjects to which we are not acquainted . But such foreignness does not hamper our reading of the text. Conversely, we are intrigued by such subjects which ignite our desire to learn more. Especially when it is about a different nation or a culture, such alien subjects act like a pandora of exciting knowledge. After all , the motive of the translation of the source materials for the target readers is to convey the intentions of the author , the information s/he wants to pass on to her/his readers ;be it factual or fictitious. Even in this case, if the target readers are inquisitive enough, they will surely do proper research which will make them knowledgeable about the unknown subjects of the source culture and in this way, they will be enlightened about the source culture . The translator’s job as a “cultural mediator” will only then be accomplished. We have an instance in the source text where two Chinese ships namely- ‘Sin Hua’ and ‘Guwang Hua’ are referred to as ‘Chinese ships’ : “In the deep blue waters of the South China Sea, two Chinese ships were sailing along…”( Chowdhury,326). Translation is not a neutral , linguistic art. It is a complex act imbued with hierarchical equations. It has established itself as a serious discipline and has gained immense popularity in the current time since it encourages and promotes cross cultural exchanges. But the process of translation is free from challenges. It has become even more interesting , filled with many new prospects. With the increase in the number of translational activities, the number of theories related to such activities are also seeing a constant rise. Translation as a process is hindered by structural ,lexical and contextual constraints. Though translation is the transmission of the source material to the target text, a proper and faithful transmission of the same is not possible. There are many reasons adding to this; finding equivalent words to represent the original term in the target language both in terms of linguistic as well as

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cultural aspect is one among the lot. This problem of finding a proper equivalence always creates an issue of untranslatability. Translation of texts wherein lies unequal power relations in terms of cultural hegemony and sub ordinance is not an easy task to undertake. This actually brings in light the translated text within the intersection of culture and politics. Such power relation creates a picture of the target culture. This picture is in fact responsible for creating the ‘otherness’. This is especially true in the case of translation of native works by colonizers. In this way, translation began to be used as an agency of politics to wipe off the native or the indigenous language and culture. The translation of Rita Chowdhury’s Makam clearly shows the aforementioned issues prevalent in it. At some places, the translator can be observed doing best in transferring the materials of the source text to the target text. In such cases, transliteration could be mostly seen. Apart from this, most areas of the target text clearly shows domestication of the source materials to suit the literary as well as cultural taste of the target readers. The translator tried real hard to make the target text an effortless read for the target readers. This in turn made the translation a light and a sloppy one. Translations do not take place in void. Texts often carry the burden of culture, geography and other similar factors, which needs to be equally and pristinely transmitted to the target text. Makam is a text rich with many references from historical, geographical, cultural and mythical realms. It shows some of the social and anthropological changes brought in Assam due to the forced migration of people from Southern China and different parts of India to work in the tea plantations of India. But the target text does not reflect such nuances. Generally, for the basic activity of translation, a translator should have knowledge of both the source language and the target language, along with their socio-cultural-geo-political nuances and connotations. Though the source language of the text is Assamese and the target language is English, the product is not only meant for the Western readers. It is also formed for the other English reading public of India who is not acquainted with the Assamese language. In India, multicultural; and multilingual readership could handle the unique socio-cultural-geo-political nuances of the text. But in our concerned project, the way the materials have been transmitted to the target text, a strange bigotry towards the Western reading public could be seen.

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References Chowdhury , Rita. Makam. Jyoti Production, 2010. Chowdhury , Rita. Chinatown Days. Pan Macmilan, 2018. eacharya.inflibnet.ac.in, accessed on 22 May, 2020. shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in, accessed on 25 March, 2020. Mahadi, TST and Shirinzadeh ,Aliriza Seyed. “Translating Proper Nouns: A Case Study on English Translation of Hafez’s Lyrics.” English Language Teaching, Vol.7 no.7 , 2014, www.researchgate.com Paziresh,Abbas. “Aspects of Source Text Lost and Undergo Change Through Translator.” Vol.5 no.3, March 2014, www.ijllalw.org. Bhattacharya,Ipshita. “Politics of Translation”,Guahati University,shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in Devi, Gayathri. “ The Politics of Translation: A Critique of the Orientalist Translation of the Eastern Classics”, Guahati University , shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in Goswami, Prafulladatta. “Translation : The Situation in Assamese.” Indian Literature, vol. 13, no. 2, 1970, pp. 51–66. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23329749. Accessed 20 October 2020.

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