ISSN 2394-1227
Volume: 3 Issue-6 June- 2016 Pages - 73 Indian Farmer A Monthly Magazine
Volume: 3, Issue-6 June -2016
Sr. Full length Articles Page Editorial Board No. Nutraceuticals in Companion and Laboratory Animal Nutrition 386-392 1 T.Suganya, S.Senthilkumar, K.Deepa, G. Thirumalaisamy, K.Sasikala and J. Nikhil Kumar Tej Editor In Chief Modern Tools for Semen Evaluation of Farm Animals 2 393-397 Umesh Kumar and A. P. Gawande Dr. V.B. Dongre, Ph.D. 3 Applications of Next Generation Sequencing In Molecular Research 398-401 Manesh Kumar P, Uthrakumar A, Tamizhkumaran J, Varun A Editor 4 Consequences of Goitre in Farm Animals 402-405 Dr. A.R. Ahlawat, Ph.D. Poobitha S, Ramajayan P, Tamizhkumaran J and Raghy Radhakrishnan
5 Quality Assessment of Silage 406-410 Members K. Deepa, S. SenthilKumar, Thirumalaisamy. G, Thulasiraman. P, T. Suganya, K. Kalpana and M. R. Purushothaman Dr. Alka Singh, Ph.D. 6 Specialized Sire and Dam Lines: its Need and Advantages 411-415 Dr. K. L. Mathew, Ph.D. D.S.Gonge, Mayur R. Thul, RaginiKumari, Anjali Kumari and BeenaSinha
Dr. Mrs. Santosh, Ph.D. 7 Antimicrobial Resistance: The Veterinary Use of Antimicrobials and Its 416-420 Dr. S. S. Patil, Ph.D. Implications For Human Health P. SenthilKumar, B.Balasundaram and G.Rajarajan
Subject Editors 8 Housing Management Of Dairy Cow In Tropical Climate 421-425 Ranjana Sinha, Shiwani Tiwari, Indu Devi, Anjali kumari and Ashish Ranjan
Agriculture 9 Subclinical ketosis in dairy cows: Causes and its management 426-430 Dr. R. S. Tomar, Ph.D Prasanta Boro, Binoy Chandra Naha, Ambadas Madkar,Chandra Prakash, Jyoti Patel and Jharna Chandrakar Veterinary Science 10 Mastitis Management of Dairy Animals at organized Dairy Farms 431-435 Dr. P. SenthilKumar, Ph.D. Shiwani Tiwari, Indu Devi, Ranjana Sinha, Anjali kumari, Shital Kumar Gautam and Narender Kumar Home Science 11 Agriculture and Rural Tourism in India 436-439 Dr. Mrs. Surabhi Singh, Ph.D. Kamlesh Yadav, Pratibha Yadav, Sanjay Singh Yadav and Alok Kumar Yadav
Horticulture 12 The Present Status Of Poultry Industry In India: How Fat Our Chickens 440-445 Dr. Timur Ahlawat, Ph.D Are? Kapil Dev and Lalit 13 Goat and Sheep Farming System In India And Essential Housing 446-450 Manegemental Practices Kuladip Prakash Shinde and Shailesh Kumar Gupta
14 Effect Of Buffalo Milk On The Quality Of Different Dairy Product 451-454 Diwakar Mishra, Rashmi Bhardwaj, Simran Arora, George Dominic3and Partha Sarathi Swain
15 Management of Stray Cattle in Urban Area 455-459 T. K. S. Rao, S. Chaurasia, A. Singh and V. V. Gamit
(Note: ‘Indian Farmer’ may not necessarily subscribe to the views expressed in the articles published herein. The views are expressed by authors, editorial board does not take any responsibility of the content of the articles) Indian Farmer 3(6):386-392; June-2016 Suganya et al Nutraceuticals in Companion and
Laboratory Animal Nutrition
T.Suganya1, S.Senthilkumar1, K.Deepa1, G. Thirumalaisamy2, K.Sasikala1 and J. Nikhil Kumar Tej2 1Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University – 637 002 2Ph.D. Scholar, ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana-132 001 * Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract Nutraceuticals are food products that are found to have nutritional and health benefits. Several nutraceuticals have been identified. S-adenosyl methionine (SAM-e), silymarin, omega-3 essential fatty acids, glucosamine (GLM), prebiotics and probiotics,superoxide dismutase (SOD), Glutathione, bioflavonoids, Dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO),methyl-sulfonyl-methane (MSM), Polysulfated Glycosaminoglycan (GAGPS), vitamin E, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), cholesterol reducers, plant extract/essential oils and vitamin like compounds are some of the predominant nutraceuticals. SAM converts methionine to cysteine and maintains glutathione concentrations. It prevents apoptosis, modulates cytokine expression, decrease lipid accumulation, fibrosis and hepatocellular damage. Silymarin acts as anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic. Omega-3 essential fatty acids are considered to be anti-inflammatory. Prebiotics and probiotics improve host intestinal micro-flora. GLM and GAGPS have chondroprotective action. Free radical scavengers such as SOD, bioflavonoids, glutathione and Dimethylsuphoxide (DMSO) were found to effectively quench the oxygen-derived species (superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical). Vitamin E acts as chain blocker of lipid peroxidation. CLA is an anti-carcinogenic, and anti-athirogenic. Plant extracts such as garlic oil, methanol, organo essential oil etc. have been used attributed to their antimicrobial property. Despite of several advantages they do have limitations. Key words: Nutraceuticals, Companion animals, Health benefits
INTRODUCTION dietary supplements with specific vitamins It is a term combining “nutrition” and and minerals, herbal extracts and “pharmaceutical”, is a food or food product scientifically engineered diets. Pet owners providing health and medical benefits, such are commonly used these supplements as preventing and treating disease.Such /herbs/botanicals for their animals. products may include isolated nutrients, Nutraceuticals are not subject to the same
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Indian Farmer 3(6):386-392; June-2016 Suganya et al testing and regulations as pharmaceutical Some products are prone to drugs. Therefore, their bioavailability and contamination (example), omega-3 fatty actual concentrations of active ingredients acids can be contaminated with can vary considerably. mercury, lead and polychlorinated Classification of Nutraceuticals biphenyls (PCBs),and herbal products 1. Nutrients: Substances which are may be contaminated with pesticides having established nutritional and herbicides. functions such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAM-e) vitamins, minerals, amino acids and Liver disease fatty acid etc. Oxidative stress plays a major role in 2. Herbals: Herbs(or) botanical products most forms of cellular damage, and is as concentrates and extracts. e.g. defined as an imbalance between aloevera, ehedra, garlic, Echinacea, oxidant and antioxidant systems. willow bark etc. The liver has many complex antioxidant 3. Dietary supplements:Substances systems, and glutathione plays a key derived from other sources. e.g. role. Glutathione has a very short half- pyruvate, chondroitinsulphate and life (around two to three hours), and steroid hormone precursors etc. glutathione levels decrease rapidly Kalia (2005) classified nutraceuticals following one to two days of anorexia. into seven groups The rate-limiting factor for glutathione 1. Dietary fibre production is the availability of cysteine, 2. Probiotics which is derived from the diet and the 3. Prebiotics methionine breakdown. 4. Poly unsaturated fatty acids. SAM-e is a key component in the 5. Antioxidant biochemical pathway that helps convert 6. Polyphenols methionine to cysteine, and, therefore, 7. Spices helps maintenance of glutathione Examples for Nutraceuticals concentrations. In addition to this key Chondroprotective agents include oral antioxidant function, SAM-e also plays a nutraceuticals and injectable role in preventing apoptosis in normal glycosaminoglycans. These products cells, modulating cytokine expression may inhibit mediators of inflammation and stabilizing membrane functions. and stimulate metabolic activity of In animal models of liver disease, SAM-e synoviocytes and chondrocytes. decreased lipid accumulation, fibrosis, The combination of glucosamine hepatocellular damage and increased hydrochloride, chondroitin sulfate and survival. manganese ascorbate (GCM) is a The main problem with providing SAM- commonly used nutraceutical in e is the pharmacokinetics – tablets are osteoarthritic companion animals. 387 | P a g e
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enteric coated and should not be Cholesterol Reducers crushed or split. In addition, food Dietary supplementation of garlic inhibits absorption and, therefore, powder (3%) and copper (63 or tablets must be administered on an 180mg/kg diet) alters lipids and empty stomach. SAM-e has a short half- cholesterol metabolism. life and poor bioavailability. Omega -3 essential fatty acids. Side effects include nausea and poor Numerous health benefits have been appetite. attributed to an increased N-3 EFA Silymarin intake. These fatty acids have been Silymarin is the major beneficial active “essential” because mammals are not ingredient in milk thistle. able to synthesis these fat types and, Silymarin is useful for treating therefore, they must be supplied in the hepatobiliary disease due to its diet. In general, N-3 EFAs are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and considered to be anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic properties. whereas N-6 EFAs can be pro- In-vitro and in-vivo studies suggest inflammatory. silymarin can protect the liver from a A large number of studies in both wide variety of toxins, including humans and dogs support claims of the acetaminophen, ethanol and aflatoxin, beneficial effects of supplementation as well as from viral, ischaemic and with omega-3 EFAs in heart disease, radiation-induced injury. cancer, chronic kidney disease, Administration of silymarin provided cognitive dysfunction, skin disease and complete protection against joint disease – and new studies are acetaminophen-induced liver toxicity in constantly being published. Felines, when given within four hours of The dogs supplemented with omega-3 toxin administration. EFAs had a higher glomerular filtration Silymarin is principally excreted in bile. rate and decreased proteinuria, Despite erratic and unpredictable creatinine concentrations and renal bioavailability, and a short plasma half- interstitial fibrosis compared to the life, concentrations in the liver are omega-6 EFA group. usually high due to a preferential It is not just the high concentration of accumulation in this location. N-3 EFA that is important, but the ratio The dose required to achieve a of N-3 EFA (high concentration) to N-6 therapeutic effect in companion animals EFA (low concentrations). This is likely is unknown –Therapeutic formulations to be true of the other disease processes should contain 70 to 80 per cent where N-3 EFAs are thought to be silymarin, but extract purity varies beneficial, such as skin and heart widely. disease.
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N-3 EFAs’ mechanisms of action in Increase the immune response slowing cancer growth are complex. It Compete with pathogen for important is assumed that the neoplastic cells nutrients. have a relative inability to use proteins Competitive exclusion. and fats for energy, and preferentially Enterotoxins are excluded by use carbohydrates. probiotics. N-3 EFAs also reverse some of the It hampers the attachment and catabolic changes and improve proliferation of pathogens. cachexia, thus improving the Glucosamine (GLM) individual’s ability to fight the disease. The use of glucosamine for treating Prebiotics mild OA is hugely popular in humans Prebiotics are non-digestible feed and pets. ingredients that beneficially affect This product is available as a sole the host by selectively stimulating dietary supplement or as an additive the growth or activity of one or a incanine diets. Perna Canaliculus is limited number of bacterial species, purported to have mild anti- already resident in colon and thus inflammatory and chondroprotective attempt to improve host health. actions. Mainly prebiotics are small fragments Recent studies in canines showed a of carbohydrates, commercially significant improvement in arthritic available as oligosaccharides of dogs fed a complete diet containing galactose, fructose or mannose. 0.3% GLM. No effect was seen on joint The findings that mannon crepitus, range of motion (or) mobility oligosaccharides MOS and scores. Although the study concludes Osteoarthritis (OA) successfully that a GLM supplemented diet can reduces bacterial load in the intestine alleviate symptoms of arthritis in dogs. of broiler birds were in accordance Free Radical Scavengers with the previous findings Another class of nutraceutical that has Yeast cell culture residue (YCR) treated been promoted to reduce inflammation broiler chicks resulted lower intestinal is the free radical scavengers such as coliform population. superoxide dismutase (SOD), Probiotics bioflavonoids, glutathione and Probiotics are live microbial feed Dimethylsuphoxide (DMSO). supplements which beneficially affect Oxygen-derived free radicals the host by improving its intestinal (superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, microbial balance. This activity is also hydroxyl radical) are thought to play a called support of the balance of the role in the progression of DJD (full intestinal microflora (Fuller, 1992). form)through their ability to damage
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cells by oxidative injury. Oxidative In addition GAGPS also has damage leads to depolymerization of anticoagulant and fibrinolytic hyaluronic acid, destruction of collagen properties that facilitate clearing of and decrease production of thrombotic emboli deposited in the proteoglycans. subchondral and synovial blood vessels. Glutathione and SOD are endogenous Vitamin E antioxidants. While SOD acts to Vitamin E is an essential nutrient made stabilize phagocyte cell membranes, up of a family of highly lipophilic lysosomes and reduce superoxide antioxidant compounds, the most radical levels in tissues, with a bioavailable and active of which is resultant decrease in free radical Alpha-tocopherol. generation. It plays a number of important Bioflavanols are available protective roles, the most important of commercially usually in combination which is the protection of membrane with glucosamine and hydrolyzed phospholipids by acting as “chain collagen (or) with an assortment of blocker of lipid peroxidation” and thus other antioxidants, including selenium, prevents oxidative damage. vitamin E and SOD. It suppresses activation of inflammatory Methyl-Sulfonyl-Methane (MSM) cytokines and of activation ofKupffer and MSM has been suggested as an agent for stellate cells. management of pain, inflammation and Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) as an antioxidant. Dietary supplementation of CLA Polysulfated Glycosaminoglycan enhances immune response, improve (GAGPS) feed efficiency and improve leanness in Chondroprotection is achieved due to pig and mice. the inhibition of various destructive It is an effective antioxidant and has enzymes and prostaglandins associated anti-carsinogenic, hupo-cholesterolemic with synovitis and DJD. and anti-athirogenic effects. GAGPShas been found to inhibit neutral CLA has the ability to affect mammary, metalloproteinases (stromelysin, stomach, skin and prostate cancer. collagenase, elastase), serine proteases, Additionally, CLA intake results in hyaluronidase and a variety of reduced lipid uptake by adipocytes lysosomal enzymes. which prevents obese condition in The drug has also been found to inhibit animals. PGE2 synthesis, generation ofoxygen- Levels of CLA in derived free radicals and the milk,cheese,butter,mutton and beef(4- complement cascade. 7mg/g total fatty acid) are considerably
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higher than in non-ruminant leucoterines and various hydroxyl fatty products(chicken, pork, fish). acids. Dietary increase of linoleic acid(C 18:1) Inositol: It acts as lipotropic agent. It is and linolenic acid(C18:3) through also necessary for amino acid transport enriching the diet with cereals, oil and movement of sodium and seeds, oils is one of the strategies for potassium. increasing the CLA concentration in Taurine: It helps in retina milk (or) other animal products as photoreceptor activity, bile acid these fatty acids are precursor of CLA. conjugation, white blood cell Plant Extract/ Essential oils antioxidant activity, CNS neuro- Plant extracts such as garlic oil, modulation, platelet aggregation, methanol, organo essential oil etc. have cardiac contractility, sperm motility, been used from earlier days for various growth and insulin activity. purposes because of their antimicrobial Nutraceuticals and Reproduction properties. Beneficial effects of different Essential oil can be transmitted into nutraceuticals on mammalian milk and the milk flavor can be reproduction have been observed. Many controlled by feeding dried herbs to of these nutraceuticals have been found dairy cows to increase the antioxidative to exert a positive effect on mammalian property of milk, besides decreasing the fertility and reproduction efficiency. rate of ammonia N production in Male reproduction- recommended for rumen. Thus, use of plant extracts improving sperm production and appears one of the most natural quality in sub fertile male. alternative to the antibiotic in animal A significant improvement in sperm nutrition. concentration has been observed when Vitamin like compounds folic acid and zinc sulphate were L-Carnitine: It helps in oxidation of administered to sub fertile male. fatty acids, promotion of certain organic Arginine, vitaminB12, acid excretion and methylcobalamine and ginseng have enhancement of the rate of oxidative been used to treat male infertility. phosphorylation. Female reproduction- Feeding of Choline: It mainly acts as lipotropic linoleic and linolenic acid during peri- agent and used to treat fatty liver and parturient period can stimulate the disrupted biosynthesis of prostaglandin of the fat metabolism. (PG2) series that can benefit the Vitamin F: Involved in proper postpartum uterine health of cows. development of various membranes Dietary supplementation of calcium and synthesis of prostaglandin, salts rich in linoleic acid has been found
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beneficial in improving reproductive REFERENCES efficiency in cows. Bakashi, M. P. S. and M. Wadhwa, . Recent β–carotene supplementation during the advances in animal nutrition. Page No: period of 10-15days through 90days 117-135. postpartum increases the pregnancy Ganguly, S. 2013. Nutraceutical and rate at 120days postpartum. pharmaceutical implication of New generation nutaceuticals for prebiotics in livestock and poultry animals feed. Bulletin of Pharmaceutical Calasgar (a pelleted feed supplement Research, 3(2):71-7. containing calcium, phosphorus and Sharma, S. P. T. N. and M. Dubey, Feed vitamin D3). additives and Nutraceuticals in the Garbhamin (a bolus containing essential ration of livestock and poultry. Page trace minerals in chelated form and No: 300-314. coated vitamins. Verbrugghe, A. 2013. Nutraceuticals and Goumix (a customized mineral Osteoarthritis. OVMA Conference supplement) Proceedings. CONCLUSION Webb, C. B. 2010. Clinical applications for Nutraceuticals in internal medicine. Nutraceuticals are active ingredients that Colorado state University, Fort Collins, are found in several food products, have NAVC conference. nutritional and health benefits, it can be useful for companion animals for prevent diseases and improve their health.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):393-397; June-2016 Kumar and Gawande Modern Tools for Semen
Evaluation of Farm Animals
Umesh Kumar* and A. P. Gawande Department of Animal Reproduction, Gynaecology and Obstetrics Nagpur veterinary college, Nagpur, -440006 *Corresponding author- [email protected]
rtificial insemination (AI) is the pure and crossbred dairy cattle is also most valuable breeding increasing. So, effective screening A management tool available to methods for ejaculates prior to dairy cattle breeders to improve the processing are necessary for improving genetic potential of herds. The success of reproductive performance in bulls. this technique is depends on the quality SEMEN EVALUATION TECHNIQUES of semen used for artificial insemination. The main purpose of evaluation of semen, 1. Gross Evaluation of semen: Volume, either fresh or frozen thawed to predict color, consistency, density, pH, Scrotal its fertility. It is well established that circumference and microbial load of characteristics of bull semen vary widely, semen. not only between the bulls, but also Normal value (for Cow bulls) (Shukla, between the ejaculates within bulls and 2011) from time to time or season to season Volume- 6-12 ml (Raval et al., 2010). Generally, at semen Colour- Milky white station of India frozen –thawed semen pH- 6.4-6.5 have been evaluated for many quality Consistency- Thick creamy control tests as per the minimum Scrotal circumference- > 39 cm Standard Protocol. Among them the post Volume of semen helps to determining thaw motility examination is the most the status of the accessory gland, sperm important tests. While motility is an concentration and expected dose from the essential indicator of healthy semen sample. Colour of semen can be spermatozoa but alone is not enough to evidence of injury in the tract. Excellent evaluate the fertilizing ability of the quality of semen sample will have slightly semen. Sperm viability and post thaw acidic pH and whereas poor quality motility has not proved to be a good semen show pH toward neutrality. In predictor of fertility (Martinez-Pastor et condition like incomplete ejaculation, al., 2010). The population of exotic and extensive use of bulls affects the pH of their crossbred cattle in India has been semen. Consistency of the semen should ever increasing since last few decades; be assessed by slightly tiltling the therefore demand for frozen semen of collection tube and observing the density of semen against the natural light. Scrotal
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Indian Farmer 3(6):393-397; June-2016 Kumar and Gawande circumference (SC) is measured by scrotal Sperm Concentration tape. It reflects the size of the testis. Concentration of spermatozoa Scrotal circumference (SC) is the best (million/ml) in the neat semen was predicts the output of sperm cells for the determined by the bovine photometer bulls. There is correlation between the n01062 (Accucell Photometer, Imv scrotal circumference and the volume of Technologies, France). the semen producing tissue of the bulls. Percentage of live spermatozoa All this seminal attributes gives idea Percentage of live spermatozoa was about the quality of semen and sperm estimated by differential staining producing capacity of the bulls. This also technique using Eosin-Nigrosin stain. The gives idea about the reproductive health unstained spermatozoa were counted as and pathological condition of the semen. live and pinkish or partially stained So further microscopic analysis of semen spermatozoa were classified as dead. The should be done having warm stage and smears used for live sperm count were with phase contrast for better assessment also utilized to determine the percentage of sperm cells. Microscopic examinations of abnormal spermatozoa. Abnormalities include mass activity, initial motility, are classified as head, mid-piece and tail sperm vaiblity, cervical mucus defects. penetration test and sperm function test Special biochemical test which includes: plasma membrane, Biochemical analysis of secretion acrosomal, and DNA integrity should components from prostate, seminal used as routine examination. vesicles and epididymis in semen give 2. Microscopic test for evaluation of information about the functional state of semen. these organs (Dhurvey., et al., 2012)[9]. Mass activity There are many metabolic tests available For recording mass activity a small drop which help in assessment of semen of freshly collected neat semen was quality. Metabolic tests such as fructolysis placed on clean and warm glass slide and oxygen consumption are important (370C) and observed it without cover slip measures of sperm function (Bratton et under the microscope with low power al.,1956), but these tests are not done magnification (10x). routinely because of their complexity Initial motility (Seed et al., 1960). Metabolic activity of Initial motility of semen was recorded by spermatozoa is also evaluated by taking a drop of neat semen on clean and resazurin reduction test. The warm (35-370C) glass slide and placing a dehydrogenase activity of semen changes coverslip over it. The drop was then the colour of resazurin firstly into pink observed under the microscope with 40X (resurufin by an irreservible reaction) magnification. The motility of the semen then to colourless (Hydroresurufin, by an sample was estimated on the basis of reversible reaction). The RRT requires number of progressive motile sperm little equipment and is simple to apply. present in the drop and the percentage Many workers reported a significant was calculated on a continuous scale from correlation between RRT and fertility as 0 to 100%. RRT evaluates the metabolic status of
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Indian Farmer 3(6):393-397; June-2016 Kumar and Gawande active spermatozoa and it is associated be structurally intact and biochemically with the concentration of motile sperms. functional. Hence, evaluation of Sperm functional tests acrosomal integrity should be integral Hyo Osmotic swelling tests (HOST) part of semen quality testing. To fertilize The routine methods of semen evaluation an oocytes, spermatozoa must possess an have been limited accuracy in predicting intact acrosome (Shukla, 2011). the fertilizing potential of spermatozoa in DNA Integrity the semen sample, hence in-vitro It is well established that sperm DNA fertilizing tests can proven to be useful in quality is important in maintaining the assessment of fertilizing potential of sire fertility of male. Sperm DNA integrity ha and can act as an effective supplement to an important role not only for fertilization the routine semen evaluation methods in but also for normal embryo and foetal accurate fertility evaluation of semen. development.DNA of the sperm can be Hypo-osmotic swelling tests are relatively damaged by external factors such as type simple tests to evaluate the functional of semen extender, dilution, incubation integrity of spermatozoa membrane. The time, centrifugation and freezing thawing function of sperm membrane is diagnosed . The dead sperm in the semen sample by hypo-osmotic swelling test (Shukla, produce reactive oxygen species. The 2011).The main principle of this test is reactive oxygen species causes oxidative that cell volume of spermatozoa increases damage to DNA and result in strand when they are placed in hypotonic breaks and base damage (Kumar et al., solution. The volume increase forces the 2013). So, Sperm DNA is increasingly flagellum to coil inside the membrane. being recognized as an important Acrosomal Intactness of Spermatozoa measure of fertilizing efficiency that has The acrosomal cap is a structure covering better diagnostic and prognostic anterior portion of the sperm head. It capabilities than standard sperm contains certain vital enzyme responsible parameters like sperm morphology, for penetration of ovum. Therefore, concentration and motility (Shamsi et al., acrosmone integrity needs to be 2008) maintained to achieve normal fertility. Routine semen parameter does not Significant changes in the plasma always reflect the quality of sperm DNA. membrane and outer acrosomal Sperm DNA integrity may be evaluated in membrane are observed during addition to routine sperm parameters to capacitation. These changes constitute the indicate the quality of spermatozoa. The process of acrosome reaction. The assessment of quality of sperm DNA has changes during the acrosome reaction become essential with the increase in use include fusion of multiple points between of assisted reproductive techniques (ART) the two membranes and formation of (Shamsi et al., 2008). The most commonly vesicle made up of fragment of the two used technique to assess sperm DNA membranes. The sperm must undergo integrity are the TUNEL and sperm these changes in the female reproductive chromatin structure assay (by acridine tract to attain optimum fertilization orange). AOT (acridine orange test) is a potential, which requires the acrosome to simplified microscopic method of SCSA
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Indian Farmer 3(6):393-397; June-2016 Kumar and Gawande which does not require expensive flow test and the in vitro sperm-cervical mucus cytometry and relies on visual penetration assay. interpretation of fluorescing spermatozoa Post-coital test and debris that fall into a broad range of The principle of the test is based on the colours under microscopic examination. examination of a drop of liquid taken Green sperms indicated sperms with from the cervical mucus, 9-24 h after intact (non-damaged) DNA and red / mating when the female is in oestrous yellow sperm indicated sperm with cycle, under the microscope and damaged DNA. measuring the number and motilities of Computer Assisted sperm analyser the spermatozoa. The numbers of motile (CASA) sperm per high power microscopic field CASA refer to an automated system to post coital are recorded and the test is visualize and digitize successive image of considered positive when 10 or more sperm, process and analyze the motile sperm are found per field. Cervical information. Result obtained by CASA mucus evaluation including volume, include sperm count, sperm consistency, ferning, cellularity and pH concentration, sperm motility motility, and is of most importance for the progressive motility Curvilinear Velocity interpretation of post-coital test results (VCL), straight line velocity (VSL) of with respect to sperm function. sperm, average path velocity (VAP) of Sperm-cervical mucus contact test sperm, Linearity (LIN), straightness Spermatozoon-cervical mucus contact (STR), amplitude of lateral head test is done by mixing a drop of semen displacement (ALH) and Beat cross and a drop of cervical mucus on the slide. frequency (Kumar et al., 2013). A cover slip placed on the slide and Microbial load examination pressed slightly. Assessment of sperm The bacterial load in the semen sample is penetration in cervical mucus is done in estimated by the standard plate count 400X. Change in motility pattern of method, the bacterial contaminants of spermatozoa as result of sperm semen have been a major concern for agglutination indicate better sperm- most of the frozen semen production cervical mucus contact test. Spermatozoa laboratories as it adversely affect the loaded with sperm agglutinins stick to frozen semen production and hence glycoprotein filaments as soon as they subsequently fertility. So, it is contact cervical mucus. recommended that the bacterial load In vitro cervical mucus penetration should be less than 500 CFU/ml in frozen test /capillary tube test. semen (Shukla, 2011). In the capillary tube test, spermatozoa’s Cervical Mucus Penetration Test ability to penetrate into the cervical (Dhurvey et al., 2012) mucus colon, which is in a capillary tube, Less than 1% of the sperm deposited in is tested. In the test, 5 cm long, 3 mm the vagina successfully penetrate the wide and 0.3 mm deep flat tubes are used. cervical mucus. Evaluation of sperm- First, cervical mucus is aspirated in these cervical mucus includes the post-coital tubes. One end is closed with a plastic tap test, the sperm cervical mucus contact and the sperm samples are plunged
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Indian Farmer 3(6):393-397; June-2016 Kumar and Gawande vertically from the open end before it is and refrigerated semen. Indian J. left for incubation. This is based on the Anim. Reprod., 31(1): 33-36. principal of placing the tubes directly Martinez-Pastor, F., M. Mata-Campuzano, under a microscope after incubation to M. Alvarez-Rodriguez, M. Alvarez, L. evaluate the spermatozoa penetrated into Anel, and P. Depaz (2010). Probes the mucus. Semen sample with sperm and techniques for sperm evaluation penetration distance 30 mm or more are by flow cytometry. Reprod Domest considered to have better chance of Anim. 45(2):67-78. fertilization. Dhurvey., Madhuri, Gupta, V.K., Nema, 4. Zona-free hamster egg penetration S.P., Patidar, A., Shivhare , M., Singh, test N. and Shakya, V. (2012) Modern Spermatozoon’s close association with semen evaluation techniques in zona pellucida of ova can be used a vital domestic animals: A review. DHR characteristic exhibiting fertility of sperm. International Journal Of Biomedical The zona free hamster oocyte penetration and Life Sciences (DHR-IJBLS)., 3(1): test is defined as the penetration ability of 62-83. spermatozoa in the zona removed Bratton, R.W., Foote R.H., Henderson C.R., hamster oocytes. It is a sensitive test Musgrave S.D., Dunbar R.S., Dunn giving highly valuable information in H.O. 1956. The relative usefulness of determining the functions and combinations of laboratory tests for fertilization potential of the fresh and predicting the fertility of bovine frozen-thawed spermatozoa obtained semen. J. Dairy Sci., 28: 1542. from various animal species. Seed J., Chappin R.E., Clegg E.D., Postal CONCLUSION L.A., Foote R.H., Hurtt M.E. 1996. Methods for assessing sperm In this study, it is concluded that, motility, morphology and counts in conventional methods for evaluating male the rat, rabbit and dog: A consensus fertility are rather unreliable predictors report. Reprod. Toxicol., 10: 237. of fertility because of small numbers of Shukla, M. K (2011) Applied Veterinary measured spermatozoa and the subjective andrology and frozen semen evaluation of cells by the technician. This technology. New India Publishing problem can be minimized by the DNA Agency New Delhi. pp 137-142. integrity, sperm viability, acrosome Kumar, Pradeep., P.S. Yadav and R.K.Sethi integrity, plasma membrane integrity, (2013) Applied Veterinary sperm count, biochemical test of semen, Andrology and Artificial estimation of microbial load, cervical Insemination. Kalyani Publisher. mucus penetration test and CASA. New Delhi. pp 257. REFERENCES Shamsi., M.B, Kumar R. And Dada, R. (2008) Evaluation of nuclear DNA Raval, R. J. and Dhami, A. J. (2010) Effect damage in human spermatozoa in of additives on various spermatozoal men opting for assisted attributes of fresh, Frozen-thawed reproduction. Indian J Med Res 127, February 2008, pp 115-123.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):398-401; June-2016 Kumar et al
Applications of Next Generation Sequencing In Molecular
Research
Manesh Kumar P1, Uthrakumar A2, Tamizhkumaran J3*, Varun A4 1Ph.D Scholar, 2 Senior Research Fellow, Department of Animal Biotechnology, 3Ph.D Scholar, Department of Veterinary and A.H. Extension Education, 4Post Graduate Scholar, Department of Poultry Science, Madras veterinary college, Vepery, Chennai 600 007. *[email protected] (corresponding author)
ext-generation sequencing (NGS) massively parallel analysis, high is also known as High- throughput, and reduced cost. N throughput sequencing (or) NEED for NGS massively parallel sequencing which has Development of the NGS platforms and made a revolution in genomic research. the need for the NGS increased after the Nucleic acid sequencing is a method to completion of the Human Genome project determine the exact order of nucleotides (HGP). It took 13 years for the completion present in a given DNA or RNA molecule. of the Human Genome Project using first- In recent years, Next-generation generation sequencing, known as Sanger sequencing technologies have sequencing. Since the completion of the dramatically increased throughput and first human genome sequence, demand hence they are widely used in the for cheaper and faster sequencing nucleotide sequencing. NGS mainly methods has increased greatly. This employs micro and nanotechnologies to demand leads to the development of reduce the size of sample components, second-generation sequencing methods, reducing reagent costs, and enabling or next generation sequencing (NGS). The massively parallel sequencing reactions. second complete genome of an individual They are highly multiplexed allowing was sequenced with this platform. In the simultaneous sequencing and analysis of past decade, several NGS platforms have millions of samples. Hence, NGS been developed that provide low-cost, technology is often called as massively high-throughput sequencing. parallel sequencing. It can be used for Improvements in instrumentation sequencing of hundreds of millions of coupled with the development of high short sequences (35bp-100bp) in a single performance computing and run. NGS technologies differ from the bioinformatics have reduced the cost of Sanger method in the aspects of sequencing.
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WHAT NGS DOES? 1. PacBio RS (Pacific BioSciences, CA, 1. NGS provides a much cheaper and USA) higher throughput alternative to 2. Heliscope sequencer (Helicos sequencing DNA than traditional BioSciences) Sanger sequencing. Genome 4th Generation Sequencing platforms - sequencing can now be done within a 1. Oxford Nanopore (Oxford Nanopore day. High-throughput sequencing of Technologies, Oxford, UK) the whole genome facilitates the APPLICATIONS discovery of genes and regulatory The field of genomics and proteomics elements associated with disease. research has undergone neoteric 2. Targeted sequencing allows the fluctuations as a result of next-generation identification of disease-causing sequencing (NGS). It has various mutations for diagnosis of advantages in the field of genomics and pathological conditions. proteomics. 3. RNA-seq can provide information on Whole Genome Sequencing the entire transcriptome of a sample Next generation sequencing (NGS) in a single analysis without requiring provides a fast & thorough way to previous knowledge of the genetic determine the genetic cause of a disease. sequence of an organism. This In whole exome sequencing technique the technique offers a strong alternative protein coding regions to be sequenced to the use of microarrays in gene under goes an exon-capture step by expression studies. which the coding regions are selected Different NGS technologies from the total genome DNA by means of Several NGS platforms are available hybridization, either to a microarray or in based on the method and principle solution. The exome comprises just over behind the sequencing technique. 1% of the genome and is therefore much Advancement in the recent development more cost-effective and provides and availability of the technologies has sequence information on protein-coding made the transformation of the NGS (2G regions. Exome sequencing can also platforms) to the 3rd generation (3G) and facilitate the identification of disease- 4th generation (4G) sequencing machines. causing mutations in pathogenic Currently available platforms are presentations where the exact genetic mentioned below cause is not known. NGS technology along NGS or 2G platforms - with the homozygosity mapping was used 1. HiSeq & Miseq (Illumina, CA, USA) to identify two disease- causing 2. Roche Applied Science 454 genome mutations in a patient with sequencer & Roche 454 GS Junior oculocutaneous albinism and congenital (Roche, Basel, Switzerland) neutropenia. 3. Applied Biosystems SOLiD 4 (Life De nova Assembly Technologies, CA, USA) The de novo approaches particularly 4. Ion Torrent PGM (Life Technologies) concentrate on grouping short reads into 3rd Generation Sequencing platforms - significant contigs and assembling these contigs into scaffolds to reconstruct the
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Indian Farmer 3(6):398-401; June-2016 Kumar et al original genomic DNA for novel species. (chromatin immunoprecipitation) Bioinformatic tools such as VCAKE, sequencing technique was used to Newbler, and Velvet are helpful in identify the DNA sequences that DNA assembling the DNA contigs generated by binding proteins and to identify the NGS platforms. histone modifications. Similarly RIP Single nucleotide variant (SNV) sequencing techniques is carried out to detection & Structural variation identify the RNA molecules interacting detection with the RNA binding proteins. SNV mainly aims to detect small genetic Methylation epigenetic studies are change in the DNA sequences. They are carried out by deep sequencing mainly carried out to assess the techniques which were followed by the probability of the differences between immunoprecipitation reactions or tumor and normal genotypes. While SNVs bisulphate modifications. are considered as small genetic change, RNA sequencing/Transcriptome whereas structural variation generally analysis implies a large DNA alteration, Apart from using the NGS for sequencing approximately 1 kb to 3 Mb in length. the DNA molecules it is used to study Structural variation includes copy- RNA transcripts, typically referred to as number variants (CNVs), inversions and RNA-seq or transcriptome-seq and has translocations. provided comprehensive knowledge of Targeted Sequencing both genomics and genetics. RNA- Targeted sequencing is more affordable, sequencing data is used for de novo yields much higher coverage of genomic transcriptome assembly, expression regions of interest and reduces profiling analysis, variant calling and sequencing cost and time. Sequencing transcriptomic epigenetics. RNA panels are developed to target hundreds sequencing technology is also used for of genomic regions that are hotspots for studying the Transcriptomic epigenetics. disease-causing mutations. These panels It is now widely being used in novel target only desired regions of the genome research areas, such as transcription start for sequencing, eliminating the majority site-associated RNAs, promoter- of the genome from analysis. The results associated RNAs, transcription-initiation of disease-targeted sequencing can aid in RNAs (tiRNAs) and long interspersed therapeutic decision making in many non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs). However, diseases, including many cancers for more bioinformatic and bio-statistical which the treatments can be cancer-type input is required for complicated RNA- specific. seq data analysis. Gene regulation and control analysis- Small RNA sequencing Epigenetics Now a days NGS platforms and deep Major types of epigenetic modifications sequencing technologies are widely used regulating gene expression are DNA for predicting the small RNAs, for miRNA methylation by covalent modification of characterisation and also for identifying cytosine-5′ and posttranslational the novel miRNAs. MicroRNA expression modifications of histone tails. ChIP in chicken embryos and novel miRNAs
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Indian Farmer 3(6):398-401; June-2016 Kumar et al were identified using NGS platform (454 pyrosequencing technology). Virology In the field of virology the high throughput technologies are being used for genome sequencing of viruses and for targeted amplification of virus to look at resistance profiles of drugs and host immunity. It is also used widely in the viral metagenomics, virus candidate pathogen discovery and viral transcriptomics. NGS platform was used for identification of 10 kb genome of a novel arenavirus. Future Sequencing Technologies Electron microscopy (EM) was the first proposed and attempted approach to sequence DNA molecules before the Sanger sequencing. Now the use of electron microscopy technology is being developed for single-molecule sequencing. Since scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) can reach atomic resolution, STM for single-molecule sequencing is being explored. Halcyon Molecular is developing a DNA sequencing technology by atom-by-atom identification and EM analysis. ZS Genetics is also developing EM-based technologies for single-molecule DNA sequencing. CONCLUSIONS Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) also known as high throughput sequencing is used for ultrafast and easy detection of gene and genome sequence. It has opened a new ground for genome sequencing in the field of life science and medicine. NGS could reveal genomic information, which may be used for development of therapeutic for personalized medicine in the future.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):402-405; June-2016 Poobitha et al
Consequences of Goitre in Farm Animals
Poobitha S1, Ramajayan P2, Tamizhkumaran J3* and Raghy Radhakrishnan4
1Veterinary pathologist, Department of Pathology, Bioscience Research Foundation, Kandamangalam, 602 002 2Post Graduate Scholar, Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding 3Ph.D Scholar, Department of Veterinary and A.H. Extension Education, Madras veterinary college, Vepery, Chennai 600 007. 4Post Graduate Scholar, Department of Livestock Production and Management, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Veterinary Education and Research, Puducherry – 605009. *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ndocrine glands are collections of remarkable effect on the animal body as a specialized cells that synthesize and whole. E store their secretions, and release Among the endocrine glands, the thyroid is them directly into the blood stream. These one of the important organ which mediates secretions are peptide, steroid, most of the reproductive performances of catecholamine, or iodothyronine hormones domestic animals and if associated with that are transported by the blood to any pathological conditions may adversely influence the functional activity of the affect the production and productivity of target organ. They are considered as vital livestock. organs of the body and functionally, have WHAT IS GOITRE? an important role in maintenance of the Goitre is a non-neoplastic and non- vital functions of the animal. They exert a inflammatory enlargement of the thyroid great influence on growth, production and develops in all domestic mammals, birds, reproduction performance of farm animals. and sub-mammalian vertebrates. The term As with other organs, they are also Goitre was derived from the latin word subjected to dysfunctions. Alterations in “guttur” which denotes “throat” which was the structure and functions of the glands named since 270 BC, long before the may be brought about by genetic factors, thyroid gland was recognized. infectious agents, malnutrition and CAUSES OF GOITRE environmental factors. Similarly, the • Iodine deficient diet disorders affecting the endocrine organs • Excess dietary iodine either individually or collectively have a • Goitrogenic compounds interfering with thyroxinogenesis
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• Genetic enzyme defects in hormone capillary network develops. The lining synthesis epithelial cells are columnar with a deeply • Interference with iodine synthesis eosinophilic cytoplasm and small All these factors result in inadequate hyperchromatic nuclei that are often thyroid hormone synthesis and decreased situated in the basilar part of the cell. blood levels of T4 and T3. This low level was Colloid goitre represents the detected by hypothalamus and pituitary involutionary phase of diffuse hyperplastic which increases the secretion of TSH, goiter in young and adult animals. The which results in hypertrophy and markedly hyperplastic follicular cells hyperplasia of follicular cells. continue to produce colloid, but TYPES OF GOITRE endocytosis of colloid is decreased due to Goitre in farm animals were categorized as diminished pituitary TTH (Thyrotrophic diffuse hyperplastic and colloid goitre, hormone) levels in response to the return nodular thyroid hyperplasia or of blood thyroxine and triiodothyronine to multinodular goitre and congenital normal. dyshormonogenetic goitre. In case of colloid goiter both the thyroid Diffuse hyperplastic and colloid goitre lobes are diffusely enlarged (Fig. 1) but Diffuse hyperplastic goitre occurs as a more translucent and lighter in color than result of iodine deficiency in farm animals hyperplastic goiter. The follicles are which was more common in many irregular in size and shape compared to goitrogenic areas throughout the world hyperplastic goiter because of varying before the widespread addition of iodized amounts of lightly eosinophilic and salts to animal diets. Goitrogenic vacuolated colloid in the lumen. The substances include thiouracil, sulfonamides follicles are lined by single or multiple and number of plants from the Family layers of hyperplastic follicular cells that in Brassicaceae. Goitrin (5-vinyl-oxazolidine- some follicles may form papillary 2-thione) derived from the glucosinolates projections into the lumen. The follicles are of Brassica spp., inhibits the organification progressively distended with densely of iodine. Thiourea is one such goitrogens, eosinophilic colloid. The follicular cells which is an important ingredient of lining the macrofollicles are flattened (Fig. fertilizers. Further it has been reported 2) when compared with normal that thiourea can induce hypothyroidism as histoarchitecture (Fig. 3). it interferes with the biosynthesis of Nodular thyroid hyperplasia or thyroid hormones which may cause heavy Multinodular goitre or Parenchymatous losses in production and reproduction in goitre domestic animals. Nodular thyroid hyperplasia appears as a In diffuse hyperplastic both the lobes of multiple white to tan nodules of varying thyroid were uniformly enlarged and the size in species like horses, cats, and dogs. affected lobes are firm and dark red The affected lobes are moderately enlarged because an extensive interfollicular
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and irregular in contour. In most of the intense diffuse hyperplasia of follicular animals it is endocrinologically inactive cells. Thyroid follicles are lined by tall and encountered as an incidental lesion. It columnar cells but often are collapsed consists of multiple foci of hyperplastic because of a lack of colloid resulting from follicular cells that are sharply demarcated the marked endocytotic activity. The but not encapsulated from the adjacent occurrence of high incidence of congenital thyroid parenchyma and some hyperplastic goitre was due to iodine deficiency cells form small follicles with little or no conditioned by other antithyroid colloid. compounds present in animal feeds Dyshormonogenetic or congenital goitre In ruminants, prolonged low-level Dyshormonogenetic occurs as an inability exposure to thiocyanates, which are to synthesize and secrete adequate produced by ruminal degradation of amounts of thyroid hormones before or at cyanogenetic glucosides obtained from birth, which has been documented in plants such as white clover (Trifolium), couch grass (Cynoden) and linseed meal, human infants and in several animal species. Thyroid glands are symmetrically and by degradation of glucosinolates of the enlarged at birth (Fig. 4) because of an Brassica crops, are associated with congenital goitre.
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Leucaena leucocephala and other legumes dead or dying within a few hours of of the genus are native or cultivated in birth. many sub-tropical areas and contain the REFERENCES toxic alkaloid mimosine, an active Alipourzamani, S., Movassagh, M.H. and component to cause goitre. It is not directly Nouri.M. (2011). Goiter in the sheep goitrogenic but is converted in the rumen slaughtered in Tabriz slaughter house. to 3-hydroxy-4(1H)-pyridone which Iran. Annals Biol. Res., 2: 242-246. prevents organic binding of iodine by the Ashok, N., Vijayaragavan, C. and thyroid. Venkatakrishnan, A. (1993). CONSEQUENCE OF GOITRE Comparative study of the thyroid gland in large and small ruminants. J Goiter in adult animals is usually of .Vet. Ani. Sci., 24: 140-146. little significance and the general health Banks, W.J. (1993). Applied Veterinary of the animal is not impaired. If thyroid Histology, 3rd ed., Mosby year book, hormone synthesis is drastically Baltimore, USA. impaired, it affects body metabolism, Dutt, B. and Kehar, N.D. (1959). Incidence which results in decreased body weight, of goitre in goats and sheep in India. milk production and increased Brit.Vet.J., 115: 176-178. reproductive and nutritional disorders. Ensminger, M.E. (2002). Sheep and Goat However, in newborn animals goiter Science, 6th ed., Interstate publisher, plays a significance role as a disease, Illinois, USA. although the drastic losses of animals in Huszenicza, G., Kulcsar, M. and Rudas, P. endemic area are now controlled by the (2002). Clinical endocrinology of prophylactic use of iodized salt. thyroid gland function in ruminants. Pregnant animals with goitre shows no Vet. Med – Czech., 47: 199-210. evidence of thyroid dysfunction, but Jones, T.C., Hunt, R.D. and King, N.W. (1997). Veterinary Pathology, 6th ed., gestation is often significantly Williams & Wilkins, Maryland, USA. prolonged and there is increased Jubb, K.V.F., Kennedy, P.C. and Palmer, N. incidence of dystocia with retention of (2005). Pathology of Domestic fetal placenta. Animals, 4th ed., Vol.3, Academic Calves, foals and kids affected with Press, California, USA. iodine deficient goiter have moderately Lydiatt, D.D and Bucher, S.S. (2011). Historical vignettes of the thyroid enlarged thyroids with partial or gland. Clin. Anat., 24: 1-9. complete hair loss and are weak at birth McGavin, M.D. and Zachary, J.F. (2001). and frequently die within a few days Pathologic Basis of Veterinary after birth. Disease, 4th ed., Pinneda, M.H. and Newborn goitrous pigs, goats and lambs Dooley, M.P. (Ed.) (1989). Mc Donald’s frequently have myxedema and hair Veterinary Endocrinology and loss. The mortality rate is high in these Reproduction. 5th ed., Iowa state press, Iowa.Mosby, USA. species, with majority of offspring born
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Indian Farmer 3(6):406-410; June-2016 Deepa et al
Quality Assessment of Silage
K. Deepa1, S. SenthilKumar1, Thirumalaisamy. G2*, Thulasiraman. P2, T. Suganya1, K. Kalpana1 and M. R. Purushothaman1 1Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal – 673 002, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University 2Ph.D. Scholar, ICAR – National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana-132 001 *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
orage which has been grown while a) First lot of sub samples of fresh silage still green and nutritious can be may be used for estimation of total F conserved through a natural nitrogen, crude fat and dry matter. ‘pickling’ process. Lactic acid is produced b) The second lot of fresh silage be used when the sugars in the forage plants are for preparation of extract for fermented by bacteria in a sealed determination of pH acidity, volatile container (‘silo’) with no air. Forage fatty acids, non-volatile organic acids, conserved this way is known as ‘ensiled amino acids and ammonical nitrogen forage’ or ‘silage’ and will keep for up to contents. three years without deteriorating. Silage c) The third lot of fresh silage be dried is very palatable to livestock and can be in hot air oven at 55-60oC over night fed at any time. Silage is considered the for Van-soest analysis, or at 100 to better way to conserve forage crops. A 150oC for eight hours for proximate forage crop can be cut early and only has Quality indicators for Silage include to have 30% dry matter to be ensiled Moisture Analysis successfully (FAO, 2007). So assessing The approximate moisture level of the silage quality is essential for ensiling chopped silage can be determined by fodders for the chemical composition means of a “grab test.” changes occur or attained desirable Squeeze the chopped forage tightly quality of silage. The quality assessment into a ball for 20 to 30 seconds, and of silage is explained hereunder, then release quickly. Quality assessment Forage chopped into 3/8 to 1/2-inch Sampling procedure for silage (Barnett, pieces should be used. A.J.G. (1954) The presence of a dark colored layer at 1. Examine the silo and remove layer of the base of the maize grain is also an 10-15 cm from the top indicator for the appropriate time of 2. Collect samples from different parts harvest for silage production. Once the and at different depths and make a first grains with dark layer are noticed composite sample you should wait for 3-4 weeks more 3. Take sub-sample in sterile polythene before harvesting. bags into three different lots
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Amount of Squeezing DM % It enables us to objectively quantify what Juice easily expressed by hand < 20 we subjectively see and smell. This can be Juice expressed with some 20-25 especially useful when poor livestock difficulty performance cannot be explained by Little or no juice expressed but >25 nutrient analysis. hands moist 1. High pH ‘Ball’ shape DM % Different forage types are well preserved Ball retains its shape and some < 25 at pH levels between 3.7 and about 4.7 free juice expressed due to different buffering capacities of Ball retains its shape but no free 25-30 forages i.e. maize silage at pH 3.7 to juice is expressed 4.2 compared to grass or legume Ball slowly falls apart 30-40 silage at pH 4.3 to 4.7. Ball rapidly falls apart >40 Some common reasons for a high silage pH include the following. At this time the average dry matter Dry silage (> 50% DM) contents of the maize plant is 30-35%. Silage not fully fermented due to early After the indicated phase, the contents of sampling time relative to harvest, cold dry matter decreases as the stems get weather during harvest, and slow or broken and leaf fall off. The whole maize poor packing plant should be harvested by cutting it Legume silages with extremely high 10-12 cm from the ground. ash contents (> 15% of DM) and (or) Phase of Dry Length of high protein content (> 23-24% CP) vegetable matter particle Silage with excess ammonia or urea (%) (cm) Clostridial silages Milk 20-25 3-5 Spoiled or moldy silages Milk – Wax 25-30 1-3 Silages containing manure Wax 30-35 0.7-1 2. Low Lactic Acid The presence of lactic acid from 8% to Temperature 10% indicates a good fermentation A 2-3 foot long temperature probes are and the fermentation process useful for comparing silage temperatures progressed rapidly with a minimum at the surface compared to deep into the of total spoilage in the pile. Lactic silo. These readings should be taken in acid should make up over 65-70% of the same locations as pH measurements. the total silage acids, with a A silage goal for stable silage is not to lactic/acetic acid ratio of at least 3:1. exceed 20˚ F. of ambient environmental Some common reasons for low lactic acid temperature at time of harvest. Large content include the following. storage structures will retain heat longer Restricted fermentation due to high than smaller storage structures. DM content (especially legumes and Fermentation Analysis grasses with 50% DM). A newer technology available in silage Restricted fermentation due to cold problem-solving is fermentation analysis. weather.
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Sample taken after considerable preservation or a slow rate of aerobic exposure that has degraded fermentation. The common objective of lactic acid. silage makers is to achieve AM-N/TN of Silages high in butyric acid less than 10%. Where this level is greater (Clostridial silages) are usually low in than 12-15% it is likely that the pH is also lactic acid high and that significant protein 3. High Acetic Acid decomposition has occurred. The storage Acetic acid levels greater than 3 – 4% can life of the silage will be reduced. result from poor fermentations, especially 6. Propionic Acid if lactic acid levels are significantly low. Produces a sharp sweet smell and Buchneri inoculants are sometimes added taste and is usually lower levels of to corn silage and high moisture corn to this acid are produced during produce acetic acid late in the fermentation for maintaining aerobic fermentation to improve bunk life. Don’t stability. Usually found at less than mistake this for a poor fermentation. 1.0% in normal silages. Excess acetic acid indicates the pile went 7. Butyric Acid through a slower fermentation with a If it is accompanied by high percent greater loss of organic matter. The longer moisture and/or high ash content, a pile takes to stabilize, the greater the then that confirms what management chance of undesirable bacteria getting issue needs to be corrected. In the into the silage such as clostridiums. silo, butyric acid results in high losses Extended fermentation and heat will also of dry matter and digestible energy. degrade protein so that it will vanish as In the ruminant it results in poor ammonia. intakes and metabolic problems. If 4. High Ethanol possible, silage high in butyric acid High ethanol indicates yeast that reduces should be discarded. If butyric acid is dry matter recovery and makes the silage present in significant amounts, it more prone to mould and feedout quite often means the forage crop spoilage. Off-flavours in milk can also was much too wet when chopped. sometimes result. The presence of The silage will have an extremely ethanol is more prevalent in high putrid smell, making it very moisture corn and corn silage. Values unpleasant to handle. Quality silage usually are less than 0.5%. Usual should have less than 0.1%. Dr Gary amounts of ethanol in silages are low (< 1 Oetzel, University of Wisconsin, to 2% of DM). Extremely high amounts of recommends the following butyric ethanol (> 3 to 4% of DM) in silages may acid daily limits to prevent off-feed cause off flavors in milk. and ketosis in dairy cows: 5. Ammonium-N/Total-N% (AM- Fresh cows – < 50 grams N/TN) Early lactation – <150 grams Ammonium-N is the product of protein All other lactating cows – < 250 decomposition. While some protein grams. breakdown will occur normally, this increases where there is either poor
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8. Aerobic Microbial Counts as a marker for other unknown Yeast, mold, and Bacillus population mycotoxins. counts indicate silage bunklife and are Grass silage quality expressed in colony forming units per Nutrient and energy content gram of feedstuff (cfu/gm). Aerobic Dry matter (%) 30 – 45 microorganisms require oxygen from air Crude protein (%) < 17 penetration, indicating aerobic instability. Crude fibre (%) 22 – 25 9. Yeast Ash (%) <10 Yeast counts should be less than 100,000 Net energy (MJ/kg DM) 6.0 – 6.4 are desirable. Yeast utilizes lactic acid as substrate in the presence of oxygen, Fermentation quality causing the elevation of pH. Dry matter pH 3.5 – 4.3 losses occur from the production of Butyric acid (%) 0.0 – 0.3 carbon dioxide, water, and heat. Yeast Acetic acid (%) 1.5 – 3.0 activity precedes mold growth. Ammonical Nitrogen (%) <8.0 10. Mold Microbiological quality Mold counts should be less than 100,000 <10,00,000 are desirable. When lactic acid levels are Yeast cfu/g of diminished by yeast and pH rises above silage 4.5, the silage environment becomes <5,000 conducive to mold growth. This results in Molds cfu/g of musty, hot, energy depleted, and silage unpalatable silage. 11. Bacillus CHARACTERISTICS OF SILAGE Bacillus counts should be less than 1. Very good silage 100,000 are desirable. Fields may be Clean pleasant fruity odour. Uniformly highly contaminated with this aerobe at green or brownish in colour with absence harvest. Bacillus is highly thermophilic in of butyric acid, absence of moulds, the presence of oxygen and is primarily absence of sliminess and absence of responsible for high bound protein proteolysis. The pH is between 3.5 and (ADIN) values in silages. 4.2. The amount of ammonical nitrogen 12. Mycotoxins should be less than 10 per cent of the Most diagnostic laboratories and kits total nitrogen. identify mycotoxins that are produced by 2. Good silage field-produced molds. Gas or thin layer There may be traces of butyric acid with chromatography methods should be used pH is between 4.2 and 4.5. The amount of when determining mycotoxin levels in ammonical nitrogen is 10-15 per cent of forages. ELISA methods will produce the total nitrogen. Other points are same false positive levels of mycotoxins. While as of very good silage. a goal of quality silage is not to have 3. Fair silage mycotoxins, the presence of vomitoxin The silage is mixed with a little amount of (DON) or zearalonone does not indicate butyric acid. There may be slight poor quality silage. Vomitoxin may serve proteolysis along with some mould. The
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Indian Farmer 3(6):406-410; June-2016 Deepa et al pH is between 4.5 and 4.8, ammonical nitrogen is 15-20 per cent of the total nitrogen. Colour of silage varies between tobacco brown to dark brown. 4. Poor silage Due to high butyric acid and high proteolysis, it has a bad smell. The silage may be infested with moulds. Less acidity, pH is above 4.8. The amount of ammonical nitrogen is more than 20 per cent. Colour tends to be blackish. (McDonald et al., 2013) CONCLUSIONS The principle factors for evaluation of the silage are pH and fermentation acids, this can provide feedback on whether the fermentation occurred under ideal conditions or not. Other factor includes temperature, smell, and the appearance of the silage. The silage should also not have a rancid odor, associated with clostridial fermentation in wet silages. Quality assessment influences the silage’s nutritive value and determines the potential animal production. Also it is an important indicator whether the silage has been profitable. REFERENCE Barnett, A.J.G. (1954). “Silage Fermentation” Special Techniques for analysis, Butlerworths Scientific Publication London. Pg. 208. Food and Agricultural organisation for united nation, 2007. Silage making for small scale farm holders. McDonald, P., R.A. Edward and J.F.D. Greenhalgh, 2013. Animal nutrition, 7th Edn., Longman Scientific and Technical, England.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):411-415; June-2016 Gonge et al
Specialized Sire and Dam Lines:
its Need and Advantages
D.S.Gonge1*, Mayur R. Thul2, RaginiKumari1, Anjali Kumari2 and BeenaSinha1
1PhD scholar, Dairy Cattle Breeding division, NDRI, Karnal 2PhD scholar, Livestock Production Management section, NDRI, Karnal *Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]
he inbreed lines developed after individuals as parents within breeds and selection for one or two specific choice of breeds or composite lines to be T traits can be called as specialized used incrossbreeding systems are the lines. Use of such specialized sire and dam general tools that breeders have available lines in a crossbreeding system involving to bring about this genetic improvement a terminal cross that offer the potential (Clutter,2010). for genetic improvement of Parent-offspring inbreeding livestock.These lines are generally used in programme, Full-sib inbreeding commercial broiler enterprise.Evidence programme, Half-sib inbreeding depicted regarding utilization of these programme and Double first cousin lines showed they theses are cost inbreeding programme are the methods effective in commercial broiler enterprise we can use for developing inbreed lines (Smith, 1964; Moav, 1966).Further, these and maintenance of these inbreed lines lines were also been used effectively for can be done by crossing between them. pork production profitability mostly Selection within lines during relies on reducing the cost per unit of developmental process is ineffective in output. maintaining normal performances and Breeding goals in pigs in the early intense inbreeding in large number of 1900s was for dual purposesviz., litter small groups without attention to within size and growth and were based on only line selection will lead to the development phenotype almost entirely pure breeding of more usable lines than mild inbreeding until 1960. In the late 1980s, improved with selection. computing technologies and statistical Need for Specialized Sire and Dam methods allowed to select for traits with a Lines: low heritability, followed by further Performance traits include Production specialization into sire and dam lines. traits (growth rate, feed efficiency and There areopportunities to increase carcass composition) and Reproductive the profitability of the pork production traits (age at puberty, fertility and litter system by genetic improvement of size).Production traits are expressed in performance traits.Selection of superior market animals as well as animals
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Indian Farmer 3(6):411-415; June-2016 Gonge et al destined for the breeding herd, determine within theirherds.Crossbreeding is also an the efficiency of the system whereas important part ofcommercial production reproductive traits are expressed in all systems because of theimprovement in breeding females used as parents in the efficiency from heterosis and the terminal cross, while these same females potential to exploit differences between contribute half of their genetic merit for breeds orlines. production traits to each of their market Lines that have superior genetic merit for offspring. As a result, the primary reproductive traits provide females for selection objective in dam lines designed the crossbreeding system, while lines to provide females for the maternal side with superior merit for production traits of the terminal cross should be increased provide boars. Sire lines provide terminal reproduction performance. Some sires that contribute a random half of emphasis should also be put on these their genes to each market offspring. The female’s contribution to the genetic merit genes influencing reproduction that are for production performance of their transmitted from these boars are never market offspring. These specialized expressed in their market offspring. selection objectives are designed to However, the primary selection objective produce lines that can be advantageously in the sire lines should be improving combined in a terminal, static cross. genetic merit for the production traits of Similarly in broiler industry female economic importance in market animals. parent stocks must produce eggs at Some small amount of secondary reasonably high levels in order to keep emphasis may be put on reproductive chick product cost low. Male parent traits to maintain an acceptable level of stocks are selected for their ability to genetic merit in breeding females within contribute growth and desired carcass the sire line. In this way, market characters to the commercial broiler offspring with high genetic potential for (Warwick and Legates, 1979). Thus, production traits can be produced while selection of sire and dam lines should be maintaining high genetic merit for performed using different selection reproductive traits in the sow herd. schemes. Because of the significant benefits of Genetic improvement ofthese maternal heterosis gained by using performance traits through selection of crossbred females, pure breeds or superior parents is possible to varying lineswith superior genetic potential for degrees dependingon the heritability of reproductive traits are often used in static the trait, the amount of variation among or rotational crosses, or to produce potential replacements and most composite lines, from which crossbred importantly, thesuperiority of the chosen females are generated for the terminal replacements (clutter et al., phase of the system. 1990).Whereas, by purchasing breeding Poultry and pigsbreeding programme stock or semen from seed stock producers work with several unrelated lines where commercial producers receive the dam and sire lines are selected separately benefits of such selection primarily who for reproduction traits and for production operate effective selection programs traits. These lines are then crossed to
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Indian Farmer 3(6):411-415; June-2016 Gonge et al achieve the benefits of both and to benefit specialised line, however, selection can be from heterosis in the form of vitality and concentrated on a reduced number of production. traits. More selection pressure can be Advantages of specialized sire and dam directed toward each trait of interest in lines: specialized sire lines thus, for example, in Use of specialized sire and dam lines in a a terminal sire line (from which sires are crossbreeding system involving a used to produce cross-bred products terminal cross offers the potential for which are all slaughtered), all traits genetic improvement above that realized related to female reproduction can be with use of a general selection objective widely ignored. The lower the number of and also offers several important traits in the breeding objective, the higher advantages. With the use of specialized is the expected selection response for breeds or lines, a suitable breeding single traits. Thus, the genetic response strategy for the smallholder concept can realized in cross-bred animals is be developed, which is otherwise increased as they get half of their genes complicated. In the reproduction and from each of the parental lines(Cassidy et multiplication links the hens are kept in al., 2004). confinement and fed with balanced feed. Specialized lines offer an even Consequently, egg production traits are greater advantage over lines selected for the most important for a viable operation. general merit when there are antagonistic However, the end user, the smallholder genetic relationships between some of the with ten hens, keeps the hens in semi- traits of interest. This is the case with scavenging conditions and consequently some reproductive and production traits. such traits as scavenging traits and For example, the genetic relationship survival traits are the most important. A between litter size and both backfat way to solve that, is the use of specialized thickness and feed efficiency is estimated breeds or lines, as shown by Moav (1966) to be mildly antagonistic in some in which the reproduction traits are lines.The index recommended for use in a conveyed through the female line while maternal line puts the largest weightings the traits important for the end product on the reproductive traits of litter size are conveyed through the male lines.Seed and 21daylitter weight, but also places stock producers can improve existing sire some emphasis on the production traits. and dam lines for their respective role in a The general index is designed for lines crossbreeding system and can develop providing boars used in rotational cross new specialized lines to fill specific roles systems where reproductive and in a crossbreeding system by using production traits are essentially of equal specialized selection objectives. importance. Improved selection responseis expected The foundation or basic breeder whenever parental lines are specialised. concerned with the development of pure When production is based on a pure-bred line stocks however has a different or multi-purpose population, all traits in a production economics. He is not only general breeding objective are to be concerned with the production of good improved simultaneously. In the quality commercial chicks but also should
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Indian Farmer 3(6):411-415; June-2016 Gonge et al produce sufficiently large number of Australorp as female parent is employed desirable chicks from each parent to for the production of commercial layers make the business of poultry breeding a for brown-shelled eggs. commercially remunerative enterprise. Genetic antagonisms, such as the To achieve this end one should develop unfavourable relationship of lean growth parent stocks for high production and rate with reproductive rate, reduce the reproduction performance. Although this rate of genetic progress in a composite or objective of breeder is not in conflict with pure-line parent-stock. However, their the commercial layer production it goes impact on genetic improvement is greatly against the production of commercial reduced by selection for complementary broilers. This is because production and traits in specialized sire and dam lines. In reproduction traits are negatively a study, Smith (1964) concluded that correlated genetically with broiler traits. selection in specialized sire and dam line Hence, the development of specialized is at least as efficient as selection within a sire and dam lines is of utmost single (dual purpose) line, and that the importance for production of commercial relative efficiency of the former increases broilers. Sire and dam lines contribute if there is an unfavourable correlation differentially to commercial chick between the two sets of traits under production as only less number of males selection. are required than females. For Improved leanness and a narrow margin commercial broiler production while the between feed intake and potential for lean sire lines are exclusively developed for gain may also make traits of reproduction high growth and confirmation traits, the such as rebreeding performance and selection on female line is concentrated second parity litter size more important on production and reproduction traits in in some lines. Only specialized sire and addition to growth rate. This helps to dam lines will allow breeders to bring down the production cost of effectively balance genetic merit for commercial broiler chicks maximum efficiency of production, quality Strain cross or inbred hybrids of White and the reproductive performance of the Leghorn origin are used for the sow herd. production of white-shelled eggs. The earliest trait recorded on pigs is the Crossbreeding involving White or Red birth weight (BWT). This trait is often Cornish, White Rock and New Hampshire studied from the maternal side, because breeds is undertaken for the production traits related to reproduction, like BWT, of commercial broilers. Cornish strains or are strongly affected by maternal genetic synthetic populations containing variable effects (Arangoet al., 2006). However, to amounts of Cornish, Rock and Hampshire improve sire lines, it is necessary to know blood are used as male line and closed the sire genetic effect on this trait to flocks of Rock and Hampshire strains or determine if piglet body weight could be their strain crosses are used as female genetically improved from the paternal lines. Crossbreeding involving White side. As body weight is related to Leghorn as male parent and Rhode Island performances, like survival, growth rate, Red or New Hampshire or Black
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Indian Farmer 3(6):411-415; June-2016 Gonge et al carcass composition it could be a good of best sire and dam lines. Further, candidate to be an early indicator trait. specialized lines may also be used Development of sire and dam lines someday in conjunction with embryo may also provide opportunities for the transfer techniques by transferring sire future. Specialized lines may someday be line embryos into dam lines with superior used in conjunction with embryo transfer embryo survival. techniques by transferring sire line REFERENCES embryos into dam lines with superior embryo survival. In itself, the presence of Arango, J., Misztal, I., Tsuruta, S., diverse genetic lines will guarantee Culbertson, M.,Holl, J.W. and Herring, flexibility in the industry as management W. 2006. Genetic study of individual practices and market conditions change preweaning mortality and birth weight in Large White piglets using SUMMARY threshold-linear models. Livest. Use of specialized sire and dam lines in a Sci.,101:208-218. crossbreeding system involving a Cassidy, J.P., Robson, O.W., Johnson, R.K., terminal cross for genetic improvement Mabry, J.W., Christian, L.L., Tokach, shows superior results as compared to M.D., Miller, R.K. and Goodwin, R.N. general selection methods. For such a line 2004. National pork producer’s production one need to implement a council maternal line genetic terminal cross to identify the breeds or evaluation: a comparison of growth lines with characteristics that will best and carcass traits in terminal fulfill the sire and dam line roles in the progeny. J. Anim. Sci.,82:3482-3485. cross. Further, the quality desired by Clutter, A C., Monsanto, D., Allan, P.S. and consumers should be kept in mind by Lafayette, W.2010. Genetic commercial producers in order to insure a Improvement of Sire and Dam Lines market for their animals. Communication for Performance of Swine Terminal between seedstock supplier, commercial Crossbreeding Systems. producer and pork processor will be Moav,R. 1966. Specialized sire and dam essential to design and implement lines. Anim.Prod.,8(193): 203. specialized selection objectives that allow Smith, C. 1964. The use of specialized sire the producer to meet these demands in an and dam lines in selection for meat efficient manner. In the near future, production. Anim. prod.,6:337. information on molecular genetic Warwick, E. J., Legates, J.E. 1979. Breeding markers for quality traits may be added to and improvement of farm animals. the selection index or used in two stage McGraw-Hill,New York, N.Y. selection with the index for development
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Indian Farmer 3(6):416-420; June-2016 SenthilKumar et al
Antimicrobial Resistance: The Veterinary Use of Antimicrobials and Its Implications For Human Health
P. SenthilKumar, B.Balasundaram and G.Rajarajan Veterinary College and Research Institute Orathanadu-614 625, Tamil Nadu
ntimicrobial drugs are used in escalate to the point at which efficacy of animals, humans, and plants to many of the most important drugs will no A treat and prevent bacterial longer be predictable and some bacterial infections and to improve production infections could once again become efficiency in food-producing animals. untreatable. These drugs are among the most Since the discovery of penicillin, important tools available to modern antimicrobial agents have been broadly medicine. However, soon after used worldwide, and many countries do antimicrobial drugs became readily not have legislation to control antibiotic available for use in human and veterinary consumption. Currently, the prevalence of medicine, it was recognized that antimicrobial resistant pathogens has decreased bacterial susceptibility could increased at a speed inversely adversely affect clinical outcome. proportional to the approval of new Variability in susceptibility to different drugs. Thus, in regard to infectious antimicrobial drugs has become a major diseases, the emergence of resistance is factor affecting the successful treatment one of the top health challenges in the of bacterial diseases. Along with target 21st century, especially in hospital bacteria, commensal and transient settings. However, when considering microbial flora are exposed to varying veterinary medicine, although the amount amounts of antimicrobial drug during of antibiotics consumed in livestock is treatment. Although resistance in these almost double the amount used by so-called bystander bacteria might not be humans, the role of veterinary of consequence in one host species, these antimicrobials use in resistance organisms can cause disease in other development has only recently been hosts and all resistant bacteria could discussed. serve as reservoirs of resistance genes. Antimicrobial use in animals can The extent to which antimicrobial contribute to the emergence of resistance is affecting the health of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria humans and animals is not known. There that may be transferred to humans, are concerns that emerging resistance thereby reducing the effectiveness of among bacteria, if left unchecked, could antimicrobial drugs for treating human
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disease. FDA has developed a Growth promotion is the multipronged strategy designed to limit administration of an antimicrobial, or reverse resistance arising from the use usually as a feed additive, over a of antibiotics in food-producing animals, period of time to growing animals that while continuing to ensure the availability results in improved physiological of safe and effective antibiotics for use in performance. At least four animals and humans. mechanisms have been proposed as Antimicrobial uses in animal explanations of antibiotic mediated production were applied in veterinary growth enhancement: the inhibition of medicine and agriculture, including food subclinical infections, the reduction of animal production, pets and aquaculture. growth-depressing microbial The extensive use and misuse in all metabolites, the reduction of microbial settings has created strong selection use of nutrients and the enhanced pressure, which has resulted in the uptake and use of nutrients through survival and persistence of resistant the thinner. strains. In veterinary medicine, In this context, the amount of substances exhibiting antimicrobial antibiotics consumed in livestock is activity are extensively used in animals almost double that used by humans. This for therapy, prophylaxis, metaphylaxis is an important reason for the emergence and growth promotion. of intestinal resistant bacteria and, due to Therapeutic use is the administration the similarities between veterinary and of an antimicrobial to an animal or human antimicrobials, has led to cross- group of animals that exhibit clinical resistance. In other words, the same disease. In farms, individual treatment resistance mechanism confers resistance is often impractical, particularly in to veterinary and human antibiotics. food-producing animals, which are Incidence of antimicrobial resistance kept in larger groups. Usually, problems in human due to the usage of antimicrobials in such large animal antimicrobials in animals: groups are administered when single Epidemiological and molecular animals of the group present with observations have shown that symptoms of the disease, as it is antimicrobial resistance, as promoted by expected that most of the group will extensive antibiotic usage in animals, can become affected. increase antimicrobial resistance problems Prevention/prophylaxis is the among human populations; administration of an antimicrobial to 1. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci exposed healthy animals considered to (VRE): Vancomycin resistant be at risk before expected onset of enterococci (VRE) in both animals and disease and for which no etiological people have become prevalent in agent has yet been cultured. countries that used a glycopeptide Metaphylaxis is a term sometimes growth promotant called avoparcin, used when there is clinical disease in which is structurally similar to some animals, but all are treated with vancomycin. Vancomycin is a very the aim of reducing the numbers of important antibiotic in human sick and/or dead animals. medicine that is often used a last line of defence for several types of infectious
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agents. Consequent discontinuation of humans, and vice-versa. MRSA has avoparcin’s use in animals was been found in humans closely followed by a rapid subsequent decline associated with carrier animals; in the incidence of VRE in both human among pet owners, veterinarians and and animal populations. veterinary personnel as well as pig 2. Campylobacter resistance and and cattle farmers. Studies identified fluoroquinolones: The introduction of both livestock and companion animals enrofloxacin in veterinary medicine as potential sources of MRSA for was quickly followed by the emergence humans, and close contact with these of fluoroquinolone resistance among animals was identified as a risk factor Campylobacter isolates from broilers, for their carriage in people. and in humans shortly thereafter. As Veterinary-related factors influencing was the case with avoparcin, resistance the global spread of antimicrobial to fluoroquinolones in human and resistance animal populations remained rare in Veterinary-related factors that influence countries that had not used the global spread of AMR include the fluoroquinolones in food animals following: 3. Multi-drug Resistant Salmonella: An 1. Increase in population, demand for increase in antimicrobial resistance to food animal protein and global third-generation cephalosporins in changes in animal production Salmonella and E.coli was also observed systems. following the increased usage of these The Centre for Strategic and International antibiotics in animals. Furthermore, its Studies estimates that the world withdrawal and re-introduction were population increases by about 8,700 subsequently followed by a decline and people every hour, 146 people every resurgence, respectively, in minute or 2.5 people every second. From antimicrobial resistance among animal 1950 to the year 2000, the population and human Salmonella isolates. roughly doubled from 3 billion to 6.3 4. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus billion and is projected to continue to aureus (MRSA): By the 1990s, MRSA increase in the years to come. was recognized as a serious worldwide Understandably, food production must nosocomial infection. MRSA strains also increase to meet these increased are resistant to beta-lactam nutritional demands. However, because of antibiotics, including those that are urbanization and industrialization, not affected by penicillinase. The available agricultural lands continue to resistance is mediated by a mecA gene shrink and livestock production has which codes for a penicillin-binding become compromised in many regions. protein (PBP2a) that has low affinity In reaction to the increasing demand for for beta- lactam antibiotics. In the last food and the decreasing available few years, animals have been agricultural land, most livestock and implicated in the maintenance, spread poultry are now raised in smaller spaces and transmission of some types of at the least possible cost and pushed to MRSA among humans. There is the fastest possible rate of gain. This evidence that transmission of MRSA often requires reliance on antibiotics for strains can occur from animals to treatment, metaphylaxis or growth
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promotion; thereby creating concomitant expensive, and may also require a strong increased rates of antimicrobial political will to counter the influence of resistance. some in the private sector who may not 2. Changing trends in animal trading want information revealed that might and increased movement of animals scare consumers, jeopardize and animal by-products pharmaceutical sales or negatively affect The international trade in livestock and exports or imports. Also, many countries livestock products is a growing business, have much more pressing issues such as accounting for about one sixth, by value, of feeding their people, fighting wars and all agricultural trade. To liberalize developing their economies. international trade, the General The World Health Organization (WHO), Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the US Centers for Disease Control and was established in 1947. The Office Prevention (CDC), the US Food and Drug International des Epizooties (OIE) was Administration (FDA), and many other tasked to set appropriate global standards agencies involved in promotion and for animal health, while the Codex regulation of health activities around the Alimentarius Commission sets standards world are vigorously engaged in for food safety. developing programs intended to monitor These standards facilitated safer the emergence of antimicrobial resistance international movement of animals and and to decrease use of antimicrobial animal by-products around the world. drugs. Veterinarians are responsible for However, they do little to prevent the overseeing the use of most antimicrobial spread of AMR across the globe due to drugs in animals for therapeutic or disease resistant bacterial organisms that may be prevention. Veterinarians should hitchhiking in animal products and therefore critically evaluate current healthy animals. Increased movement of antimicrobial use to identify ways to animals and animal by-products has also modify use without adversely affecting the been facilitated by technological health and well-being of animals or improvements in travel and transport humans. Antimicrobial resistance is a systems. It used to be that food products global problem, in that antimicrobial with short shelf lives could not be moved resistance anywhere in the world can to distant markets, but what used to take rapidly spread internationally. Hence, weeks and months to transport can now veterinarians must understand their be moved within a day or even less. This significant professional responsibility in rapid movement increases the likelihood preventing antimicrobial resistance by that bacteria will remain viable while in mitigating the emergence and spread of transit, further increasing the risk that antimicrobial resistance. antimicrobial resistance genes can quickly REFERENCES spread around the world. 3. Lack of global initiative regarding World Health Organization Study Group. antimicrobial resistance 2002. Future trends in veterinary In many countries there is little public health. World Health Organ surveillance information regarding rates Tech Rep Ser 907:1-85. of antimicrobial usage or AMR in food or Bogaard AEVD and Stobberingh EE. 2000. food animals. Such programs are Epidemiology of resistance to
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antibiotics: Links between animals and humans. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 14:237-335). FAO, 2002. World Livestock Trade. Spotlight. Accessed online January, 2009 [http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/02 04sp1.htm] Gupta A, Nelson JM, Barrett TJ, Tauze RV, Rossiter Sp, Friedman CR, Joyce KW, Smith KE, Jones TF, Hawkins MA, Shiferaw B, Beebe JL, Vugia DJ, Rabatsky T, Benson JA, Root TP and Angulo FJ. 2004. Antimicrobial Resistance among Campylobacter Strains, United States, 1997-2001. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 10(6):1102-1109. Paul S. Morley, Michael D. Apley, Thomas E. Besser, Derek P. Burney, Paula J. Fedorka-Cray, Mark G. Papich, Josie L. Traub-Dargatz, and J. Scott Weese. Antimicrobial Drug Use in Veterinary Medicine. J Vet Intern Med 2005;19:617–629 Silva, K.C.D, knöbl,T. and Moreno,T.A.M Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: mechanisms and bacterial agents with the greatest impact on human health. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci., São Paulo, v. 50, n. 3, p. 171-183, 2013 Phillips, I., Casewell, M., Cox, T., De Groot, B., Friis, C., Jones, R., Nightingale, C., Preston, R., Waddell, J. Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? A critical review of published data. Journal Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 53 (1): 28–52, 2004.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):421-425; June-2016 Sinha et al
Housing Management Of Dairy
Cow In Tropical Climate
Ranjana Sinha1, Shiwani Tiwari2, Indu Devi3, Anjali kumari4 and Ashish Ranjan5
ousing is one of the foremost animal productivity in tropical, requirements of dairy cows for subtropical and arid areas. There is about H better production, health and 1.8 million tons annually (Rs 2,661crore) welfare (Histov et al., 2006). Shelter is milk yield loss due to heat stress. Both the required for protection and comfort of increasing ambient temperature from animal against extremes of temperature, 25ºC to 36ºC and the increasing THI 72 to sunlight, rainfall, humidity, frost, snowfall, 82 have negative impact on the DMI and strong winds, etc. Besides providing milk productions of cows. shelter from adverse weather a well- Heat stress: Heat stress in dairy cows is designed barn provides a clean, dry, well caused by a combination of drained and comfortable accommodation environmental factors (temperature, to the animals and a pleasant efficient relative humidity, solar radiation and air work place for the workers which are movement). It is the conditions are important for quality milk production. normally associated with a decline of Uncomfortable housing have detrimental production and reproductive effects on housed animals which makes performances as to determine the them not only more susceptible to activations of thermo-regulation diseases but also less productive. The mechanism in order to avoid basic justification for animal housing is hyperthermia and maintain the vital that it should alter or modify the functions of the animals (Garcı´a-Ispierto environment for the benefit of animals et al., 2007).. enclosed in it to reduce the peak stress Climatic factor: The main climatic factors with due consideration to the economics from which protection is to be provided of construction. Under tropical climatic are high and low ambient temperature, conditions as prevailing under most of the environmental humidity, solar radiation, Indian conditions, some basic principles wind and rain. The rise in temperature that should guide the dairy farmers and number of stress days is likely to embarking on building a farm is to reduce reduce growth, milk yield and heat gain and promote heat loss from the reproductive efficiency of cattle especially structure of the animal house by radiation of high producing stock. The appropriate and conduction during summer. design of livestock buildings is fast Among the stressors, heat stress changing and ever improving professional has been of major concern in reducing endeavor.
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Sustainability: sustainability becomes an falling, enhances cow movement to feed, important keyword in connection with water, and stalls, and improves heat modern livestock production. There is an detection. In livestock housing, wood-float expectation from society that animal and broom-finished surfaces become products must originate from housing smooth in time due to tractor scraping environments where both the health and and constant animal traffic. Select the welfare of livestock have neither been degree of floor roughness based on the impaired nor endangered. The intended use and animal type. The floors development of animal production in shall have a gradient of 1 in 40 to 1 in 60 recent decades can be characterized by towards the drains so that wash water intensification and specialization. can run into drains easily. The raised- Intensification means indoor animal slotted floor with thatched roof is best housing all year round (non-grazing), high suited for growth, feed conversion animal densities, a high degree of efficiency and economic. Dairy cows mechanization and automation (e.g. in always prefer soft floor, soft materials feeding, water supply, manure removal, such as rubber mats and mattresses were ventilation), a low labor requirement and suitable coverings and have shown good often a small air volume in relation to results. Ammonia emission from the number of animals in housing unit. compartment with the grooved solid floor Extensive rearing of livestock by grazing operating with open perforations is is being largely replaced by intensive, reduced by 46% compared to the confined husbandry. traditional slatted floor. Design of housing: The design and Roof: The roof should be light, strong, management should be prepared in such a durable, weather proof, bad conductor of way, so that it improves the cow comfort heat and free from tendency to condense during resting, and provide an moisture inside. The pitch of roof should environment where the cow can be, 350 for thatched roof, 25 to 300 for maximize heat loss during hot weather tile roof and 12 to 180 for a sheet roof. and minimize heat loss during cold The pitch should not exceed 450 at any weather. Choosing a particular housing circumstances. system design is difficult because it is not Wall: For ordinary walls, thickness always known how the system design will should not exceed 35 cm. Partition walls affect growth, health, and production of lining the open areas should be 22.5 cm the animal. Access to a dry, comfortable (two brick) thick. Height of walls should standing area reduces the risk of be 2-2.5 m for houses with sloping roofs. lameness. A rest period on pasture helps When solid concrete walls are removed lame cows recover. and replaced by steel piping, the roof is Component of housing design raised 1 m and outside paddocks is Floor: The floors should be hard, provided with palm thatch shelters, impervious to water and easy to clean. almost no trouble is experienced from Concrete floors (3,500 psi) must have climatic stress. adequate texture for good footing. Secure Type of housing: footing reduces injuries from slipping and
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Free stall housing - Free-stall design teats and to keep the cow standing must consider lying/standing space along straight so that the manure falls in the with moving or dynamic space gutter. requirements of the cow. A solid front The surface of the free stall should be: must not interfere with the cow lunging Comfortable to the cows to encourage forward. The brisket board positions the high occupancy cow correctly in the stall, thus keeping the Prevent hock damage and other rear of the stall cleaner. The stall width of injuries 1.22 m is adequate for cow comfort and It should be easy to clean and be minimizing injuries. A lateral slope of durable three percent across the width The ideal lying surface is soft, absorbs encourages cows to lie in the same moisture and does not promote the direction, again reducing the chance of growth of bacteria. When cows are forced udder and teat injury from adjacent cows. to lie down on hard surfaces, they do not A longitudinal slope of two to six percent lie down for long, are more easily is suggested to encourage the cows to rest unsettled and may develop knee and hock toward the rear of the stall. Another lesions and swelling (Tucker et al., 2003). design consideration is the rear curb. The floor of the cubicles can be earthen With curbs of 20 to 30 cm in height, with a thick layer of bedding, or can be manure overflow from alley scraping is solid, with a soft top layer. The simplest minimized. The partition for free-stalls is bedding is packed earth or sand, this also an important design consideration. being inexpensive but requires care to The cow’s lying and rising space needs maintain a f lat surface. Sand is quickly consist of three elements: pushed around by cows, so it should not Body space — The space from the rear of be used with mechanical or liquid manure a cow to the front of her knees. handling systems because it fills up Head space — The space ahead of a cow’s storage tanks and is very abrasive, body occupied by her head. damaging equipment such as manure Lunge space — The additional space pumps. A concrete foundation with a necessary for the thrust of a cow’s head as disposable bedding of chopped straw, she lunges forward during rising. sawdust, wood shavings or crushed corn Tie-stall shed: Only in the case of cobs is more common in Europe, because purebred herds where considerable rice hulls are not readily available. Rice individual attention is given to cows can a hulls would make ideal bedding for free tie-stall system be justified in tropical stalls but their high silica content could areas. The tie and feed barrier damage liquid manure handling construction must allow the cow free equipment. Hard surfaces should have a head movements while lying down as well slope of at least 1% so that urine will as standing up, but should prevent her drain into the alleys. Rubber mats and from stepping forward into the feed cow mattresses are new innovations for trough. Stall partitions should be used at free stalls but the thin ones (10 mm or least between every second cow to less) have short life spans. Thicker ones prevent cows from trampling each other's (25–30 mm), although more expensive,
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Indian Farmer 3(6):421-425; June-2016 Sinha et al are likely to be more cost effective in the on roof members and eventually lead to long term. The front of the cubicles with deterioration of the roof. The long-term thick bedding should be 1.2 m high and solution is to install chimneys which will the back 0.85 m. In cubicles with solid exhaust the air directly to the outside. floors, these measurements are 1.1 and Heat stress management: During 0.75 m, respectively. periods of heat stress, it is necessary to Ventilation: It is necessary to remove reduce cow stress by increasing airflow odours and gases from the barn, and and installing sprinkler systems. The replace them with fresh air. In cold critical areas to cool are the milking weather the ventilation rate is calculated parlor, holding pen and housing area. to remove excess moisture and in hot First, these areas should provide adequate weather it is calculated to remove excess shade. Barns built with a north-south heat. Natural ventilation using existing orientation allow morning and afternoon windows and doors is preferable because sun to enter the stalls and feeding areas of cost. Natural ventilation relies on the and may not adequately protect the cows. wind to ventilate a barn by the cross flow Second, as temperatures increase, cows of air in one side and out the other, and on depend upon evaporative cooling to the fact that hot air rises. In order for maintain core temperature. The use of natural ventilation to work properly it is sprinkler and fan systems to effectively necessary to have both air inlets and wet and dry the cows will increase heat exhaust openings from the barn. Windows loss. The holding pen should be cooled can be used for both air inlets and air with fans and sprinkler systems and an exhaust if they are adjustable and are exit lane sprinkler system may be spread evenly around the walls. Doors can beneficial in hot climates (Garner et also be used if you are careful. Brouk et al. al.,1988). Fans may be installed to provide (2005) observed that fans cool by moving additional airflow that will increase air over the body of animals at a faster evaporation rate. Zheng et al. (2009) speed than normal air movement but suggests that heat stress significantly when fans are not sufficient to elevate reduces the production of milk, cooling levels, additional cooling can be percentage of milk fat and percentage of achieved by using evaporative cooling and proteins, but that it has no effect on the increase 10 percent in milk production in content of lactose in milk. cows that are cooled by fans and Cold Stress: Dairy cows can withstand a sprinklers compared with animals in free significant amount of cold stress as stalls. compared to other animals. Factors In cold weather, air exhaust affecting the ability of the cow to openings will be needed. In a two-storey withstand cold temperatures include barn, hay chutes can be used if they have housing, pen condition, age, stage of an adjustable opening. Hay chutes should lactation, nutrition, thermal acclimation, only be used as a temporary fix, since they hairy coat and behaviour. Feed intake will exhaust warm moist air into the mow increases when ambient temperature area of the barn. If this moist air is not drops below the lower critical exhausted from the mow, it will condense temperature of the animal. Protection
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Indian Farmer 3(6):421-425; June-2016 Sinha et al from wind and moisture will reduce the and stall usage by dairy cows. J. lower critical temperature and minimize Dairy Sci. 86: 521–529. the effects of cold stress. When feed Zheng, L., Chenh, M., Zhi-Cheng, G. 2009. intake is no longer adequate to maintain Effect of heat stress on milk both body temperature and milk performance and fatty acids in production, milk production will likely milk fat of Holstein dairy cows. J. decrease. China Dairy Industry, 37(9): 17- REFERENCES 19. Brouk, M., Armstrong, D., Smith, J., Brayand, D., Harner, J. 2005. Evaluating and Selecting Cooling Systems for Different Climates. Proc. 7th Western Dairy Management Conference, March 9-89, 2005, Reno, NV. pp. 33-40. Garcl’a-lspierto, I., Lo´pez-Gatius, F., Bech- Sabatb, G., Santolaria, P., Ya’niz, J.L., Nogareda, C., De Rensis, F. and M.Lo´pez-Be´jar. 2007. Climate factors affecting Conception rate of high producing dairy cows in northeastern Spain. Theriogenology. 67: 1379-1385. Garner, J.C., Bucklin, R.A., Kunkle, W.E. and Nordstedt, R.A. 1988. Environmental modification to reduce heat stress and improve the production of feed lot cattle. Livestock environment 3. Proceedings of the third international livestock environment symposium, Toronto, Canada, 25-27 April 1988. 330-335; ASAE publication No.1-88. Hristov S., Stankovic B. and Relic R. 2006. Klinicki i subklinički mastitis u krava. Biotehnologija u stocarstvu. 21: 29-39. Tucker, C.B., Weary, D.M. and Fraser, D. 2003. Effects of three types of free-stall surfaces on preferences
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Indian Farmer 3(6):426-430; June-2016 Boro et al
Subclinical ketosis in dairy cows:
Causes and its management
Prasanta Boro1, Binoy Chandra Naha2, Ambadas Madkar1,Chandra Prakash3, Jyoti Patel4 and Jharna Chandrakar4 ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, U.P-243122 1 PhD Scholar, LPM Section, ICAR-IVRI 2 PhD Scholar, Animal Genetics Division, ICAR-IVRI 3MVSc Scholar, Animal Genetics Division, ICAR-IVRI 4MVSc Scholar, LPM Section, ICAR-IVRI Corresponding Email: [email protected]
Abstract Subclinical ketosis (SCK) is a condition characterised by the presence of increased blood ketone concentrations without any clinical signs. Many factors are responsible for SCK. It is more common during transition period because of high negative energy balance. It has tremendous impact on the productive and reproductive performances of dairy cows. So, huge economic loss is incurred because of SCK. Prevention of ketosis is the need of the hour and this is only possible through proper feeding management, by maintaining proper BCS and monitoring SCK with easily available and cheap cow-side tests kits. Keywords: Subclinical ketosis, Ketone, transition period, productive, reproductive, dairy cows
INTRODUCTION Cows that develop ketosis in early lactation lose milk yield and are at higher As the dairy industry continues to strive risk for postpartum diseases. So, for increased genetic gain in milk subclinical ketosis causes huge economic production, cows will continue to be at loss through decreased milk production increased risk of developing subclinical and is associated with many peri- ketosis (Duffield et al., 2000). Subclinical parturient diseases. ketosis is simply a condition marked by SCK and Clinical ketosis increased levels of circulating ketone Clinical ketosis refers to the presence of bodies without the presence of the clinical clinical signs in addition to an increase in signs of ketosis (Anderson et al., 1988). blood ketones bodies (Andersson, 1988) There is a remarkable shift in metabolism but in SCK, no signs are obseved. SCK after calving and milk production consists of a blood BHBA concentration increases so rapidly that feed intake alone greater than 1.4 mM during early cannot suffice the energy requirements lactation (Duffield et al., 2009). Increased (Bauman and Currie, 1980; Baird, 1982). concentrations of both BHBA and NEFA is Cows with a poor adaptive response to used as markers of SCK. negative energy balance develop SCK.
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Factors affecting Subclinical ketosis: adopted (The Mercks Veterinary Manual, • Lack of nutritive feed 2014). • Adreno-cortical insufficiency • Hypothyroidism Table 1: Fat Metabolites Level in Blood • Role of insulin (mg/100ml) • Lack of exercise Fat Normal Sub Clinical • Deficiency of vitamins and minerals metabolites level clinical Ketosis Ketosis Mechanism of subclinical ketosis Acetoacetic 0.1 - 7 Most transition dairy cows experience a acid negative energy balance (NEB) because of BHBA 8 - 30 increased energy demands at parturition Free Fatty 9 - 28 and decreased in DMI before parturition. acid
Glycolysis fails to meet the energy Impact of sub-clinical Ketosis in Dairy demand through blood glucose, instead cows energy is provided by the ketone bodies. Increased concentrations of BHBA or Ketone bodies are formed NEFA are associated with an increased by ketogenesis when liver glycogen stores risk of developing various diseases and are depleted in the process of energy conditions like abomasum displacement, supply. The main ketone bodies that are clinical ketosis, culling, metritis, placental formed are none other than retention, mastitis, and lameness, acetoacetic and β-hydroxybutyric (BHB) reproductive disorders and changes in acids. The levels of ketone bodies are milk production potential of dairy cows regulated mainly by insulin and glucagon. (Duffield et al., 2009; McArt et al., 2013; This increase in ketone bodies in the Suthar et al., 2013). SCK also causes blood leads to the development of lameness (Suthar et al., 2013). The BHBA various froms of ketosis. threshold varies from 0.3 (Suthar et al., Diagnosis 2013) to 1.8 mM (Duffield et al., 2009). Diagnosis of subclinical ketosis depend So, in short SCK has the following upon the level of ketone bodies impacts in dairy cows. concentration above which cows are to be i. Association with periparturient considered subclinically ketotic. disease Concentrations between 1,000 μM (10.4 ii. Impact on milk production mg/dL) and 1,400 μM (14.6 mg/dL) are iii. Impact on reproductive performances generally considered by most of the iv. High cost of subclinical ketosis researchers in their findings (The Mercks treatment Veterinary Manual, 2014). Herd level Management of Sub-clinical ketosis testing requires at least 12 animals in the It includes the following broad first 60 days of lactation and if >10% are managemental practices: subclinically ketotic, it should be i. Monitoring of subclinical ketosis considered as a herd level problem and ii. Feeding Management prompt nutritional, monitoring and other iii. Management of body condition management procedures are to be iv. General management practices
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Monitoring of subclinical ketosis Urine ketone test is based on the same This includes the following tasks: nitroprusside reaction as the milk ketone a. Testing the dairy cow: Pre calving & tests(Colour change from white to pink or Post calving . purple). This test is highly sensitive b. Test for detecting ketone bodies: (approaching 100%) but are poorly NEFA test, BHBA test, Milk ketone and specific. Urine ketone test . Feeding management: NEFA test for SCK: Feeding of high bulk and low energy diets It measures serum or plasma NEFA levels for dry cows (Oetzel, et al., 1998) is in dry cows. Sampling of blood is done encouraged. Transition period diet is prior to feeding time The animals are designed to maximize the dry matter neither to be excited at the of sampling intake to provide adequate energy nor be collected or measured from sick or density. Total mixed rations is highly off feed animals. If NEFA concentrations recommended. Propylene glycol has been in the week before calving are greater used successfully for the prevention of than 0.7 mmol/L, increases risk of SCK subclinical ketosis (Sauer et al., 1973). (Osborne et al., 2003) Niacin is fed prior to calving at the rate of BHBA test: 3 to 6 g/day, may be helpful in reducing This test measures serum beta- blood levels of BHBA (Dufva et al., 1983). hydroxybutyrate levels in fresh cows. Monensin included at 30 g/ton of total Sampling is taken from 8-10 fresh cows ration (high group) decreased the after 0-4 weeks postpartum. Sampling is incidence of subclinical ketosis and done prior to feeding time. Measurement significantly reduced blood BHBA is not conducted in sick or off feed concentrations in the first three weeks animals. BHBA concentration of 1400 postpartum (Sauer et al., 1989). µmol/L or greater is the primary risk for Management of body condition of cow SCK (Duffield et al., 2000) Over-conditioned cows is avoided in late MILK KETONE TEST: lactation and dry period. Over- conditioning causes depressed appetite at Milk ketone tests measure acetone and freshening and may increase fatty liver acetoacetate through a reaction with problems. Body condition score should be nitroprusside which causes a colour 3-3.5 at calving. change from white to pink or purple. One General management practices exception is that milk ketone test that For the comport and sound productivity measures only BHBA. It is marketed in of dairy cows, proactive management and Europe as “Ketolac BHB”, in Japan as investigation of problems should focus on “Sanketopaper”, and in Canada as “Keto- minimizing nutritional, housing, social Test”. This test has a much higher and environmental factors. Adequate pen sensitivity in milk (>70%) and reasonably space per cow, adequate feed bunk space, good specificity (>70%, up to 90%) sufficient and comfortable bedding, (Oetzel et al., 2004). adequate water supply and minimization Urine Ketone Tests : of heat stress.
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CONCLUSION production. J. Dairy Sci., 92: 571– Subclinical ketosis is an important and 580. http://dx.doi. common condition in lactating dairy org/10.3168/jds.2008-1507. cows. There are several tests for Dufva, G.S., E.E. Bartley, A.D. Dayton, and subclinical ketosis available but the D.O. Riddell. (1983). Effect of niacin design and frequency of a subclinical supplementation on milk ketosis monitoring program will depend production and ketosis of dairy on the purpose of the program and the cattle. J. Dairy Sci., 66: 2329-2336. frequency of disease within the herd. McArt, J. A., D. V. Nydam, and G. R. Oetzel. Certain feeding such as niacin, propylene (2013). Dry period and parturient glycol and monensin along with balanced predictors of early lactation ration is beneficial. Milk yield loss is about hyperketonemia in dairy cattle. J. 7% of the total yield. The total economic Dairy Sci., 96: 198–209. loss for a single case of SCK can range http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/ jds. from Rs 2000/- to Rs 5000/-. Early 2012-5681. detection of SCK using a cow-side blood Oetzel, G. R.( 2004). Monitoring and test followed by early treatment of SCK testing dairy herds for metabolic with oral propylene glycol reduces the disease. Vet. Clin. North Am. Food negative impacts of SCK. Anim. Pract. 20: 651-674. Oetzel, G.R. (1998). Dairy: Nutrition REFERENCES Management. Nutritional Andersson, L. (1988). Subclinical ketosis management of dry dairy cows. in dairy cows. Vet. Clin. North Am. Comp. Cont. Ed., March, Food Food Anim. Pract., 4: 233–251. Animal, 391-396. Baird, G. D. (1982). Primary ketosis in the Osborne, T. (2003). An evaluation of high-producing dairy cow: Clinical metabolic function in transition and subclinical disorders, dairy cows supplemented with treatment, prevention, and outlook. Rumensin premix, or administered J. Dairy Sci., 65:1-10. a Rumensin controlled release Bauman, D. E., and W. B. Currie. (1980). capsule. MSc Thesis, University of Partitioning of nutrients during Guelph pregnancy and lactation: A review Sauer, F.D., J.D. Erfle, and L.J. Fisher. of mechanisms involving (1973). Propylene glycol and homeostasis and homeorhesis. J. glycerol as a feed additive for Dairy Sci., 63:1514-1529. lactating dairy cows: an evaluation Duffield, T. (2000). Subclinical ketosis in of blood metabolite parameters. lactating dairy cattle. Vet. Clin. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 53: 265-271. North Am. Food. Anim. Pract., 16: Sauer, F.D., J.K.G. Kramer, and W.J. 231-253. Cantwell. (1989). Antiketogenic Duffield, T. F., K. D. Lissemore, B. W. effects of monensin in early McBride, and K. E. Leslie. (2009). lactation. J. Dairy Sci., 72:436-442. Impact of hyperketonemia in early Suthar, V. S., J. Canelas-Raposo, A. Deniz, lactation dairy cows on health and and W. Heuwieser. (2013).
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Prevalence of subclinical ketosis and relationships with postpartum diseases in European dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 96: 2925–2938. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.201 2-6035. Thomas H. Herdt . Subclinical Ketosis: Ketosis in Cattle: Merck Veterinary Manual. Last full review/revision May 2014.
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Mastitis Management of Dairy Animals at
organized Dairy Farms
Shiwani Tiwari*, Indu Devi, Ranjana Sinha, Anjali kumari, Shital Kumar Gautam and Narender Kumar
astitis is the disease of occurred due to subclinical mastitis; these mammary gland caused by being 57.93% (Rs. 4151.16 crores) (NDRI M various organisms including News, 2012). Sharma et al., (2012) found Bacteria, fungus and occasionally by virus. that the incidence of mastitis was found to Mostly, the infection enters through teat- be 40% in 485 lactations of Karan Fries canal and causes disease to the susceptible cows during the period 2006–08. gland. High producing animals are more Mastitis is a disease which is almost susceptible. Susceptibility is also increased impossible to eradicate from dairy herds to the animals milked by machine, having but can be controlled to a lower level by injury to the teat and gland, and by adopting suitable udder health incomplete milking. Secretary tissues get management programme which intern are damaged and affected gland may be based on two main principles viz. rendered blind. At any time, over 30% a. Elimination of existing infection. cows may be infected. Mastitis is b. Prevention of new infection universally considered the most Elimination of existing infection can be widespread and costly disease of the dairy achieved by antibiotic therapy both during industry. It can be defined as the dry and lactation period. On the other inflammation of mammary gland hand prevention of new infection can be irrespective of causes. achieved by adopting a suitable udder Mastitis is responsible for heavy economic health management programme. The losses due to reduced milk yield (up to major principles of mastitis control 70%), milk discard after treatment (9%), programme are as under. cost of veterinary services (7%) and The disease may be classified under two premature culling (14%) (Bhikane and headings: Kawitkar, 2000). Importance of mastitis in 1. Clinical mastitis commercial dairying can be well assessed 2. Sub-clinical mastitis. by the fact that a developed country like Early detection at sub-clinical stage is one USA has 16.5% of the cattle population of the measures to minimise the incidence suffering from clinical mastitis (Dargatz, of clinical mastitis in dairy animals. These 2009). The annual economic losses due to unseen infections are detected by several mastitis were calculated to be methods, including the direct microscopic approximately Rs.7165.51 crores in India somatic cell count and the California losses being almost same for cows Mastitis Test (CMT). CMT is a cowside test (Rs.3649.56 crores) and buffaloes that can be a valuable tool, yielding rapid (3515.95 crores). Much economic losses results. The use of the CMT on the entire
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Indian Farmer 3(6):431-435; June-2016 Tiwari et al herd at monthly intervals can be mastitis that is detected by the CMT alone. extremely useful as an aid in detecting If you suspect that a subclinical case of herd mastitis problems. Individual and mastitis may progress to clinical, rather total quarter infections can be determined than receding, prompt therapy should and, with proper records, the level of herd begin. Clinical cases (obvious mastitis) mastitis can be monitored. This test yields require early therapy. Laboratory information that can aid in determining culturing of milk from these quarters is faulty milking procedures or equipment necessary to provide the required function, as well as the effectiveness of information to prescribe proper therapy. teat dips and dry cow treatment programs. By periodically recording your CMT Mixed with milk, the CMT chemical or results, one can monitor herd levels and reagent reacts with leucocytes (white investigate the possible causes early when blood cells) that are usually present in results show elevated CMT scores from large numbers when an infection occurs. one test to the next. The test reaction is to When this reaction occurs, the reagent- be graded and interpreted in similar milk mixture thickens or gels in manner as discussed above. proportion to the number of leucocytes Following of the following package of present and indicates the severity of the practices is very useful for the control inflammation. The greater the reaction, of mastitis in dairy herds. the higher the CMT score. (i) Adoption of proper hygienic Table 1: CMT consideration table (Schalm measures: and Noorlander, 1957) Maintenance of proper hygiene is perhaps CMT Consistency of milk/reagent the most important management practice score mixture in mastitis control as it affects the degree 1 No change in consistency. of exposure and population of microbes in 2 No visible change in consistency, the environment surrounding the cow. but when paddle is tipped a slime Most of the new infections take place is momentarily seen on the during preparing the animal for milking bottom. and during the process of milking itself. So, 3 A gel or thick slime forms, but a hygienic and clean milking byre/ place is when the paddle is swirled the very essential to reduce the infection rate. solution does not move into the Teat hygiene is another important factor centre. of reducing the exposure. It may be 4 A thick lumpy gel forms, which, achieved by using pre and post milking when swirled, quickly moves teat-dip. Post milking teat dipping or toward the centre spraying the teats with disinfectants is of 5 A distinct gel forms which tends to special value as it removes most of the adhere to the paddle, and during residual contamination and most swirling a distinct central peak importantly encourages healing of the teat forms. sores and lesions and also prevents the Treatment of CMT Positive Cows growth of the pathogens in teat ducts. An During lactation, it is not generally effective teat dip if correctly used can recommended to treat all subclinical 432 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(6):431-435; June-2016 Tiwari et al reduce the incidence of new udder Ensure that teats are clean and dry infection by 50 to 90%. prior to milking. The sanitary measures can be Check fore milk and udder for mastitis summarised as follows: using strip cup or California mastitis 1. Teat washing with disinfectant test (CMT). solution and wiping with individual Attach the milking unit properly. clean towels, prior to each milking. Minimise machine stripping and avoid 2. Disinfecting of hands of milkers, liner slips. milking machine clusters before Avoid over milking and removing the milking and unit under vacuum. 3. Teat dis-infection after each milking by Fluctuation in vacuum levels must be dipping or spraying all teats in minimum. disinfectant solution. Optimum vacuum must be ensured. Suitable udder disinfectants for this Pulsation rate should be maintained purpose are as follows: within permissible limits. a. Iodophor solution containing 0.1 to Teat liner must be checked for rupture 1.0% available iodine. etc. and must be replaced at least once b. Chlorhexidine 0.5 or 1% in polyvinyl a month. pyrrolidone solution or as 0.3% Milk the infected animal in the end aqueous solution when all the fresh animals have been c. Sodium hypochlorite (4% solution). milked. To ensure effectiveness of these Daily inspection of milking equipment disinfectants the udder must be should be a routine affair. washed clearly to remove all the (iii) Dry cow therapy: organic matter before applying The dry period offers a valuable disinfectant solution on them. opportunity to improve udder health (ii) Proper milking procedure: while cows are not lactating. On the other Proper milking of dairy animals is hand, the beginning (initial 2-3 weeks) important regardless of whether hand or and the final 2-3 weeks of gestation period machine milking is being followed. Rapid is very vulnerable to new infections. The and full hand milking is desirable as this procedure of dry cow therapy may be ensures harvesting of more milk and carried out as follows: simultaneously prevents teat injury which Dip all the teats in an effective teat dip might result as a consequence of improper after complete milking and dry milking method (Fisting etc). Milking completely. management becomes more important Disinfect each teat end with alcohol when machine milking is followed. In soaked cotton swab and infuse a single addition to proper disinfecting of milking doses x syringe of a recommended machine, the following factors must be antibiotic. Long acting antibiotic considered. preparations like benzathine Establish and maintain a regular Cephapirin, benzathine cloxacillin, milking schedule in a stress free benzathine penicillin, erythomycin, environment.
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novobiocin etc, can be used of strip cup is another easy test for successfully. A partial insertion detecting clinical mastitis. The antibiotic method of administration is better therapy should be done after conducting than complete insertion. the sensitivity test and use single dose Immediately after treatment dip all the tubes and not the multiple dose bottles teats in an effective teat dip again. which can become contaminated. It is The target of dry cow treatment is the better to consult a qualified veterinarian. group of pathogen residing in the (v) Segregation and culling of chronic udder i.e. Streptococcus sp., infected animals staphylococcus aureus and As soon as the mastitis is confirmed, the corynebacterium pyogenes. To check cow must be segregated from rest of the the new infection that occur in the few herd and milked and treated separately days before calving a second treatment besides adopting proper hygienic during the final 1 or 2 weeks period of measures. Selective culling of the cows pregnancy may be practised but with with chronic mastitis (three or more great care as there is high degree of episodes in a lactation) should be susceptibility during this period. practised. Besides therapy, dry cows should be (vi) Monitoring udder health status: provided with an environment that is as Implementing an effective udder health clean and dry as possible. It is also monitoring system is another key important to provide adequate space, principle of mastitis control. It involves ventilation, and lighting to ensure the following two components: cleanliness and comfort. Clipping of the Monitoring udder health at herd hair on the udders, flanks and inside the level-bulk milk tank somatic cell count hind leg also helps to reduce can be use for this purpose. contamination. Adequate balanced dry Monitoring udder health of individual cows feeding along with vitamin E and cows- Individual cow SCC can be used Selenium also appear to be effective in along with CMT. preventing mastitis infection at calving For proper monitoring good record and early lactation as they enhance the keeping is essential. Based on the current defence mechanism. This is also helpful to udder health status the appropriate ensure high milk yield in the ensuring control measures should be undertaken. lactation. Besides, periodic review of the udder (iv). Quick diagnosis and appropriate health management programme is also therapy of affected animals during important to take corrective measures lactation. wherever required. Early detection of mastitis, preferably in (vii) Setting goals for udder health sub-clinical form itself, is the key to the status: successful treatment of the disease. This Establishment of realistic periodic targets can be better done by screening all quarter for various udder health parameters is the samples using California Mastitis Test final step of a complete udder health (CMT) and monitoring Somatic Cell Count management program. The goals should (SCC) at least once a month regularly. Use be realistic, economic and achievable. The
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Indian Farmer 3(6):431-435; June-2016 Tiwari et al farm goals should be re-evaluated with each time period used for completion of health management cycle. REFERENCES Bhikane, A.U. and Kawitkar, S. B. (2000). Hand book for Veterinary Clinician. Venkatesh Books. Dargatz, D. A. (2009). What is normal? A field approach to characterizing health and management of the nation’s animal populations. Prev. Med., 88: 23-26. NDRI News (2012). National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Volume 17 No. 1 April-June, 2012. Schalm, O. W. and Noorlander, B. S. (1957). Experiments and observations leading to development of the California Mastitis Test. JAVMA, 130:199-204. Sharma, P.C., Gupta, A.K., Mohanty, T. K., Chakravarty, A.K., Singh, A. and Raja, T. V. (2012). Economic losses due to clinical mastitis in Karan Fries (Holstine Crossbred) dairy cattle. Ind. J. Vet. Res., 21(1): 1-5.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):436-439; June-2016 Yadav et al
Agriculture and Rural Tourism in India
Kamlesh Yadav1, Pratibha Yadav2, Sanjay Singh Yadav2 and Alok Kumar Yadav3
1Scientist KVK Ambedkar Nagar, NDUAT Faizabad 2Veterinary Medical Officer U.P. Government 3PhD Scholar, DCB Division, ICAR- NDRI Karnal-132001 Corresponding Author- [email protected]
ndia’s tourism industry is attract tourist to their area in order to experiencing a strong period of generate extra income for their I growth in high spending foreign businesses”. tourists, and coordinated government Agri-Tourism is one alternative for campaigns to promote ‘Incredible India’. improving the incomes and potential Tourism is termed as an instrument for economic viability of small farms and employment generation, poverty rural communities. India is an agricultural alleviation and sustainable human country about 65 per cent of its development. Promotion of Agri-Tourism population live in villages. A village is a needs conceptual convergence with Rural collection of small huts in the midst of Tourism, Eco-Tourism, Health Tourism, fields on which the village farmers work. Adventure Tourism and culinary Some villages are big, while others are adventure. A novel concept of additional comparatively smaller. They are generally revenue is by developing farms into cut off from the cities and have a different vacation ventures with hospitality kind of life. As we rise early in the facilities. Agritourism is the concept of morning, we can listen to the sweet songs visiting a working farm or any of the birds. We can enjoy the beauty of agricultural, horticultural or agri-business the rising sun and the sweet breeze of the operation for the purpose of enjoyment, greenery of fields around, are the various education or active involvement in the pleasures that abound in the countryside. activities of the farm or operation. In Establishment of Agri-Tourism units will general Agri-Tourism is the practice of promote livelihood security through attracting visitors to an area used improving the diversity and security of primarily for agricultural purposes. resources, skills and technologies that are It may also be defined as travel, which available to agricultural commodities. It combines agricultural or rural settings will help to achieve income, employment with products of agricultural operations and economic stability in rural all within a tourism experience. The communities in India. It would help product can be ‘experience itself’. Rural boosting a range of activities, services and and Agri-Tourism can be defined as “A amenities provided by farmers and rural range of activities, services and amenities people to attract urban tourists to their provided by farmers and rural people to
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Indian Farmer 3(6):436-439; June-2016 Yadav et al area thus provide opportunity for urban 5. Nostalgic for their roots on the farm: people to get back to the roots. For tourists it is like returning back to Rural and Agri-Tourism in India their roots. Agriculture is the back bone of Indian 6. Educational value of Rural and Agri- economy. This sector’s contribution Tourism spreading knowledge about towards GDP is decreasing and farmers agriculture science where urban are finding it difficult to carry the students are moving with the pace of agricultural activities without an technology. additional income. Whereas tourism is Basic Principles of Rural and Agri- termed as an instrument for employment Tourism generation, poverty alleviation and1 . Have something for visitors to see: development, Rural and Agri-Tourism Animals, birds, farms, culture of the brings in together the declining and village, dress and festivals. booming sector. Advantages of Rural and2 . Have something for visitors to do: Agri-Tourism are: Participating in agricultural operations, 1. It brings major primary sector riding camel, buffalo, cooking and Agriculture closer to major service participating in the rural games i.e. sector tourism expected to create win- gillidanda, gotti (marble etc.) win situation for both the sectors. 3. Have something for visitors to buy: Rural 2. Tourism sector has the potential to crafts, dress materials, farm gate fresh enlarge. processed food and few items. 3. Agriculture sector has the capacity to Three important factors, which contribute absorb expansion in Tourism sector. to the success of Rural and Agri-Tourism Scope of Rural and Agri-Tourism as service, are: 1. An inexpensive gateway: the cost of Farmer: Majority cases farmer is less food, accommodation, recreation and educated, less exposed and innocent for travel and tourism is low, widening him outsider as guest is (like God) and is the scope of tourism. treated wholeheartedly without any 2. Curiosity for the urban about farming commercial motive. He entertains the industry and life style: Rural and quest while entertaining himself in the Urban tourism, which involves villages process he fills all the service gaps. This and agriculture, has the capacity to makes him natural businessman. satisfy the curiosity of the urban Village: Village being located far from the segment by providing scope for re- city lacks urban facilities but is rich in discovering the rural life, which is rich natural resources. The investment is the diversity. natural resources itself. 3. Strong family oriented recreational Agriculture field: Each field is unique activities: through rural games, which adds to the attraction of the urban festivals, food, dress. population. This is the incentive wealth of 4. Finding solace with nature friendly life the rural people. style: Peace and tranquillity are in-4. built in Rural and Agri-Tourism.
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SWAT Analysis of Rural and Agri- Protection and conservation of Tourism environment. Impact of Rural and Agri-Tourism Improved resource management Economic impact: practices. Income from entrance fees and Increased multi-stakeholder will to direct payment for access right. conserve at landscape level. Income from associated value added Conservation of Biodiversity. services. Concluding Remark Development of related economic Rural and Agri-Tourism can be an sector e.g. sustainable agriculture effective tool and technique to educate and forestry. consumers about local agriculture. Agri Increase local land values. tourism also showcases the diversity Increase foreign exchange. and uniqueness of local agriculture, Social impact: thereby increasing the visibility and the Training and skills development for appeal of local grown products. Hence provision of economic services. the opportunities in this sector can Education-primary boost the rural economy. Promotion of schools/environmental education. Rural and Agri-Tourism requires Improves local infrastructure - conceptual convergence like other communications/transport. tourisms e.g. rural tourism, eco tourism, Increased social capital-building. adventure tourism for better growth. Environmental impact:
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Strengths Weakness Opportunities Threats
Different variants of Inadequate Fast expansions Terrorism tourism infrastructure International Accommodation Fast expansions Recession cooperation Average length of Rapidly growing Basic amenities Inflation stay middle class Lack of professional Deflation management
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Indian Farmer 3(6):440-445; June-2016 Dev and Lalit
The Present Status Of Poultry Industry In India: How Fat Our Chickens Are?
Kapil Dev and Lalit Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, LUVAS, Hisar-125004 Corresponding Author Address: Kapil Dev, PhD Scholar1 Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, LUVAS, Hisar Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ndian Poultry Industry is 5,000 years per cent. India is the second largest egg old, since last 4 decades it began to producer and third largest broiler-chicken I witness remarkable growth from producer in the world with production backyard to poultry industry. The poultry estimates of 65,000 million (2.8 million Industry of India is expected to register tonnes) eggs and 3 million tonnes of broiler double-digit meat per year. growth in "A chicken in every pot" - 1928 Republican Party The market is 2015 on the campaign slogan estimated to back of “We can see a thousand miracles around us every be worth stable feed day. What is more supernatural than an egg yolk about INR prices and turning into a chicken?” - S. Parkes Cadman” 90,000 Crore encouraging (EUR 12.65 rural and urban demand. Indian broiler Bn) (DAHD-GOI-2014). It is further production at 3.8 million tons is the fourth estimated that there are about 60000 farms under Intensive system ( some of them having more that 100000 birds) while there are about 100000 small farms scattered in rural areas practicing more extensive production systems having flock sizes ranging from 25 to 250 birds. Poultry farming in India, in spite of several constraints, has progressed considerably during the last decade. Poultry production in India was confined to backyards till recently. Local breed of birds were reared for the supply of eggs and meat. The largest in the world after US, Brazil and increasing demand for poultry products China. The growth is continuing at 12 to 15 necessitates augmenting the supply by
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Indian Farmer 3(6):440-445; June-2016 Dev and Lalit importing improved breeds of poultry. In % of Agriculture sectors GDP at current 1961, the proportion of hybrid populations prices during 2012-13 . (Department of in the total population of poultry was about stat-GOI 2012). Poultry consists of generally 2 percent. Within a couple of decades, these three categories namely Fowls, Ducks and birds have dominated the market sidelining Turkey & others. the indigenous birds. The technological advances have revolutionized the role and the structure of poultry industry in India. It became one of the most specialized enterprises in many parts of the country. A general confidence has been created among the people that green revolution has ushered an era of self-reliance in the food grain production. The rapidly growing population has created some doubts in the said hypothesis. In fact, crop production alone may not solve the food problem of the Poultry enterprises in India can distinctly country. The advances in cereal technology, be grouped into two categories i.e. of course, can fill the empty stomach, but it developmental poultry farms and may not help in the balanced growth of the commercial poultry farms. human body. The chief ingredients of Developmental poultry farms- It refers to balanced diet also comprise proteins, fats, village/unorganized poultry production minerals and vitamins, which are essential because this enterprise operates in a low for growth. The supply of these items can scale, using less capital and traditional easily be increased through increased technology. production of livestock products. Leading broiler integrators in India are as follows: Venkateswara Group, Pune, Suguna Poultry Farms Ltd, Coimbatore, Pioneer Poultry Group, Coimbatore, Godrej Agrovet Ltd, Mumbai, Sky Lark group, North India, Jafa com feed. The livestock sector alone contributes nearly 25.6% of Value of Output at current prices of total value of output in Agriculture, Fishing & Forestry sector. The overall The unit volume of production is low due to contribution of Livestock Sector in total the above constraints.. Poultry farming was GDP was nearly 4.11% at current prices included in various Central and State during 2012-13 whereas the fishery Government sponsored programs, such as accounted for 0.83 % of total GDP and 4.75 Integrated Rural Development Program
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(IRDP), Special Livestock Production annum (maximum) between 1982-87. The Program (SLPP), Tribal Development minimum growth in population was Program (TDP), etc. to popularize poultry recorded between 1961-66, i.e., 0.21 farming in rural areas. percent per annum. Distribution or spread Commercial poultry production of poultry birds over the space may be examined by two approaches: a) Distribution according to area (rural/urban) and b) Distribution according to different regions. Poultry populations in rural/urban areas: Based on the Livestock Census of 1987 and 1992, the distribution of poultry reveals the following interesting features: Rural and semi-urban area accounted for the largest number of broilers (more than Commercial/ industrial poultry production 90%). Population of improved breeds of refer to large-scale enterprises where the both layers and meat-type chickens number of birds per unit is large enough to increased much faster during the two reap maximum advantages of technological periods as compared to Desi (Local) breeds. improvement. These enterprises present The population of broilers had increased various economies of scale of operation rapidly, i.e., 21% per annum as compared to and, thus, are able to absorb the layers. fluctuations in demand and supply and in input cost. The growth of this sector has remained highly significant over the years. Poultry population statistics with in india and its distribution The Total poultry population in the country is 729.2 million (19th Livestock Census- 2012). The total poultry population in the country has increased by 12.39% over the previous census. The poultry population in The proportion of poultry distribution in India in 1951 was 73.5 million birds. It two areas did not reveal much variation increased to 138.5 million in 1972 during the period. The leading poultry (doubled) and about four times by 1992, producing states in different regions were i.e., 307.07 million. The growth in poultry Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in population was 5.32 percent per annum Southern Region, West Bengal and Bihar in between 1951-56, 5.47 percent per annum Eastern Region, Maharashtra in Western between 1977-82, and 5.79 percent per Region and Punjab in Northern Region.
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Productivity of Desi (Local) and improved 9% of layers and 14% of broilers. State- birds, i.e.,eggs produced/year, also varied in wise concentration of percent stock of both different regions. Maximum productivity of layer parent and broilers reveals a similar Desi (Local) birds, i.e., 91eggs/year, was trend. The ranking of different states was reported in Eastern region and minimum of Andhra Pradesh (25% and 18%), Tamil 15 eggs/year, was reported in Northern Nadu (14% and 9%), Maharashtra (12% Region. In case of improved birds, the and 18%), Punjab (10% each) and West productivity was highest in Southern Bengal (3% and 9%) of layers and broilers, Region (241 eggs/year), followed by 238, in respectively. Western Region, 209, in Northern region How to measure poultry development ? The stage of poultry farming in different states / UTs was examined by constructing developmental indices on parameters such as layer parent stock, number of improved birds relative to the total poultry population, number of hatcheries (both in private and public sector), and performance (i.e., number of eggs produced/year).This technique was used to build indices for major poultry producing states/UTs in the country. The Poultry Development Index was constructed for the major poultry producing states of Indian Union. The and 204, in Eastern Region. State-wise, the states were classified in ascending order of productivity of Desi (Local) birds was WPDI. This implies that the state with the maximum in Himachal Pradesh, i.e., 168 lowest WPDI was the first mentioned and eggs/year and lowest in Nagaland, i.e., 79 so on. Assam & N.E. States were found in eggs/year. In case of improved birds, the first place in the order, i.e., poultry farming maximum productivity was 278 eggs/year, is the least developed in these states, in Andhra Pradesh ,and minimum of 180 followed by Bihar, Orissa, and Himachal eggs/year, again in Nagaland. Regional Pradesh, etc. Andhra Pradesh presented the distribution of hybrid parent stock revealed most developed poultry production in India. that it is heavily concentrated in Southern In order to classify all states into two WPDI Region with nearly 45% of layers and 37% groups, the 0.52 level was arbitrarily of broilers. The Northern region ranked chosen as the cut-off of different states second, with 27% layers and 25% broilers. classifying all states in two groups on the It was followed by the Western Region, with basis of low/high poultry farming nearly 20% and 25% of layer and broilers, development. respectively. The Eastern region had only
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poultry estates. It is meant primarily for educated, unemployed youth and small farmers with some margin money for making a profitable venture out of various poultry related activities in a scientific and bio secure cluster approach. Grant will be provided to states for infrastructure development on 75:25 (center : state) sharing basis and 100% grant to NABARD for other components. The components of the scheme could include strengthening of Indian Government Support infrastructure, feed mixing plants & There are a several opportunities for equipment for feed analytical laboratory, in foreign direct investment (FDI) in the house disease diagnostic laboratory, poultry sector in areas like breeding, revolving fund for purchase of hatching medication, feedstock, vertical integration eggs, parent stock, feed ingredients, and processing. Currently, 100% Foreign marketing, consultancy etc Direct Investment (FDI) is permitted in the KEY SECTOR CHALLENGES food processing sector which covers dairy, Despite positive forecasts and investor poultry, marine, vegetables and fruits. confidence, the poultry sector still faces The Government of India also launched a certain fundamental challenges. Global National Meat and Poultry Processing trends— most prominently, sporadic bird Board on 19th Feb 2009 to work as a flu outbreaks— have resulted in a National hub for addressing all key issues widespread demand drop across the related to Meat and Poultry processing country in the past. However, the key sector for the systematic and proper concern is the existing lack of storage, cold development of this sector. chain, transport and processing facilities. Assistance to State Poultry Farms: High feed costs also result in an increased Aims to strengthen existing state poultry cost of production which translates to farms so as to enable them to provide higher prices. Other challenges include a inputs, mainly in terms of providing lack of quality standards which result in improved stocks suitable for rural backyard high vulnerability to disease outbreaks. rearing. Sharing pattern of funds between Poultry integrators have limited control center & state is 80 : 20 (except for NE over feed prices and broiler realizations; states for which 100% central funding is and they continue to focus on improving provided). productivity by experimenting with feed Poultry Estates (new component): mixes, lower mortality rates through Entrepreneurship skills are to be improved enhanced farm management and through exploratory pilot component of medication, and continuous efforts towards
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Indian Farmer 3(6):440-445; June-2016 Dev and Lalit improving other operational parameters like hatchability, average daily weight gain and reducing selection gaps. These practices may be essential but they translate into compromising on quality. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The increasing demand for poultry products has transformed poultry production activity into a full fledged industry from a mere household/backyard activity until recently. Technological advances have revolutionized the role and the structure of poultry industry in India. The distribution of the poultry population suggests that it is concentrated in some limited pockets. Forty two percent of the total population of poultry is confined to the Southern region, with 22% in the Eastern Region and 20% in Western Region, with only about 16% in the Northern region. Improved poultry breeds account for 59% of the total bird population, contributing with about 89% of the total egg production in the country. REFRENCES BAHS. (2012). Basic animal husbandry statistics, Department of animal husbandry, Dairying and fisheries, Ministry of agriculture. Government of India. Krishibhawan, New Delhi. DAHD-GOI-(2011). Department of animal husbandry, Dairying and fisheries. Ministry of agriculture. Government of India. Krishibhawan, New Delhi. Google search engine (www.google.in/poultry information centre)
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Indian Farmer 3(6):446-450; June-2016 Shinde and Gupta
Goat and Sheep Farming System In India And
Essential Housing Manegemental Practices
Kuladip Prakash Shinde and Shailesh Kumar Gupta Division of Livestock Production and Management National Dairy Research Institute Karnal, Haryana-132001 Corresponding Author: [email protected]
oats and Sheep contribute Housing is an important issue for goat and significantly to the Indian economy sheep management because it has G by sustaining livelihood and significant effect on physiological supplementing income of small farmers responses and energy expenditure and rural poor’s. Livestock play an (Bhatta, 2005). important role in the social community Goat Production Systems in India:- life of India &its well being is closely There are 5 types of goat production associated with its huge livestock systems in India: population. Goat and sheep population in 1. Transhumance system of goat country is about 135.17 million and 65 production: - It exists in J&K, million which contributes about 26.40 % Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh and and 12.71% of total livestock population based on the Nomadic system. in the country (BAHS, 2012). different Nomadic people move from one to recognised breeds of goat are found in other area with their animals. wide range climatic condition ranging 2. Goat sesbania system: - It mainly from a perennially snow cloud Himalayan found in the sugar belt of Maharashtra region to the hot aried parts of western state. Goat get sufficient amount of rajasthan & also covering lush alkaline sesbania leaves. pasture of Kashmir to sea coast of Kerala. 3. Plant goat production system: - Goats are among the main meat producing Mainly founds in north eastern part of animals in India, whose meat (chevon) is India having rain area and natural one of the choicest meats and has huge grass like Assam, Manipur, Sikkim. domestic demand. Besides meat, goats 4. Pashmina production system:-Dry provide other products like milk, skin, cold region of high altitude area like fibre and manure. The sheep is an Laddakh. important economic livestock species, 5. A dairy unit of domestic purpose: - contributing greatly to the Indian People kept 2-3 goats for meat economy, especially in arid, semi arid and purpose. mountain areas. Sheep rearing is mainly Traditional methods of housing: - based on the wool production, meat and Sheep/Goat rearing is mainly in the hand sometimes milk is also important. of the weaker section of community which
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Indian Farmer 3(6):446-450; June-2016 Shinde and Gupta either do not posses land or their degradation. The local goat should not be landholdings are so small that crop allowed to mix with the migratory flocks cultivation does not provide remunerative otherwise indiscriminate mixing of employment all the year. Due to lack of breeding result. The beetle goat male kids education sheep/goat owners are not able reached a body weight only 11.5 kg. at to appreciate and adopt improved sheep weaning and 14.1 kg. at 6 month age when and goat husbandry practices brought to maintained under free range grazing them by extension workers. Goat without any supplementary feeding with management has thus remained in a over all survivability of 87.5 % up to 6 neglected state.Traditional sheep and goat month of age. housing is made of varying designs and Semi-intensive system: -A kind of construction materials depending upon comparison between extensive and local custom and availability. Migration intensive system is referred to as semi and grazing practices have an impact on intensive system. This system is widely the present status of goat husbandry in practiced by small and marginal farmers. India. Some main types of housing The nature and extent of this system include: depends on the type of crops grown and • Housing at one corner of the main their suitability to goat and sheep. family house. Goat/sheep are left to graze /browse on • An overhang attached to the roof of a the crop residue when the same has been house. harvested. The advantage of this system • Open yards with no roof. are increased fertility of the land by • Separate houses of thatched roofs. dropping and urine of the animal, control Extensive system of housing: -This of wasteful habits, good growth rate, system includes migratory, transhumance, easier management and possible free range grazing management of goat. It increased crop yield. Studies have shown has two components which pertain to goat that the natural grazing lands cannot rearing in plains and hills. Plains were support growth of kids for commercial bulk of country goat population, found in meat production and additional the rural area, comprising a flock of 2-5 supplementation with conc. mixture or goats are raised in grazing of marginal leguminous fodder & tree leaves is lands &argil by-products with no special recommended.Supply of extra energy and feeding. The practice of extensive system proteins through concentrate have been in plains is due to shortage of pasture, lack advantageous in increasing growth rate of irrigation excessive pressure of and attaining the desire slaughter weight population on land.Hills when goat flocks at younger age. are 100-150 in number. Goat while Intensive system: -It includes grazing on grazing on grass or bush also helps in the developed pasture and/or feeding dispersal of seeds and improvement in completely in stall on cultivated fresh on vegetation. The management of migratory consevered fodder, crop residue or flocks’ needs special attention to the concentrates. This system requires high extent that over use of the grazing lands level of labour and is only suitable for has to be avoided to control environment meat production from goat. Average daily
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Indian Farmer 3(6):446-450; June-2016 Shinde and Gupta gain weight under intensive system was Table 2. Dimension of different type of higher in lambs than kids while they were goat and sheep shed. similar under semi intensive system. The Type of shed Size Heigh Maximu (m) t (m) m milk yield is higher under intensive animals system than that under semi intensive Ewe/doe shed 15 x 4 3 60 system &extensive system.The pressure of Ram/buck shed 4 x 2.5 3 3 increasing population of human and Lambing/kiddin 1.5 x 3 3 g shed 1.2 animals further justify adoption of Lamb/kid shed 7.5 x 4 3 75 intensive management system for Weaner shed 7.5 x 4 3 75 livestock in general and goat in particular Yearling shed 10 x 5 3 50 to ensure control & degradation of the Sick animal shed 3 x 2 3 1 Shearing shed 6 x 2.5 3 - environment. and store room Houses for sheep/goat in the rural area Shepherd’s room 6 x 4 3 - must be secure, dry, well ventilated, and free from parasites, clean, well lighted and Stratifid system:-This system is based on fencing east west direction. House should forage availability in the intensive strata is be able to provide protection from rain possession of layer of vegetation usually fall, cold, direct sunshine & winds. In of same for height as well as where price comfortable house is where inside high for dairy goat products. Under this temperature 15-25 ͦC and 3-5 goats are system a breeding centre is an irrigated kept in house of 2.1 metre length & 1.5 zone serves as nucleus with a no. of small metre in width. herds. Table 1.Floor space requirements at Integrated cropping system:-Integration different age (Thomas and Sastry, 2012) of crop production into crop agriculture Sr. Type of animal Floor space speaks of changing pattern of No (m2) management. Though it may be 1. Ram or buck in 1.8 considered as one identical as intensive, groups semi intensive extensive system but it has 2. Ram or buck, 3.2 separate identify. individual 3. Lamb or kids in 0.4 Migratory system: - This is a system in groups which a seasonal migration of livestock & 4. Weaner in groups 0.8 the people who tend then between 5. Weaner, 0.9 lowlands & adjacent mountain. individual Advantages are rearing of herd 50-500. 6. Yearling, 0.9 male & female graze together and they are individual mated at a very young age. 7. Yearlings in 0.9 groups Different managemental practices in 8. Ewe or doe in 1.0 goat and sheep house groups Sheep and goat house should be built on a 9. Ewe or doe, 1.2 well-drained area. Some housing practices individual may cause stress to the goat and sheep 10. Ewe with lamb 1.5 (Vandenheede and Bouissou, 1993). Water supply should be adequate in
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Indian Farmer 3(6):446-450; June-2016 Shinde and Gupta quantity and quality. The farm should be mitres. Height of the shed should be 3-5 accessible from a main traffic road. mitres shape of roof should “A” and the Electricity should be available for yard wall outside is white and coloured inside. lights and other electrical conveniences.It Floor space requirements are- for adult is always wise to keep in mind the female 1-1.5 m2, for pregnant and possibility of expansion when building lactating sheep 2 m2& for kids and lambs housing for sheep and goats.One can from birth to 3 month 0.5 m2 & 6 month to prevent the sun from heating up the stall 1 year 1.0 m2.. The sheep house should be too much by placing the longitudinal axis 5-6 metres wide and 20 mitres length of the stall east - west. If, on the other sufficient for 60-80 goats or sheep’s. Sep hand, one wants the sun to shine on the of the shelter “A” shaped has floor so that the floor dries up and advantageous over the rest in hot season parasites die, it is better to build the shed as one side of the roof will save the other along a north - south axis (This is half from direct solar radiation preferred in humid areas). Roofs can be Manger: Either of cement concrete or of constructed from iron sheet, wood with two compartment providing grass/bushes, wood, stone/brick or earth food and hay & its height ranging from 45- depending on production system, material 60 cm. availability and climate. In the cold Dipping tank: For protection of animals weather area house is covered with straw from infection, ectoparasites. and gunny bags. In the warm and humid Foot bath: A foot bath made of galvanised climate a raised area should chooses and steel sheet provided at the entrance to house is made up of bamboo and rails. avoid foot rot diseases in animals. Following arrangement should be planned Marking:Three means of marking are ear for housing of sheep and goat:- tattooing, ear tagging & ear notching Cold weather:-In rural area the suitable which should be carried out with-in one ground level house for cold weather in week after kidding. built with a removal earth floor & bricks Dehorning: It should be practiced within wall of about 1.5 mitre height with “A” 1 week of birth by using caustic potash. shaped roof of 3.5 mitres height in centre Castration: It should done at the age of 2- is made of thatched/straw/tiles asbestos. 4 week & for this Burdizzo’s castrator is It is covered with straw. Hoppers type used. window like in poultry house is made Health care: Good hygiene & prevention painting wall from outside helpful in treatments are vital aspect of good reducing temperature inside. production. Shelter for hot area: - A shed with its Control of parasites: The important main axis is east-west provide a cooler parasites are stomach worm, lung worm, environment underneath & it was the best nodular worm liver fluke & tick, lice. for hot arid climate. The open type shed Phenothiazines, Thiabendazole & has an advantage over the close ones. The Tramisole are used for stomach & nodular width & size of the shelter varying with worm.Treatment involves Vaccination, the animal size & for goat & sheep the dosing (drenching), foot treatment etc. optimum has been determined to 5-6
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Programme is taken up following consultation with Veterinary surgeon. REFERENCES BAHS (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics) (2012). Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. April, 2012. http://www.dahd.nic.in. Bhatta, R., Swain, N., Verma, D.L. and Singh, N.P. (2005). Effect of housing on physiological responses and energy expenditure of sheep in a semi-arid Region of India.Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 8 (18): 1188-1193. Vandenheede, M., and M. F. Boussou. (1993). Sex differences in fear reactions in sheep. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 37: 39-55. Sastry, N.S.R. and Thomas C.K. (2012). Livestock Production and Management. Kalyani Publications. 4th Edn. Reprinted 2012. Pp. 220.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):451-454; June-2016 Mishra et al
Effect Of Buffalo Milk On The Quality Of
Different Dairy Product
Diwakar Mishra1, Rashmi Bhardwaj1, Simran Arora2, George Dominic3 and Partha Sarathi Swain3
1Dairy Technology Division, ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana. 2 Centre of food science and technology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana. 3Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division, ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana.
airy industry in India has witnessed of cow milk. Various research investigations rapid growth in the last 3 decades. suggest the possibility of utilizing bovine D The milk production during 2009 cholesterol immunoglobulin for industrial was estimated to be 104.8 million tonnes of production of infant formulas with which 45–50% was converted into variety enhanced bioprotective factors. Dairy foods of traditional milk products. Buffalo has from buffalo milk having high nutritional been an integral part of livestock and Probiotical attributes. In concert with agriculture in Asia. Milk accounts for about other bioprotective factors, 70 per cent of the DGP from livestock immunoglobulin of protection primarily by sector. Buffalo is the major contributor of binding and neutralizing toxins of viruses, 55.42 per cent to India’s milk production and preventing contact between entero- and about 65.84per cent of total buffalo pathogenic microorganisms and epithelial milk produced in the world. cells, thus hindering infections. Buffalo Milk Quality: - Composition of Use of buffalo milk in products making:- buffalo and cow milk is given in Table The buffalo milk is better suited for the 1. Buffalo milk contain higher total solids manufacturing of majority of milk products (18-20%).So it is useful for making cheese, like dahi, yoghurt, shrikhand, paneer, khoa, butter fat, several kinds of traditional cream, cooking Butter, ghee, ice-cream, sweets and ice cream. Swamp buffalo milk dried cream, dried butter, UHT cream, dried has even higher fat (9-15%), protein ice-cream mix, edible casein, caseinates, (7.1%), lactose (4.90%) and ash (0.89%). dairy whiteners and infant and health Buffalo milk is healthy as it is richer in foods due to the quantitative and saturated fatty acids. qualitative differences in various milk Bioprotective Attributes: - Buffalo milk constituents and physico-chemical and contain high level of various bioprotective functional properties of cow and buffalo factors (such as immunoglobulin, lysozyme, milks. lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase etc.) than that 451 | P a g e
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Table 1: Composition of buffalo and cow milk chhana’s texture is hard and brittle, so milk it is unsuitable for rasogulla preparation. Buffalo Treatment of buffalo milk with 25% water Constituents Cow milk milk before coagulation and use of low strength Moisture (%) 81.00 87.50 citric acid solution were found to improve Protein (%) 4.30 3.20 the texture of chhana. Addition of 0.3% mixture of dibasic sodium phosphate and Fat (%) 6.50 4.10 monosodium phosphate (2:1) to buffalo Minerals (%) 0.80 0.80 milk before heating yield a chhana which is Carbohydrates 5.00 4.40 comparable to cow milk chhana suitable for (gm/100g) rasogulla making. Energy calories (kCal) 117.00 67.00 Paneer: - Paneer is one of the important Calcium (mg/100g) 210.00 120.00 Indian traditional heat and acid coagulated Phosphorus (mg/100g) 130.00 90.00 dairy product. It is also very popular in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Burma and Iron (mg/100g) 0.20 0.20 Nepal. It is used in the preparation of Consumers’ Acceptance:- The Indian curries, vegetables, & sweets and other population like buffalo milk because it culinary dishes. The paneer made from forms thick layer of cream layer (malai).It buffalo milk is superior quality.The cow impart a distinct whitening effect to tea and milk paneer is too soft, weak and fragile and coffee due to higher quantity of whey and after cooking its pieces loose their identity. casein proteins. When buffalo milk is boiled, The reason for such type of behaviour of release high amounts of sulphydryl cow milk paneer is now known. compounds, which contribute to nutty, Khoa: - Khoa from buffalo milk give softer cooked flavor leading to its high acceptance and smoother than the one obtained from as a drink. Milk product plants also prefer cow milk. Cow milk forms inferior quality buffalo milk because of its high fat and khoa due to its moist surface, sticky and solids-not-fat content. sandy texture and salty taste, which is not Buffalo Milk in Traditional Products: - In considered suitable for the manufacture of India, buffalo milk is used in a lot of milk sweet, meats. Buffalo milk khoa produces products preparation like khoa, Rabri, milk sweets with soft texture due to the Kheer and Basundi. Buffalo milk results in presence of proportionately higher higher yields and superior quality amounts of fat. condensed products as compared to cow Traditional Fermented Products: - The milk products. main fermented milk products of Asia are Chhana: - The quality of buffalo milk Dahi, Makkhan, Lassi, Butter Milk, Misti chhana is not comparable to cow milk Dahi, shrikhand and related products. chhana when prepared by the same Dahi: - Dahi is almost a compulsory item of procedure employed to cow milk. Buffalo food. The Dahi made from buffalo milk is 452 | P a g e
Indian Farmer 3(6):451-454; June-2016 Mishra et al superior in body and texture because of skimmed milk and butter milk is less due to higher total solids higher fat with bigger longer size of globule and higher globules and larger proportion of solid fat, proportions of solid fat in buffalo milk. Due higher content of proteins, particularly to larger size of the globules and larger caseins with bigger micelles size and proportion of solid fat, separation of cream presence of whole of the casein in the and churning of butter is also easier from micelle. buffalo milk. Texture of ghee is superior Yoghurt: - Buffalo milk is better suited for when made from buffalo milk due to bigger manufacturing of yoghurt because its size of the grains which, in turn, are the manufacture is easier and there is no need result of larger proportions (9-12%) of high for prior concentration of milk or addition melting triglycerides compared to only 5 to of dried milk due to higher total solids. The 6% in cow milk fat. body and texture of the yoghurt is also Coffee and Tea Whiteners:-The yield of superior compared to the same made from dairy whiteners from buffalo milk is higher cow milk because of higher content of fat due to high fat, proteins and salt content in with larger proportion of solid fat and buffalo milk. The product is superior due to bigger size of the globules. its whitish colour when made from buffalo Misti Dahi: - Misti dahi is fermented milk milk. The absence of carotene in buffalo product. It is most popular in West Bengal milk and bigger size of the casein micelles of India. It is prepared by heating buffalo with higher opacity compared to cow casein milk with 12-13% cane sugar. The is responsible for better quality products concentrated milk with a slightly from buffalo milk. The higher emulsifying caramelized flavour and brown colour is capacity of buffalo milk fat is beneficial for inoculated with a mixed starter culture the better dispersion of whiteners when (consisting of Lactococcus lactic and used in tea or coffee. lactococcus diacetylactis strains). A firm Infant and health foods from buffalo curd with smooth body, sweet taste and milk:- Better absorption of fat due to its pleasant aroma develops in about 8 hours higher emulsifying capacity, better incubated at 30°C. absorption of calcium due to higher Lassi: - Lassi is also fermented milk used a calcium/phosphorus ratio, higher refreshing beverage, often with added concentration of calcium, magnesium, sugar, salt and spices and topped with lactoferrin, esterified cholesterol and clotted cream. Lactobacillus taurine content and lower concentration of acidophilus probiotic culture is used in sodium, potassium, chloride, urea and free preparation of probiotic lassi. and total cholesterol in buffalo milk Cream, butter and ghee: - Buffalo milk is compared to cow milk is beneficial in best for the manufacturing of cream, butter human nutrition.These attributes make the and ghee because it gives more yields due buffalo milk superior than cow milk as an to higher content of fat. Loss of fat in ingredient for infants and health foods. 453 | P a g e
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Formulated Products:- Many formulated products have developed from buffalo milk such as chocolate milk powder, dried kheer mix, gulabjamun mix powder, malted milk powder, dried basundi, rasogulla powder etc.
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Indian Farmer 3(6):455-459; June-2016 Rao et al
Management of Stray Cattle in Urban Area
T. K. S. Rao, S. Chaurasia, A. Singh and V. V. Gamit Vanbandhu College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari 396 450 Gujarat Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract Menace of stray cattle is very prominent problems in most of the city. Common enemies of stray cattle include accidents by vehicles, dog bites, children throwing stones and irritating them. They prefers road side kacha bedding as compared to pakka road, however they prefer road surface during rainy season. Tracking the path and behavior of stray animals are essential using GPS system. Stary animals should not be punished or killed brutally as it violates the IPC- 428, 429 and also public sentiments. Shelter may be prepared in road side in fallow or government land in town or city area to control the menace of roaming on roads and dung in shelter can be collected and detoxified and value aided. Killing of stray animals may also disturb the biodiversity of system. Gosadan and Goshala need to be established for suffering animals. Animal welfare fund need to raised and generated. Sexed semen should be made available for reducing unwanted cattle on road.
otal number of livestock in India is public roads is common contributing to 512.05 million (19th Census, GOI) traffic accidents. Besides, concerns about T and total cows in India is 190.90 animal welfare and public safety must also million. However exact data of stray be taken into account when the animals including cattle is lacking. administration is devising a strategy to Increasing urbanization bringing cows to control the cattle and buffalo population. vicinity of cities, where they find their way Stray cattle menace is a serious issue. Cattle to graze on waste, garbage and tanks. owners, who rear them in city area, do not Animals abandoned by farmers with the bother to take them to the sheds especially decline of agricultural activities in past during nights. Common enemies of stray decades. These animals survived and cattle include dogs, children throwing produced offspring, which have become stones and irritating them. Vehicles hit stray animals especially cattle in the them regularly while crossing or moving on territory. Stray animals occasionally cause road. Common saying is don’t feed stray disturbance to the traffic when they animals. You know why, "Because they wander onto public roads. Public and road breed. You're facilitating the problem if you users fills that they literally serve as “speed give an animal ample food supply. But it is breaker” for motorists, hindering the road not true, if we will be able to manage the traffic on many busy route. Cattle and stray animals scientifically. buffalo may also eat farmers’ crops. Physiology of stray animals: The Prevalence of animals wandering across the physiology of stray animals is very similar
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Indian Farmer 3(6):455-459; June-2016 Rao et al to normal animals with respect to age, stage and condition of cow. Production status: Production status is less or very small in stray animals, however the dung and urine can be collected and utilized for benefits of agriculture or as fuel.
Figure 2 Sand bedding & shade seeking in cows
eliminative behavior, sexual behavior, care giving or epimelitic behavior, care soliciting or et-epimelitic behavior, agonistic
Figure 1 Garbage bedding for stray cattle behavior, allelomimetic behavior, shelter selecting behavior and investigatory/ exploratory behavior. They also show Behavior of stray: Behavior of stray refined behavior like animals are like normal animal or more 1. Care dependency relationship: refine and selective as compared to normal Especially with calf and young ones. animals as they have choice to shift as per 2. Dominance-subordinate relationship: comfort status of environment. Stray 3. Sexual relationship: This relationship is animals by default prefer soft contented common among cyclic animals. and loosen up bedding. They usually 4. Leader-follower relationship reported to prefer sand bedding which is 5. Relationship between two different kept construction purpose. They generally species. also prefers road side kacha bedding as Inter and intra species Association: Both compared to pakka road, however they the association was prominent in stray prefer raised metal road surface during the cattle. They generally live in herd or group time and after rain during rainy season. form to avoid untoward effect. Some time if Stary animals may sits on garbage damping one member of herd is running other also ground as it provide soft ground to the starts running as simulation model. It is animals. Cow prefers to stay closer to road frequently observed that when dog attacks side garbage fire created by local people on piglets, piglets start screaming and stray during winter to avoid low temperature cow use to chase dog in favor of piglets to exposure. Almost all behaviors are give temporary protection from dog. displayed by the animals with respect nine Empty activity: Empty activity is very system of behaviors like Ingestive behavior, common in stray animals. Repetitive coping behavior help animals manage
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Indian Farmer 3(6):455-459; June-2016 Rao et al psychological stresses efficiently. Tongue against vehicle number to nearest police playing behavior related with stress, station using same act of IPC. nutritional insufficiency and abomasal 4. Stray animal should not be used for ulcers (Wiepkema et al., 1987). research. Tracking the behavior and path of stray 5. Cows should not be left on street as they animals: Tracking the path and behavior of are prone to plastic bag, garbage, animals are most crucial especially with broken glass, nails, wires etc. respect to stray animals using GPS system Management of stray animals: Shelter may be prepared in road side in fallow or government land in town or city area to control the menace of roaming on roads and dung in shelter can be collected for better utilization and benefits. For stray cattle or buffalo that are reported to be sick or injured, animal management team will visit and try to locate the animal. Officers on special duty will require assessing whether the animal can be treated on site
Figure 4 Stray cattles tress passing road in Delhi or needs to be caught and returned to an
Operating stray cattle/ Rumenotomy of cattle : Sick cows from road side when operated 70 kg plastic bag was recovered, as stony hard materials (Karuna Society for animal and Nature, Andhra Pradesh 2010). Nails and vermilions are also obtained from intestine of stray cattles. Stray animal laws in India: Figure 3 Stray cattles sitting on roads at Chandigarh 1. Animal should not be given poisonous substance animal management centre for treatment. 2. It is illegal to kill homeless animal, Occasionally, injury or sickness may be so municipalities can sterilize the animals severe or untreatable that euthanasia by a i.e., ABC (animal birth control). Veterinary Officer might be required on the 3. It is illegal to maim or cause injury to spot in the interests of the welfare of the any animals like throwing acid, animal. A dedicated team effort with the purposely killing or injuring animals aim of long-term management of cattle and [IPC-428, 429]. If any vehicle hit the buffalo is required to ensure that they co- animal on road, complaint can be filed exist with local residents in harmony. To
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Indian Farmer 3(6):455-459; June-2016 Rao et al achieve this goal, multiple approaches will 11. License system should be established be adopted and implemented in phases. for rearing domestic animals in city Some silent points with respect to area. management include: 12. Gosadan should be full utilized and new 1. Use of scientific survey to know gosadan need to be established. distribution and number of cattle. 13. Training regarding management of 2. Use of GPS collar to track movement stray cattle and their control is including distance travelled, route required. adopted and area in habitat or area of 14. Rehabilitation or for adoption of cows at liking. gosadan will need to explore. 3. Controlling population by castration of 15. Animal welfare fund need to raised and males and sterilizing female cattle by generated. surgery and chemical sterilization as 16. Sexed semen should be made available well is very essential. As "a single cow for producing predominantly female can produce between 250 and 500 litres progeny which ultimately reduce of methane a day" and USA claims that number of stray cattle. Indian cow even produces more than 17. All cattle keepers were supposed to American cow and India alone keep their cattle tethered especially contributes 15.1% of total green house near town and city. gas total. 18. Fine should be charged to animal owner 4. Special person may be appointed for on involve in stray cattle menace road control of animal or in problem 19. Adoption of stray animals should be area. strengthen. 5. Relocation of cattle from problem area 20. Helpline can be started regarding to other allotted place. dangerous stray animal in particular 6. Fencing or use of cattle grid nearby area. roads. 21. Proper identification system to the 7. Isolation of animals and feeding kitchen cattle should be applied and tagged with residue and special provision for green name of owner in form of rumen bolus fodder/grazing facilities may be or ear chip identification device to track provided. the owner. 8. Re-domestication may be tried. 22. A license system should strengthen for 9. Animals may not be utilized for training keeping or purchasing animals or research for the veterinary near by especially for welfare status and area. As it may spread the infection to maintenance of milk quality at door. domestic animals. Sterilization may be 23. Five freedoms should be maintained at practiced by veterinarians. farmer door step or at shelter or NGO 10. A ban should be imposed on rearing running stray cattle farm like freedom cattle, pig and horse rearing in city from hunger and thirst; freedom from area.bli thermal and physical discomfort;
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freedom from injury, disease and pain; ional/stray-cows-to-be-housed-in- freedom to express most normal cattle-centres (accessed on 23 patterns of behavior and freedom from February, 2016). fear and distress (Gill, 2015). Plastic cow project. Available at 24. NGO should be introduced in the area http://www.theplasticcow.org/what- for catching, controlling, feeding and is-a-plastic-cow/what-is-a-plastic- treating stray animals by expert cow.html. (accessed on 23rd veterinary doctors. February 2016). 25. Development of integrated cattle Wiepkema, P. R., Van Hellemond, K. K., centres (gokul grams) for keeping at Roessingh, P. and Romberg, H. (1987). least 40% of stray cattle in total herd Behavior and abomasal damage in other animals may be productive with individual veal calves. Applied Animal the purpose of conserving indigenous Behavior Science, 18: 257-268. breeds. CONCLUSION Stray should not be considered as burden to the society. It must be managed in scientific way in special shelter farm with purpose of conserving our indigenous breed as these breeds are resistant to heat stress and teak problems and protects our biodiversity which ultimately maintain ecosystem. REFERENCES Animal laws in India. Available at http://www.strawindia.org/STRAWP AGES/Laws-btm.htm (accessed 20th February 2016). Gill, R. (2015). The five freedoms of cattle. Available at http://animalscience.tamu.edu/2015 /05/22/the-five-freedoms-of-cattle. (accessed on 23rd February 2016). Livestock census (2012). Government of India. Stray cattle to be housed in cattle centres. Available at http://www.thehindu.com/news/nat
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