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1991 French Gothic Ivories and the Composanto, Pisa: Crosscurrents in Late Penny Howell Jolly Skidmore College, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Jolly, Penny Howell. "French Gothic Ivories and the Composanto, Pisa: Crosscurrents in Late Gothic Art."Gazette des Beaux-Arts 118 (1998): 161-170.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Art History at Creative Matter. It has been accepted for inclusion in Art History Faculty Scholarship by an authorized administrator of Creative Matter. For more information, please contact [email protected]. CROSSCURRENTS IN THE MID-TRECENTO FRENCH MEDIEVAL IVORIES AND THE CAMPOSANTO, PISA

LI y PENNY HOWELL JOLLY

ECE:--ITLY, Richard Randall convinc­ and the i vorics produced by the Atelier of the ingly argued that a group of nine Boxes will further confirm what scholars have french ivories was produced between proposed regarding fourteenth century French artisLs 1340 and 1360 in a Parisian or J\'orlh from Jean Pucelle through the great Franco­ FrenchR workshop. which he names the Atelier of Flemi sh illuminators of the International Gothic 1 the Boxes • Particularly impressive and original Style: Italian Treccnto art was a rich source for in the group. according to Randall, is the treat­ these late Gothic artists, both in terms of their ment of the landscape. "which rises at a steep striving for naturalism and their interest in in­ angle from the viewer, [sol the villages and novative iconography. While this was a two-way castles are shown in artificial perspective"; this street -- for French Gothic art of lhe late thirteenth is so remarkable that he believes it ·'sets r these and early fourteenth century was one of several ivories! apart from the more usual productions of important sources for these Italian innovators, in­ the- fourteenth century"2. While not finding any cluding the artist of the Triumph of Death - the specific narrative in the ivories, he notes thaL the motifs discussed here originated in the ltalo-By­ group consistently includes ''scenes of lovers, zantine milieu of . trysLs, wildmen, and gallant actions", and must The cycle of frescoes at the eemeLery in Pisa have appealed "lo a puhlic familiar with the tradi­ includes seven large paintings, four that concern tions of romance manuscripts"3. Further, as he de­ the death and rebirth of Christ, and three that re­ scribes, a number of the ivories depict hermits in flect upon the frailty of human life on earth and a variety of postures and roles: e.g., one reads its final consequences: lhe Triumph of Death (fig. 4a). a woman kneels contritely before (fig. l ), a Last Judgment and Inferno, and the An­ 4 another (fig, 5), and in a third ivory (fig. 3), two choriies in the Wilderness (fig. 2) • A considera­ women brandishing clubs threaten a pair of her­ ble controversy has spanned the last three decades mils (or the same hermit shown twice), causing concerning their authorship and dating, and now the horrified men to retreat to a wilderness abode. the consensus of scholars firmly dates the frescoes I propose that the source for these two features in the decade of 1330-1 :140, preceding the Black 5 - the remarkable landscape and the particular in­ Death rather than following it • However, my pur­ terest in hermits - is lhe series of frescoes that po&c is not to offer new insights into the questions originally lined a corner section of the walls of of attrihution and dating of this group of frescoes, the Camposanto in Pisa and includes the l"amous but rather to demonstrate how these frescoes con­ Triumph of Death (fig. I). A comparison of these tributed both stylistically and thematically to the 162 G:\/.lffTE DES BEAUX-ARTS

FIG. I. - Unknown Tusc:an. Jh,• fri11111p/1 of Deut/i, Ll:lll·s. Pisa. CamposanLo. Pho!. Ali11ari/1\rt f/esource.

French tare Gothic artists of the Atelier of the the center of the 'J'riumJJh fresco itself. Ironically, Boxes. eight elderly and sick cripples - locatcd behind or the three frescoes which depict flesh's frailty and helow the figure of Death. next LO the and its consequent reward ur punishment, The Tri­ corpses - try unsuccessfully to gain her attention. umph of Death (fig. I) is the most complex com­ They crave liberation from pain and suffering, hut positionally and establishes the major themes the Grim Reaper ignores them in favor of the un­ found and elaborated upon in the remaining two. suspecting pleasure seekers in the garden. Its monumcntal composition. arranged within a Further left, the Triumph depicts two additional continuous landscape, is divided into four parts_ scenes. Below, a second groL1p of ten ladies and First, our attention is drawn to the lower right gentlemen, accompanied by two striding servants corner by the large figure of a female hag wield­ and dogs, enjoy equestrian adventures and the ing a huge scythe. She is Death, swooping hunt. Their frolics arc interrupted, however, when towards a group of ten genteelly amorous ladies they suddenly encounter three open coffins con­ and gentlemen sitting in a lush garden. They play taining bodies in different states of decomposi­ musical instruments and converse quietly, while tion. A hermit monk, St. Macarius, confronts the one lady pats a lap dog and two male companions party of hunters and gesturcs towards the scroll hold hunting falcons. Absorbed in themselves. he holds, indicating that the warning inscribed on these well-dressed folk appear oblivious Lo the it is intended for them. Macarius and the winding immediacy of their fate. The second part of the path behind him provide the transition to rhe final fresco, further to the left, depicts a pile of section of t_hc fresco, the upper left-hand corner, corpses, with angels and devils pulling souls from a quiet locale inhabited by a series of anchoritic the dead's mouths and carrying them off either .monks who have chosen the eremitical way of towards the joys of Heaven (in the adjacent Last life. Sharing their craggy wilderness with a variety Judgment and Inferno) or to a makeshift Hell in of animals, one sits hefore a church and reads, FRE'.'ICH MEOJEVAL IVORJl::S AJ-;D THE CAl-·IPOSANTO, PISA 163

Fie,. � - Unknown Tuscan. A11clwri1es in 1//e Wi/dcmcss, 1330's. Pisa, Camposanto. !'hot. Alinan Ari Resource.

while another milks a doe. Leading a simple exis­ indudcs steeply up-tilted, high-horizoned land­ tence, close to God, these hermits clearly contrast scapes with figures. trees, and architectural struc­ with the more chaotic mood of most of the rest tures positioned throughout them. For example, of the fresco. the ivory mirror case in the Walters An Gallery The fresco of The Anchorites in the Wilderness (fig. 3 ), quite unlike the more typical Parisian (fig. 2). crowded with figures and architectural ivories and manuscript illuminations of the time, structures, thematically and sty I istically expands depicts a remarkably sophisticated landscape in­ upon the upper left corner of the Triumph fresco. habited by seven figures who move through it. In a continuous. high-horizoned landscape are To the right, a rocky stairway leads from the juxtaposed episodes from the lives of numerous lower foreground to the higher background, where hermit saints, many of them identifiable6 . Gener­ a hermit spies on a coupk playing a board game, ally the stories involve wild beasts that become while to the left a rocky outcropping partly sep­ tame for these holy men and women, miraculous arates one of the women brandishing a club from appearances of food or water in hostile environ­ the unfortunate hermit who scurries up the hill lo ments, and various devils outwitted by these hide in his cell. As noted above, the curving rocky simple followers of God. The stories unfold along staircase is a hallmark of this Italian Master's what appears to be the slope of a broad hillside, style, appearing in both the Triumph and the An­ where the various levels arc linked by natural chorites; in the former, St. Ma carius stands at the stone "stairways", a compositional device which bottom of just such a l'ormation, while in the is a favorite of this as yet unidentified artist. latter, several such stairways help the viewer to The noteworthy stylistic and iconographical in­ move from episode to episode and level to level novations of the rrench ivories appear in these within the complex space7. The ivory carver's earlier Pisan frescoes from the 1330's, Like these device of separating figures by including a rocky monumental Italian works, the group of ivories outcropping is also found in the earlier Triumph; 164 GAZETTE DES �!:AUX-ARTS such a formation divides the begging cripples at and Anthony at the uppermost left corner, in the the bottom center from the hunting party emerg­ scene of Mary of Egypt receiving communion im­ ing from behind it. Trees and rocks create a varied mediately below them, and at the center top where topographical setting for the obliquely arranged Christ gestures towards a supplicating Anlhony. hermit cell and lively figures in the ivory, as they This sophisticated use of the sloping landscape, do in the Camposanto frescoes. finally, the small quite foreign to contemporary French manuscript cell at the upper left in the ivory, which moves and ivory traditions, developed among Lhe Italian obliquely down the slope, corresponds architec­ mural painters and has here spread Lo the smaller­ turally and spatially to the similarly located cell in scale arts. the Triumph. as well as to several in the Anchorites. Other motifs also correspond. For example, the Other of the Atelier of the Boxes ivories sim­ top panel of the ivory box in the Walters Art Gal­ ilarly display their figures. trees and architecture lery (fig. 4a) shows a figure of a bearded hermit dispersed along a hillside_ The mirror case reading before the doorway of his cell, very sim­ (Florence, Cffizi; fig. 5) showing lovers in a land­ ilar Lo the hermit in the upper left of the Pisa scape before a town includes, in the upper part Triumph, hunched over and peering intently at his of its continuous landscape, a hermit seated or text while seated before his huL The lady of the standing before his wilderness hut, while a female couple seated in the foreground of the bottom kneels in prayer before him. This posture of con­ panel (fig. 4b) cradles a small

a b

FIG. 4a, b. - Scenes of Lm,ers, top and hotlom panels of an ivory box, hcnch, fourteenth century. Baltimore, The Walters Art Callery. Phu/. nwseum.

fresco originated in French literature and art. The Yet it is also true that the French ivories reveal story of "The Three Living and the Three Dead", knowledge of the new Tuscan developments the basis for Lhc fresco's hunting party scene, which make it likely that a Parisian artist from originated in French poetry by the second half of the Atelier of the Boxes, or one whose work was lhe thirteenth century before becoming popular in available to the ivory atelier, travelled to Pisa and 9 in the fourteenth . The fresco's love garden made drawings after sections of the Pisan fres­ scene, with its dallying couples, elegant in dress coes. Possibly his attention initially was caught and sporting falcons, was certainly inspired by by the familiar French themes included within the illustrated French romances, either manuscripts or Triu1nph of Death, yet two other features clearly possibly ivories similar to those produced by the impressed him: the remarkably expansive land­ Atelier of the Boxes, yet carved several decades scape, not to be found anywhere else in European 10 earlier . Thus the similarity in pose and type be­ art at this Lime, and the evident interest in the tween the couple seated below the putti in lhc theme of penitent hermits. fresco's garden scene and several of the couples Tuscany in the early Trecento was a center both in the ivories (figs. 4a, 4b, and 5) probably is due !'or Lhe development of landscape painting as well Lo similar French models for them all. as a focal point for interest in Lhe new theme of 166 (;Azt-:rn-. DES BEAUX-ARTS

1 6 the penitent hermit in the wilderness; in some early fourteenth century , it is in Treccnto Italy works of art these two concerns are even con­ that the theme is most extensively treated, and in /lated. The Pisa Camposanto frescoes demonstrate Tuscany that the most innovative landscape set­ such a confluence, as do two predella panels from tings are created. While hermits arc stock 's 1329 Altarpiece for the Church characters within the French romances, e.g., in the of the Carmine in Siena 11; the French i vorics early thirteenth century Quesle de[ S. Graaf, the under discussion arc early Northern examples heroes Perceval. Gawain, Bors and Lancelot all combining these two features. Art historians turn to hermits for enlightenment in interpret.ing generally associate the dramatic developments in dreams and the odd events that befall them, their landscape depiction with the Siencsc school, role in the visual arts was small and not partic­ 17 changes initiated by and furthered by his ularly noteworthy . Landscape scenes with her­ pupils, particularly Pietro and Ambrogio Loren­ mits living exemplary lives are not found in the zetti. The painter of the Pisan frescoes, working romance tradition. during the l 330's and so contemporary with the The final question to be addressed concerns the Lorenzetti, is also innovative, e.g., in his use of iconographical role of the hcrmils in relation to an expansive landscape with its characteristic the lovers in both the Triumph of Death fresco 12 "stairway'" convention . The French ivory car­ and the French ivories. The meaning of the fresco vers of the mid-fourteenth century certainly drew is clear as the artist of the Triumph chose to en­ upon these Tuscan developments. hance the opposing qualities of these two groups It is also possible that the Atelier or the Boxes' via their juxtaposition, and further emphasized extended use of hermit figures was inspired by their differences by uniting them within a com­ Tuscan works. Scenes of hermits working and position based upon that of a typical Last Judg­ meditating in their wilderness abodes, the so­ ment, a scene traditionally governed by opposing called HThebaid" landscape, were newly intro­ dualities and composed according to hierarchical duced into European art c. 1300, and Tuscany was rules. While no figure of the judging Christ ap­ one of the first centers to develop the theme; the pears in the sky, angels and devils enact the tradi­ Sienese predella and the Pisan frescoes are among tional moti r or separating the blessed from the the earliest examples extant t.l_ Tn Tuscany, it was damned, and the winged figure of Death herself the religious milieu which encouraged these substitutes compositionally for the Archangel Mi­ depictions. and Ellen Caliman and others have chael. Bodies of persons from all social classes demonstrated the particular importance of Pisa for chaotically litter the bottom of the fresco, a com­ the creation of the tcxLUal sources which inspired positional arrangement which again recalls the these scenes. These accounts, which glorify the traditional Last Judgment. The other major parts cremitical existence and condemn the world of of a Last Judgment which routinely would be in­ vanities, include the writings and preaching of Fra cluded arc depictions or Heaven and Hell. As was Domenico Cavalca and other acerbic Dominicans, already noted, the angels who successfully carry several of whom lived and worked in Pisa in the off souls - and there are but five blessed - carry 14 first half of the fourteenth century . When artists them towards the scene of Heaven in the adjacent then sought visual inspiration for depicting these fresco, while the devils - there are ten damned - penitent heroes in the wilderness, they turned to head for the fiery landscape towards the center Byzantine manuscripts - prohahly a now-lost of the Triumph. But the traditional locations for cycle of the illustrated lives of the Desert these two eternal places are still significant in the Fathers - and to a specific type of Byzantine fresco: the picture's sacred upper right, the tradi­ 15 panel painting of the Dormition of F.phraim . tional location of Heaven, is here filled by the Although scholars are now finding exceptional hermits in their wilderness landscape. Signifi­ examples of the theme in Northern Europe in the cantly, the traditional position of Hell Lo the FRENCH :-.IEDIEVAL lVORIES AND THE CAMPOSA'HO. PISA 167 picture's lower left is taken by the elegant figures ivories. Yet while all the scenes included by the of ten ladies and gentlemen enjoying all too well Atelier of the Boxes - a hermit reading, someone 18 their "garden of vanity" . The message for these kneeling in supplication before a hermit, active t,vo groups is clear. The hermits, for whom scenes of confrontation between women and her­ earthly life consists of isolation in a threatening mits - do appear in the stories of the Vitae Patrum and difficult wilderness and where self-denial and and the illustrations of the desert fathers, the tone penance are daily rituals, will reap their reward or the ivories seems wrong. The mood of the ivo­ when they exchange this ,;Hell" on earth for the ries is far less damning and the focus more on heavenly garden of Paradise after death. The vain the enjoyments of lovemaking and dalliance group within the garden, on the other hand, who ralher than self-denial. Partly this difference in savor the sensual pleasures of li rc on earth, wi II mood is occasioned by the change of scale and trade in their delights ror an aflcrli fc of Hell. The context. The monumental Pisan frescoes are som­ two groups are located at opposite extremes com­ ber and impressive within their cemetery setting, positionally in the fresco. just as the individuals and were routinely viewed by mourners during 21 will find themselves on opposing sides when funerary processions • The much smaller ivories, Christ judges them. The actions of each group are of course, would he used within domestic settings. set forth for the viewer as opposing moral While both mix themes of love and death, l'rivol ­ choices, and, similar to a cycle of the Virtues and ity and penance, the ivories focus on the first or Vices, these figures of monks and pleasure­ each of those pairings, and the frescoes on the seekers become thematically unified because or second. Perhaps we are to read at least some of their opposition. these small ivories as satire, for admittedly the The fate of the intermediary group of the hunt­ Walters mirror case (fig. 3) could be interpreted ing party, to the painting's right between the gar­ den and the wilderness, yet lower and therefore in fcrior to the hermits above them, is not yet de­ termined, and it is this group with which viewers should idcnlil"y as they confront, similarly shocked, the three rotting corpses. Macarius 's scroll confirms that there is still a chance for sal­ vation, if only his warning will be heeded: If your 1nind will be well aware, keeping here your view arrenrive, you will see vain11lory vanquished and pride eliminared. And, again, you will reali:e 9 this fate if you observe the law which is written 1 . The intent of the fresco is obvious. Like those in the hunting party, each viewer must make a choice. It is difficult to know whether the French ivo­ ries, with their similar juxtaposition of contrasting figures of lovers and hermits, carry the same mor­ alizing message as the cycle of frescoes at Pisa. Most problematical is the fact that the subject of the ivories is unclear. Scholars have found no specific romance sources for the scenes depicLect20, and, indeed, a common lopos of the romance texts seems to be males who consult or Fie.;. 5. - Fisurcs R ('.f<1re " Tmrn, ivory mirror case, l'rench. confront hermits rather than females, as in the fourteenth century. Florence, . Phor. Muu,1111. 168 GAZETTE DES BFAlJX-ARTS as a humorous scene wilh foolish and ineffectual it is certain that the impact of the Pisa frescoes hermits below - who are unable LO defend them­ was significant for the artist who introduced these selves even against women ! - and a voyeuristic Italian motifs to the Atelier of the Boxes. The one above. In any case, the change of scale, of Atelier altered the traditional French handling of setting and of function within the ivories creates these secular scenes by introducing the new a situation wherein these hermits do not appear Tuscan landscape conventions and by expanding to be the moral heroes that their brothers in the the hermit motif, demonstrating again the impor­ Pisan frescoes are. tance of for in the fourteenth Whatever the interpreLaLion of these French century. ivories wi ll finally be - moral exhortation, cleri­ cal satire, or stories from the French romances - P. H. J.

NOTES

I wish to thank Richard Randall for his generous loan of 3) that Francesrn Traini paintetl The Triumph nf Oearh in the 1he photograph reproduced here as Figure 5. years following the Blad Death of the summer of I 348 is rarely subscribed to today, and MF!SS himself later ahandoncd his c. 1450 dating ("Notable Disturbances in the Classification I. Richard H. RANDALL, Jr., "Medieval Ivories in the Ro- of Tu scan Trecenlo Painting"". Burlington Magazine, CXIII. mance Tradition", Gesta, XX V 11111, I 989, 30-40. 1971, I 78tT). However, an ongoing reassessment of Traini ·s 2. RANDALL, 33. career and chronology may still allow for his authorship. 3. RANDALL, 30. 811c:c:1 and BERTOLINI, 46ff, summarize earlier opinions, while 4. Although both the frescoes and their underlying sinopie Hayclcn H.J. MAGIN;\lS updates the discussion in his '"lnLro­ are still on display in the Camposanto, they have been moved duction·• to Millard Mt1ss, Fra11CC'sco Tr ai11i. Washington, from their original location . Originally both sets of fre,coes D.C, 1983, xii-xxi v. Joseph POLZER. "Aristotle, Mohammed began at the southeast corner of the Camposanto, those dealing and Nicholas Vin Hell", Art Bulletin, 46, 1964. 467 and 11. 33 with the life of Chri�t progressing on the east wall from right argues on the basis of historical and religious evt,nts that the to left (the Cruc!f1xion, the Resurre ction over the Doubling fre scoes date Io the early 1330"s: Miklos DosKovns. '"Orc agna u{ Th umm·. and the Ascemion), and those dealing with in U57 - And In Other Times -·. Burling1m, Maga�inc, 113, mankind's fate moving along the south wall from left to right. 1971, 244 and n. 22 would dale rhcm to the early 1340-s; For information on and illustrations o[ the entire cycle consult Luciano H�1.1.os 1, Rujji1/macca e ii Trion{o ,fr/la Murie, Tu rin. Mario Rucci and Licia BERTOLIXI, Camposa1110 Mor1ume11ta/e 1974, 4lff. attributes the frescnes In Bufralmacco. and elates di Pisa: Affreschi <' Sinupie. Pisa, I 960; Alastair SMART, Tht' them before 1338; F. BrsoGNI, in '"Prohlcmi iconografici Dawn of Iwlian Painting, Oxford, 1978, I 16ff; and Barbara riminesi: Le storie dell'Anticris10 in S. Maria in Porto Puori", K. DODGE, Tradition, /11novation, arid Te ch11ique in Trecen/o Po mgo11e. XXVI/305, 1975, 13-23, elaborates upon Polzer 's Mural Pai11ti11g: The Frescoes and Sinopie Arrrihuted to hi,torical connections, t.hus supporting a date in the 1330's, Fraricesco Traini in tire Campo.rnnto in Pim, Ph. D. Disser­ and accepts the attribution to Buffal macco: Wol fram PRIXZ, tation, The Johns Hopkins University, 1978. -·Bemcrkungcn 7. u 'sto ria· im Triumph des Tades im Cam­ 5. These problems have been heightened by the fact that posanto von Pisa··. Scritti di stori11 dell'arre in onore di the frescoes were badly burned in 1944 following a wartime Roberto Sa/1•in i, Florence, 1984, 203 also accepts the attribu­ bombing, and connoisseurs must now rely primarily upon pho­ tion to Buffal macco: Hayclen M,\G1:-;r,;1s, in his re view of the tographs taken be fore that time. Old attributions to the stellar H�.1 .1.osr text, Arr Bu l/e1in. LVIII, 1976, 126ff, rejects the at­ rnid-Trecento painters Pielro Lorenze tti and Andrea and Nardo trihution to Ruffa lmacco; SMART , Dawn of lwliw, p,,;n1i11g, di Cione have been discarded in favor of allribulions to lesser­ I I 8f, hesitates regarding the attribution to Huffalmacco, and known artists such as the rlorcn tinc Buonamico Buffalmacco opts for a "Master of the Triumph of Death"; DODGE, in her or an anonymous Tuscan given the sobriquet ··YJastcr of the 1978 dissertation and in "The role of the sinopie in the Traini Triumph of Death". Even Millard Mrnss's on ce-attra�ctive the­ cycle in the Camposanto, Pisa", 24th International Cong ress sis (m his imporlanl book, f'l/inting in flnrence and Siena of the Hiszorr o{ A rt, Rolog,w, Rologna, 1983, lll. 125ff, on Afier thP R/ack Death: Th e Arrs, Rdigiun and Society in th e 1he basis of her exploration of the sinopic, rct.urn, to Meiss, Mid-Fourteenth Ceraury, Princeton, 1951, ,ee especially Chapter attribution 10 Francesco Traini, but dates them to the LB 0·,. FRE"ICJI �11:::DJE\'AI. IVORIES Al\D TJ JE CAMPOS . .\'ffO. PISA 169

6. I. S1Y1NO. II Composo11tn di Pim. Fl orence. 1896, 98ff. Suso and the Dominicans•·, Art Bulletin. LXXI. I 989, 20-46. carefully identifies all the figures; consull in addition Ellen especially 30il, con�iders carefully the issue of the origins of C,,LL�ur,.;, "Thehaid Studies·•, Antic hita Vim, XIV. 197:i, 3ff, images or the dcscn fathers during his discussion of Suso·s . who discusses the frl!sco in terms of the . Thcbaid'" the me: oratory al 1he Dominican church at Con�tancc. He proposes and E. r'ROJWJVIC-. ·•Eine gemaltc Eremit.tge in der S1a,h", that it was decorated with a now loM cycle of the desert fathers Ma/erei 11ml S1ad1k11lt11r in dcr Oante�eit: Die Ar1; 11mer11arion dating from the early fourteenth century. He also discusses dn Bilder. ed. H. Belting u. D. Blume, Munich, 1989. 20 l ff. tht Franco-Flemish Ro1hschild Ca 111icle.1· of c. 1300 ,Kew 7. RA1'"DALL, 1:lf.. proposes that mid-fourteenth century Haven, Yale Cniversiry, Ms. 404 ) which contains ar leas! Frendi manuscripts. such as Guillaume de Machaut·s Rem,,de twenty drawings based on the Vi 1ue Patrum. and notes that de Fomme (Pari�, 13:--l,Ms. fr. l 586i. provided the innovati,·c no illuminated texts exist prior 10 that rime (p. 32). See his lamhcape conventions used hy the Atelier of the Boxc,. hut forthcoming The Rothschild Canticle.I.' Art and My.l"tidsm in they arc mu,,h more simple and less ambitious than the Tuscan a11d the Rhi11e/a11d ca. I 300, Yale University Press. ones, and probably themselves have ltnlian influence . The in­ Hamburger, 30, n. 73 lists the rare french 13th century ex­ novative qualities oi the Pisan landscapes have been discussed amples of illustrations or the desert fa thers with which he is at leng1h, panicu!arly rhc manner in which they uni1e rhc mul­ fa mi liar. but these , like the Rothschild Canticles, lack the ex­ tipk episodes found in 1hcir Byzantine and halo-Byzantine tensive landscape settings of the slightly later Italian ex­ sources into a ,ingk landscape. Among the more recent uis­ amples. Tbe authenticity of the earl ies! Tu scan example of a cus,ion�. see F�OJMOVIC and the interesting work by M. TcsTI Tll l'bc1id theme, the Sicncse Crawford Tabernacle (Edinburgh, CR1Sf1ASI, "Percorsi c Tempi della Visione nel 'Trioni"o dell.1 National Gallery o!' Scotland) of the late 13th century (sec G. . morte ... Crilica d'Arte, LIII. n. 16, 1988. 33-48 ancl "Vm, i AcH�SD.\CII, "An 1--:arly Italian Tabernacle", (ia:ette des dialoganti e. ' coro nc lla 'umana co111 media' de! 'Trionfo della Heaux-/1. rls. 25, 1944. 12':lff.J, has recemly hel!n questioned Morte"", Critin, d'A rl<'. LIV, n. 19. ll/89, 57-68, where she by Hans BELTISG (as reported in rROJ\10\'IC, 213, II. 28). analyses the movemenl of the viewer's gaze through the monu­ 14. C..\LLMAN, "Thcbaid Studies", 4ff, whae she empha­ mental fresco. size� that the Pisa Anchorites is the earliest Tuscan example 8. K ,, r,.; oALL, 32; hut ,ee a different interpretation in fm - of the new theme, and links it to the Pisan re ligious milieu. 11ges '!I Love and Dea!h in Lt1 1,, Medieval and Re11aissa11n• See also Paul WATSO'i. The- Garden of Lo,·e in Tu scan Art of Art, University or Michigan, Museum of Art, Exhibition Cat­ rlu· Ea rly Renai/isance. Phi ladelphia. 1979. 55ff, particularly alogue, November 21, 1975 - January 4, 1976, catalogue entry concerning the Dominic an Hartolomeo da San Concordio, who # 75 hy William R. I.F.v1r,.;. died in Pisa in July of 1347: A<:HF.:-IOACH, 136f; and M,,01;,;:-, 1s 9. DODGE, Tradition, fn11ovatio11, 78. discusses the theme's in MErss, France.,· co Trai11i, xixr. a!;o discuss the Pisan mi lieu. origins in f'rance. as does Franc;ois AVRIL, Manuscript Paint • 15. Besides the discussions of Bylantinc sour<: es fou nd in l ill!! ot !he Court of Fra11c,•. New York , 1978. 74. CALI.MA(';,"Thebaid Studies". 8ff; Arn[NllACH,'"An Early Ital · I 10. �- DOBBl::KT. "Triumph des Tolle s", Rcpertorium fi ir ian Tabern:1clc"; DODGE. Traditim,, !llnm•min11, I !Off; and Ku11snl'iHt·11.vchoft . IV. 1881, 33, first noted the conne,:tions l'ROJ�10VtC, 207ff and n.28; John R. MARTIN has studied these to Frcnc.h i vorie,, hut these are :i l,o dis<:u,sed by more recent Ryzantine images of monks in a series of publications: "An s<: holars. e.g., DODGE, ''The role of the sinopie'·. n. 29. where Early Illustration of The Say ill!IS of the Fathers". Art Hul/etin, she compares the fresco·s garden scene, with its lovers. dogs, XXXII, 1950, 290-95; '·The Death of t: phraim in Byzantine and fakons, to earlier Pre nch ivories. and Early Italian Painting", Arr Bulletin. XXXIII, 1951, 217- f f 11. The two panels are Tlw Hermits r, Mount Carm('/ and 25 : and The f//us1rario11 of the Hea venly Ladder o 10h11 Cli­ The Conferring of rile Carmelite Rule (Siena, Pinacoteca), in macus. Princeton. l954 . H. Bt:CHTHAI. discusses the Piero TORRITI, u, Pinarotern 11a:ionale di Sii•na; i diph,ti do / prohabilil)' of Byzantim: sources for Sicilian manuscripts of Xfl al X\I secolo. Genova, 1980, 97ff. , and figs. 95-6. C. GIL• the early 14th century (Turin, BN I.11.17 and Vat. lat 375) KEKf discusses reasons for 1he Carme!ite Order's particular in­ which include illustrations of the desert fa thers, although these terest in the desert fathers in his ··some Special Images for Sirilian works appear not directly linked stylistically to the Carmelites, c. 1330-1430.. , Clirisrianity and the Rrnaissanre: Tuscan examples ( .. Farly f'ouneenth-Century Illumination s /111a1;e and Religious Imagination in the Quattron·nlo. ed. T. from Pa lcrmo" . Dumlm rro11 Oaks Papas. XX, 1966, 1