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Christian and Science Issues in the Contemporary World

Volume 10 Issue 1 Chronology, and Article 3

2015

Infidel Geologists! The Cultural Context of Ellen White's Statements on Geological Science

Cornelis S. Bootsman Auckland Adventist High School, [email protected]

Lynden J. Rogers Avondale College of Higher Education, [email protected]

Kevin C. deBerg Avondale College of Higher Education, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://research.avondale.edu.au/css

Recommended Citation Bootsman, C. S., Rogers, L. J., & deBerg, K. C. (2015). Infidel geologists! The cultural context of Ellen White's statements on geological science. Christian Spirituality and Science, 10(1), 33-60. Retrieved from https://research.avondale.edu.au/css/vol10/iss1/3

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Avondale Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Science at ResearchOnline@Avondale. It has been accepted for inclusion in Christian Spirituality and Science by an authorized editor of ResearchOnline@Avondale. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Bootsman et al.: Infidel Geologists! The Cultural Context of Ellen White's Stateme

Infidel Geologists! The Cultural Context of Ellen White's Statements on Geological Science Cornelis S Bootsman Auckland Adventist High School

Lynden J Rogers School of Science and Mathematics Avondale College of Higher Education

and

Kevin C de Berg School of Science and Mathematics Avondale College of Higher Education

ABSTRACT Ellen White’s repeated and strident denunciations of ‘infidel geologists’ and their ideas in her 1864 monograph “Spiritual Gifts” are well known. This early ori- gins material was invoked from time to time in her subsequent articles for periodicals, would be re-worked and expanded in her “ of ” (1870) and was to see its final denouement in “Patriarchs and Prophets” (1890) with other associated material appearing in the “Great Controversy” (1888). Because of her accepted prophetic status Ellen White’s writings in this area have proved to be enduringly authoritative for the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Further, they were enormously formative for George McCready Price and, through him, hugely influential for the world-wide recent movement, beginning in the 1960s. This paper explores the historical and theological contexts of White’s pronouncements on geological themes, explores possible provocations and sources behind some of her ideas and notes differences in the manner in which she re-used this material in later publications. This study indicates that her statements on geological matters represented ideas which, while once commonly held, were no longer accepted by professionals involved with the rapid scientific progression of nineteenth century geology.

Keywords: infidel, geology, prophetic

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INTRODUCTION Twenty-first century geologists would Ellen White (1827-1915) was a co- judge White’s 1864 ‘infidel geologist’ founder of the Seventh-day Adventist statements to be indiscriminate, un- Church with the prophetic status of deserved, and irrelevant, since most ‘Messenger of the Lord’. Whilst she professional geologists experience claimed to have received many visions their discipline as a fully functional on a large range of subjects during her science which, while methodologically long life of ministry her only vision on naturalistic, is not at all anti-religious origins, so far as is known, was given in its intention. at Lovett’s Grove, Ohio, on March 14, 1858, twenty months before the In fact this was already largely so by appearance of Darwin’s On the Origin the mid-nineteenth century. Geology of Species. The first written account had expanded and specialised so much of this revelation appeared in Spiritual on its journey towards becoming a Gifts III, published in 1864. In this mature science that its professionals work White makes at least 5 strident found it impossible to pursue it within references to ‘infidel geologists’ or to the perceived strait-jacket of the very ‘infidelity’ in a geological context. She brief Mosaic Genesis narratives. On would rework this material a number both sides of the Atlantic many sin- of times over the following 25 years, cere Christian academics made the resulting in two more monographs, adjustment to the longer time scales Spirit of Prophecy (1870) and Patri- implied by what they perceived to archs and Prophets (1890) as well as be unanswerable data, and without a a number of articles in Church peri- sense of having compromised their odicals. Generally speaking, in later strong theistic and practice. versions terms like ‘infidel geologists’ Rudwick terms the state of separation are used more sparingly, if at all. Post- of geology from the traditional bibli- mortem compilations of White’s works cal narratives and time scales around by others usually bypassed such vivid the mid-nineteenth century as the expressions of earlier years, although “amicable disassociation”.2 However, as late as 2004 her comments about many evangelicals continued to see ‘infidel geologists’ were reproduced geological theories as an attempt by the exactly as they appeared in The Signs naturalist professionals to dictate new of the Times of March 20, 1879.1 interpretations of the Genesis narra- tives that infringed on their doctrines. While now not so widely read, even by conservative Adventists, these very THE “INFIDEL” METAPHOR negative statements about geological The word ‘infidelity’ was quite en thought fall on modern ears as being vogue among orthodox somewhat harsh and poorly informed. during the nineteenth century. Samuel

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Johnson’s authoritative English dic- century America.8 Marty therefore tionary provides a mid-century de- suggests that the New evan- scription of an infidel as an unbeliever, gelical churches “found infidelity a miscreant [one that holds a false ; convenient symbol for the further- one who in false ; a vile ance of their claims.”9 The image of wretch], pagan or one who rejects the infidel could be used to advance . Infidelity is articulated the church’s own purposes; it was a as: want of faith, disbelief of Christian- powerful mental picture or metaphor ity, treachery, and deceit.3 In 1867 the that spoke vividly to the imagination of Primitive Methodist Magazine carried congregations. The orthodox churches an article wherein it was suggested that “conjured up the image of the infidel as an infidel is not just a person without a contrast to their position.”10 For the faith but more especially an unbeliever Presbyterian leader Thomas DeWitt in the strict Gospel sense of the word: Talmage, who was considered by many not believing in . For example, to be a giant among the defenders of although honoured they , infidelity “substituted noth- did not believe in Christ, thus were ing but untruth, , unfairness, unbelievers.4 outrage, and meanness for the comforts it removed” and was “the friend of all The use of the condemning label ‘in- that is impure.”11 fidel’ became a tool for evangelicals to push harder for the authority of Marty therefore suggests that the use Scripture and to acquire more con- of the infidel metaphor rose especially verts.5 Marty states that ‘infidel’ was to prominence at those moments in a very commonly used term during the American history when the churches nineteenth century. Over the years the were struggling with social or theologi- term would include the ‘freethinker’, cal questions.12 Situations that urged ‘agnostic’, ‘atheist’, ‘secularist’ and the church to react to new patterns of other types of unbelievers.6 thought would certainly have included new scientific theories in geology and As popularly conceived, the typical biology. infidel in the USA would challenge the growth of evangelical denomina- It is important to appreciate White’s tions after the separation of church use of the term ‘infidel geologists’ and state. Marty suggests that such and her other comments on nineteenth an infidel thrived on the reaction of century geology within an adequate the ‘religious’ majority.7 On the other context of her time and while taking hand, it is thought that the image of into account the particular circum- the infidel definitely helped to shape stances of the early Adventists. the nation’s religious life in nineteenth

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ELLEN WHITE’S RELIGIOUS 1830 – 1860 period Methodist minis- BACKGROUND ters actually founded more than thirty Although the Harmon family had been colleges and universities and that there Puritans for generations White’s father, were strong currents within Robert Harmon, introduced the family moving it away from anti-intellectual- to the Methodist Episcopal Church. ism.17 Farrelly indicates, for example, As a consequence the young Ellen that there were Methodist ministers Harmon would inherit strict Puritan such as Henry Martyn Bannister who standards combined with Wesleyan understood that “the discoveries of Methodist teachings. Methodism had geologists would one day be accepted been the fastest growing denomination by all Christians.”18 Bannister felt that in the USA during the early nineteenth the “conflict of geology is really not century and a Methodist background with Moses, but with a favourite, a was thus at the time not uncommon; cherished interpretation of Moses.”19 in fact 44% of the Millerite lecturers were also Methodist.13 Definite Meth- Another huge influence on sabbatarian odist influences have been traced by Adventists was, of course, William Adventist historians in the writings Miller,20 to whose teachings the young of White and at large.14 White was first exposed in 1840. Early Woodrow Whidden believes that Seventh-day Adventists continued through White the “Wesleyan tradition to apply Miller’s common-sense ap- has been the most essential influence proach and ‘Rules of Interpretation’ on Adventism.”15 However, it is inter- to Scripture as they expanded his esting to note that despite the strong end-time theology to embrace new ele- early Methodist influences in White’s ments such as the seventh-day Sabbath, early Christian life Adventism and as they perceived it to be incorporated Methodism would take predominantly within the three angels’ message of different routes when it came to sci- Revelation 14.21 In 1884 White could ence and particularly with respect to still state, “Those who are engaged in geological theories. proclaiming the third angel’s message are searching the Scriptures upon the Farrelly observes that in comparison same plan that Father Miller adopt- with their Congregational, Presbyte- ed.”22 They continued to emphasise rian and Episcopalian contemporaries Miller’s doctrine of Sola Scriptura early Methodists were not well edu- as their sole source. White, as the cated, and that the nineteenth century seminal figure in the growing Church, Methodists had a reputation for being endorsed many of Miller’s views and somewhat anti-intellectual.16 How- because of this validated their author- ever, she shows that this was not the ity for members of the Seventh-day complete picture and that during the Adventist Church.23 For example, in

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many instances she demonstrates her nascent denomination.28 White had dependence on Miller’s Rules (for earlier, through the printed narratives study).24 Clearly, these rules lay of her early visions, warned the ‘little at the heart of White’s understanding flock’ of the importance of obeying of genuine faith building and of her specifically the fourth commandment method for dealing with theological for reaching the Holy City.29 Indeed, challenges. Further, her use of Miller’s she would see in her January 5th, 1849 literal historicist interpretation of vision that saints who did not keep the God’s word strongly informed her Sabbath at the Holy City were wear- views of the creation days and those ing garments on which was written in of the flood. large characters, “Thou art weighed in the balance, and found wanting.”30 EARLY SDA CONTEXT FOR Such messages left no doubt amongst GEOLOGY REFERENCES the early Adventist believers over the extreme importance of honouring the The Sabbath seventh-day, Holy Sabbath. Perhaps the major reason for White’s stance against what she perceived as Even after the passage of time had the geological wisdom of her time dulled the sense of imminent judge- was the seventh-day Sabbath. Joseph ment, as it certainly did, the fear of Bates had earlier come to see that an modern geological theories has largely adherence to the fourth commandment, survived in the Seventh-day Adventist namely the seventh-day Sabbath was Church into the twenty-first century a necessity for complete salvation25 because they continue to be perceived and this had been accepted by White. as directly challenging the Sabbath. Knight has observed that, “it is impos- sible to overemphasise the importance The Second Coming of Bates’ contribution to the develop- Evidence suggests that she was also ment of Sabbatarian Adventist theol- greatly concerned that modern geology ogy”.26 According to Bates, all advent would undermine the Church’s other believers who “despise and reject this central doctrine, that of the Second covenant (Sabbath) will just as cer- Advent of Christ. The doctrine of the tainly be burned and destroyed with second coming influenced her attitudes the ungodly wicked at the desolation of to geology in at least three ways. The the , as Isaiah has prophesied”.27 first is closely connected to the point above. It is easy to understand that for The perceived undermining of a lit- the Adventist pioneers any supposed eral, seven-day creation by the geolo- benefits accruing from an acceptance gists was seen as being diametrically of old-age Earth theories were deemed against this central doctrine of the totally insignificant compared to the

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need to be ready for the soon coming intricacies of the already complex Second Advent. Thus, the remnant epistemology of modern geology. little flock thereforehad to be warned about the undermining influence of This attitude would begin to change as the theories of modern geologists. the denomination grew and additional It should not be forgotten that Ellen workers needed to be trained to spread Harmon herself had, in her early teen- the Adventist message. Ellen White age years, experienced intense fear of received her first education vision in eternally burning in because of not January 1872.33 But even when Battle being able to enter .31 Creek College opened in 1874 it was believed that short courses were suf- The second relates to the materials ficient for training church employees. which would be used to fuel the violent With a still persistent belief in the destruction of this Earth to which the imminent Second Advent, it was felt Second Coming would give rise. It that degree programs were too time- seems from her work that a dimin- consuming and laden with academic ishing of the Noachian deluge was baggage. Thus they were deemed un- perceived as undermining the supply necessary for putting trained workers of the raw materials, mainly coal and in the field.34 Only towards the end oil resulting from it, which were to of the century, when Adventism had fuel the final conflagration, as well as become a world movement, would this its heralding earthquakes and volcanic attitude begin to change. eruptions.32 Great Controversy Theme There was a third, perhaps more sub- Her views on origins were also seen tle, way in which the early Adventist as an important part of her ‘Great understanding of the Second Coming Controversy’ meta-narrative, begin- would affect attitudes to science. Be- ning before this Earth’s creation and cause of the Sabbatarian Adventists’ continuing until the final great consum- belief in the imminence of this event mation of all evil.35 The perceived cen- education was lightly valued and they trality of White’s views on origins to certainly saw no need to establish their this construct has been a major factor own schools during the 1850s and behind its resilience within Seventh- 1860s. Further, Church members had day Adventism. been almost exclusively drawn from uneducated circles. It is no surprise, POSSIBLE SOURCES then, that during the early decades of INFORMING ELLEN its existence the rapidly expanding WHITE’S GEOLOGY Church lacked academically trained REFERENCES persons capable of understanding the From the publication of her first

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books, much has been written about Rather than simply presenting a list the recognition of textual fragments of authors in chronological order, and concepts from other authors in an attempt has been made to differ- White’s writings. Although White entiate these into two oppositional always denied any literary borrowing, groups. The first three authors were it is now well recognised across many chosen because of their major roles circles that in many aspects she was in the secularising of science over the a collaborative author who borrowed period leading up to and during that extensively from others.36 It is not the in which White wrote. In effect they aim of this paper to defend or depre- represent the case to which she makes cate this practice but simply to explore such strenuous objection. The second possible sources of White’s ideas. group, from John Milton onwards, wrote works with which White would Source analysis in this instance is not have resonated and which may have an easy task as White had access to influenced both her thought develop- numerous , devotional books, ment and word usage. Bible society tracts, Bible commentar- ies and general Christian literature.37 However, before examining the works She was also able to read a full range of individual authors of possible sig- of magazines that came to the Review nificance it is important to note that and Herald office from other publish- White’s writings on geology may re- ers. In addition, she had about 1,400 flect some of the common understand- volumes available for her perusal in her ings of her day resulting from much personal and office libraries.38 publicised discoveries. An example of this is provided by her mention of Secondarily, an attempt has also been “much larger men and beasts” which made to recognise the datedness of any “once lived upon the earth” and “large, time-conditioned geological compo- powerful animals”, that “existed before nents, since this may have implications the flood which do not now exist”.40 for their continued authoritative use in Adventism. Veltman observed in a These claims must be seen in the personal postscript to his research that context of eighteenth and nineteenth White’s writings contain both time- century discoveries in the United conditioned and timeless statements States. In 1705, a fist-size giant tooth and that there is a need to further in- and later also gigantic jawbones and vestigate and differentiate these.39 This other bones had been found along the paper has also endeavoured to identify Hudson River banks.41 American Prot- elements in her text that linked geol- estants immediately connected these ogy with an emerging response to the with Genesis 6:4, “There were giants concept of organic evolution. in the earth those days.” The giant

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tooth was initially thought to belong selection played within the origin of to a human pre-Flood giant. The fos- species. sil bones were seen as archaeological evidence of Mosaic history supporting Combe’s The Constitution of Man was the veracity of the Flood and, with that, first published in 1828. In general his the inevitability of the millenarian final book examines the operation of natu- Conflagration. Although by the early ral laws on man and society. Combe nineteenth century it was clear to sci- regarded natural laws as regularities entists that the bones were those of the of matter and mind which the Creator Mastodon, a relative of the Mammoth, had instituted at the beginning. These the belief that they were the remains natural laws included physical laws, of giant humans lingered much longer organic laws (including the laws of among the general public. hereditary descent) and also those of the moral and intellectual realms. He George Combe and Robert Cham- did not speak for current science and bers: An Emphasis on ‘Laws of serious scientists of the day largely Nature.’ ignored his book. Conservative Chris- Two works that may well have influ- tians also rejected the book, since enced White prior to her publication they saw in it an attempt to replace in 1864 of Spiritual Gifts III, would God with natural laws,43 promoting have been Combe’s The Constitution a non-Christian alternative narra- of Man and Chambers’ Vestiges of the tive of the world. However, by the Natural History of Creation. Combe 1860s, Constitution’s sales had already and Chambers were both phrenologists reached around 200 000 in America; and they believed in the importance more than double the combined sales of natural laws in the operation of the figures ofVestiges and On the Origin of world.42 Combe was a founding mem- Species during that period. The book ber of the Edinburgh Phrenological remained continuously in print until Society and the most prolific British 1899. Although often overlooked, its phrenologist of his time. Chambers impact and influence were enormous.44 became an enthusiastic phrenologist in the 1830s and his Vestiges did much Shortly after, whilst the Millerite Ad- to advance phrenological naturalist ventists were experiencing their Great thought. Their books promoted the Disappointment in 1844, the appear- view that natural laws, rather than God, ance of the anonymous Vestiges cre- controlled the world and in a sense, ated another Victorian print sensation they marked a transition to a new in Britain and America. The Vestiges naturalistic era. Within that context, was in essence a controversial synthe- Darwin’s Origin would subsequently sis of the natural sciences with some look at the specific role that natural theology and moulded into a general

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theory of creation.45 The anonymity of a simple and modest character.47 of its author did much to heighten the attraction of this (r)evolutionary It was Chambers’ early phrenological book. The fact that it was written in influences which had propelled him a popularist style made it easy for the to develop the progressive naturalist general public to digest. Although narrative of the Vestiges.48 Not sur- ideas about transmutation had been prisingly, the Edinburgh phrenologists circulating for some time in academic praised the book for promoting the circles, this was the first occasion that evolution of animals and plants and its evolutionary ideas were brought into advocacy of law.49 The Evangelicals in the public arena. It was the start of a Scotland, on the other hand, were high- secular public culture that would con- ly critical of the book and characterised tinue to grow during the second half it as “ under a Christian ban- of the nineteenth century.46 Although ner.”50 The Scottish Free Church also recognising God as the initial Creator actively opposed Vestiges, which they it promoted natural laws, rather than perceived as based on false science.51 God’s on-going acts, as guiding pro- The Religious Tract Society joined this gress from the earliest nebulae all the opposition through its series of evan- way to the final destiny of the human gelical monthly volumes. From 1845 race. Interestingly, the book nowhere it sold about 30,000 copies of each of mentions the term ‘evolution’. How- the two parts of Thomas Dick’s Solar ever, for those that seriously perused System in the next five years.52 (Dick’s the text, the evolutionary hypothesis contribution is discussed later in this was undoubtedly there. paper.) The Society felt that the scep- tical arguments of Vestiges especially The idea, then, which I form of endangered young Christian men. the progress of organic life upon the globe – and the hypothesis is In America, Vestiges created a similar applicable to all similar theatres of sensation and, in the absence of inter- vital being – is, that the simplest national copyright law, it was reprinted and most primitive type, under a freely there by at least four different law to which that of like-produc- publishers. As it went through about tion is subordinate, gave birth to twenty editions, more copies were the type next above it, that this sold in total in the United States than again produced the next higher, in Great Britain. Interestingly, and and so on to the very highest, although it might easily have been the stages of advance being in all otherwise, Vestiges does not appear to cases very small – namely, from have attracted explicit comment in the one species only to another; so that Adventist Review and Herald within the phenomenon has always been its first decades. It was not mentioned

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by name until 1940 when an associate theories.55 Such references strongly editor, Spicer, opined with hindsight suggest that contemporary theories of that the rising of the Advent message secular scientists influenced her work. in 1844 had actually occurred to meet the challenge of the publication of In 1904, when the church was dealing Chambers’ ideas of man’s origins.53 with a crisis surrounding J. H.Kellogg’s However, from their earliest years alleged , Ellen White clearly both the Review and Herald and The articulated her aversion to the view that Signs of the Times frequently discussed nature’s laws could operate without the undesirable influence of “men of God. She considered that to be false science” and their “laws of nature.”54 science. For example, the Review and Herald discussed “laws of nature” in its arti- In dwelling upon the laws of mat- cles more than twice every year; with a ter and the laws of nature, many definiteincrease after 1859 and another lose sight of, if they do not deny, spike from the 1880s onward. Darwin’s the continual and direct agency of publication of Origin clearly triggered God. They convey the idea that the first increase while the second nature acts independently of God, spike was probably a reaction to the having in and of itself its own lim- increased acceptance of a theistic form its and its own powers wherewith of evolution by bigger denominations to work. In their minds there is a with a more liberal approach. It is clear marked distinction between the that early Sabbatarians were very much natural and the . The aware of, and threatened by, the new natural is ascribed to ordinary naturalist ideas. causes, unconnected with the pow- er of God. Vital power is attributed Ellen G. White’s chapter on ‘Disguised to matter, and nature is made a Infidelity’ in Spiritual Gifts discusses . It is supposed that matter is this matter implicitly. The publication placed in certain relations and left of her panoramic vision of the crea- to act from fixed laws with which tion days can be seen as an assuring, God Himself cannot interfere; that authoritative statement to confirm the nature is endowed with certain literal Mosaic narrative in the light of properties and placed subject to threatening naturalistic, evolutionary laws, and is then left to itself to ideas. Her brief references to men obey these laws and perform the who “are upon a boundless ocean of work originally commanded. This uncertainty” and who “seek to account is false science; there is nothing in for God’s creative works upon natural the word of God to sustain it. God principles”, clearly state her opposi- does not annul His laws, but He is tion to current secular progressive continually working through them,

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using them as His instruments. term ‘natural selection’ was given as They are not self-working. God an example of ‘laws of nature.’58 Ellen is perpetually at work in nature. White would most likely have read this She is His servant, directed as front page article and her mention of He pleases. Nature in her work men who “endeavour to explain from testifies of the intelligent presence natural causes the work of creation,” and active agency of a being who could be understood to indirectly moves in all His works according refer to Darwin’s theory. It should be to His will.56 remembered that Darwin was initially better known for his theories of ‘de- Charles Darwin: scent with modification’and ‘natural (Natural Selection) and a Geologi- selection’ than for ‘evolution’. He did cally Old Earth not make use of the latter term in On On the Origin of Species was published the Origin of Species until its sixth in 1859 just before the official estab- edition in 1872. lishment of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Darwin’s arguments on natu- John Milton: Eyewitness Account ral selection relied heavily on Charles of the Flood Lyell’s old-Earth geological views. John Milton’s paraphrase of the Bible As we have seen, White first wrote on has enjoyed immense popularity for geology in 1864 with her chapter on several centuries since its first publica- ‘Disguised infidelity’ in volume three tion in 1667. Its popularity during the of Spiritual Gifts in which she strongly eighteenth and nineteenth centuries advocated a six thousand year-old can hardly be overestimated. Bernard Earth with a six day creation week. Sharratt stresses the extent to which Hare takes the view that the timing of Milton’s poem became appropriated White’s publication just a few years over time; it was frequently memorised after Darwin’s book on evolution does by public schoolboys and commonly not seem to be a coincidence and that selected as suitable Sunday reading by it was meant to counter his evolution- Christian households.59 Its attraction ary ideas.57 lay largely in the vivid, eyewitness-like narration of the biblical story of the Building on the view of natural law Fall of Man. Matthew Stallard states promoted in books like Vestiges, that “At times, Milton makes Paradise Darwin promoted the mechanism of Lost sound so much like the Bible that ‘natural selection’ as the driving force one is convinced he/she is hearing the behind the diversification of life. The words of the Bible.”60 It is interesting Review and Herald had on January to note that Milton claims in the begin- 29, 1861 reprinted an article from ning of Paradise Lost that he has been American Baptist where Darwin’s divinely inspired by the “Heav’nly

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Muse” or with knowledge of cosmogony which was so resistant of things unknowable to fallen humans. to the conclusions of scientific research He considered himself to be the pas- was, “derived from the seventh book sive instrument “through whom flows of Paradise Lost, rather than from the emanation from on high; his words Genesis”.63 are not entirely his own, but a sugges- tion.”61 Most people in the nineteenth The similarity between text elements century would, indeed, have had dif- in Paradise Lost and White’s writing ficulty in differentiating between their has been discussed by several re- recollections from Moses and those searchers. Patrick, for example, lists from Milton, his principal paraphrast.62 many observed textual similarities.64 The choice of specific terms in Ellen However, while Paradise Lost does White’s writing, such as “cataracts of contain many allusions to the Bible heaven” and “verdure,” have a milton- accounts, it also contains events that do esque ring but were equally used in not line up with it. Detail is added and other secondary sources and therefore characters given extended personalities cannot be used as indicators of material so that the reader might better under- borrowed specifically from Paradise stand them. Milton’s illuminating style Lost. The most obvious similarities of narrative was for many a welcome between Paradise Lost and Spiritual addition to the terse style of certain Gifts in phrases used are: “wicked sections of the Bible. Where the Bible ways”/ “abominations”; “God’s wrath narrative is very condensed, as for to come”; “fountains of the deep bro- example in the sections on the creation ken up”; “spoiled verdure”; “powerful of the Earth in Genesis 1 (narrated in wind drying up the waters”; “rapid about 700 words) and the description current”/“waters moved with great of what happened during the Flood, as force”; “trees adrift”/“hills and moun- contained in just over a dozen verses tains were formed of stones, trees and within Genesis 7 and 8, Milton’s ex- earth”; “boundless lake of water”. It is tended and colourful descriptions be- principally the vivid descriptions giv- came very popular additions or virtual ing a near-eyewitness account of the substitutes. However, they remained events in Milton’s version that align his own constructions based on biblical most strongly with Ellen White’s use of allusions. These miltonesque interpre- “I saw” and “I was shown” statements. tations would influence many people’s understanding of biblical events from There are concepts in Milton’s and the late-seventeenth century onwards. White’s narratives that are clearly Thomas H. Huxley once lamented time-conditioned. For example, the in this context that the predominant, late-seventeenth century speculative deeply ingrained but false, conception concept of massive underground cavi-

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ties where large quantities of water are lels “sometimes cities, villages and stored and from which fountains of burning mountains are swallowed water could break forth, as described up” (White).69 Similarly, Wesley’s by savants such as Thomas Burnet, reference in another of his works to was no longer entertained by the “sulphur, or some other inflammable mid-nineteenth century professional matter taking fire in the cavities of geologists of White’s time.65 the earth” expresses a similar meaning to White’s “large quantities of coal John Wesley: Burning Mountains and oil” which “ignite and burn”. and Cities Swallowed Up Wesley’s “cavities of the earth” and Johns discusses the possibility that the meeting of “water and fire under White borrowed some of her terminol- the surface of the earth” described ogy and concepts from John Wesley.66 by White and are both reminiscent of Johns notes that White’s early train- the common seventeenth century con- ing was in Methodism and that she cepts of separate underground spaces was familiar with, for example, John filledwith water and fire that combine Wesley’s Works as she once quoted ex- in places.70 Athanasius Kircher pro- tensively from volume 3 of this in The vides in his Mundus Subterraneus Great Controversy.67 Some parallels, perhaps the best known pictures and as Johns has noted, suggest White’s descriptions of this concept.71 The familiarity with Wesley’s writing on close resemblance of the phrases in earthquakes, not only in her books but Wesley’s work and White’s metanar- also through her articles in the Advent- rative can hardly be coincidental. ist periodicals.68 Abraham Werner: Volcanoes There are several evident parallel ele- Fuelled by Burning Coal ments and concepts which Wesley’s Johns also discusses the possibility ‘earthquake’ has in common that Ellen White may have borrowed with White’s panoramic description from Werner the common eighteenth of the causes of earthquakes and century concept of volcanic activity burning mountains after the Flood in being the result of the burning of coal Spiritual Gifts III. Wesley’s “hollow beds.72 Werner’s Kurze Klassifikation rumbling sound” correlates with und Beschreibung der Verschiedenen White’s “muffled thunder”; “the Gebirgsarten, 1787, (Short Classifica- ground heaved and swelled like a tion and Description of the Various rolling sea” (Wesley) is almost identi- Rocks), was a truly fundamental geo- cal to “the ground heaves and swells logical publication for its time.73 It was like the waves of the sea” (White); significant because, firstly, it contained and “whole cities, yea, mountains are in an incipient form the concept of a swallowed up” (Wesley) closely paral- geological time scale and, secondly,

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his simple scheme made it possible been regarded as pseudo-volcanoes.76 to readily extend this scale through However, in 1789 he published an the classification of local strata, into a article in Höpfner’s Magazine that dis- single world-wide geological system. cussed the “highly probable conjecture His scheme was easy to adapt and that most, if not all, volcanoes arise through the influence of his dedicated from the combustion of underground pupils became used throughout Europe seams of coal.”77 and North America. Werner suggested that the most vigor- One of his followers, Professor Robert ous volcanoes, or ‘burning mountains’, Jameson, the president of the Werneri- would have started through spontane- an Natural History Society, became the ous combustion on the thickest seams main exponent of Werner’s geological of coal. In the process of supporting system in Great Britain. It was most this belief, Werner not only pinpointed probably through Jameson’s students coal, but every kind of natural flam- that Werner’s system found its way to mable material as fuel for subterranean North America early in the nineteenth fires.78 He discusses the interference century. In 1809, for example, William of water, sulphur and iron ore with Maclure published the first geological burning coal seams and the formation map of the United States based on Wer- of volcanoes in his 1789 article. Ellen ner’s classification and nomenclature.74 White includes several parallels in her brief reference to coal and volcanoes The idea that there was a connection in Spiritual Gifts: between the combustion of carbo- naceous substances and volcanic God causes large quantities of coal eruptions was still a common notion and oil to ignite and burn. Rocks in the eighteenth century. Werner are intensely heated, limestone is had adopted this view from other burned, and iron ore melted. Water geologists but it was through him that and fire under the surface meet. this notion became predominant in The action of water upon the lime- Europe.75 In his scheme of rock clas- stone adds fury to the intense heat, sification he recognised two categories and causes earthquakes, volcanoes of volcanic rocks: true volcanic rocks and fiery issues.79 or true lavas and, in addition, pumice and volcanic ash. He believed that the While it is well known that spontane- rocks of the second category, which he ous combustion of coal seams does called pseudo-volcanic rocks, had been occur and that it may produce long- formed by the burning and melting of lasting underground fires with visible underground combustible material. smoke through cracks in the Earth’s ‘Burning Mountains’ would thus have surface, this is no longer considered to

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be a general cause for volcanoes and strong similarities with Ellen White’s earthquakes. Ellen White’s statement vision, yet it predates it by at least therefore has distinct time-dependent three decades.81 Was it possible that eighteenth century Wernerian connota- Ellen White’s vision was influenced by tions. While this does not necessar- Dick’s writing? Could she have read ily mean that she had read Werner’s it or heard about it? works it appears to demonstrate that she was influenced by some of the Thomas Dick’s works on popular sci- contemporary scientific wisdom of ence and natural theology experienced earlier periods. an immense circulation in the United States during the nineteenth century.82 Certainly by 1864, when Ellen White Hundreds of thousands of Thomas published her panoramic vision nar- Dick’s books sold in America from rative, the Wernerian concept of their first publication in 1826 to well combustion of underground flammable into the 1880s. His works seemed materials as the most common causa- to perfectly complement antebellum tion of volcanoes and earthquakes had America’s sentiments of strong mor- been completely abandoned by profes- alism and religiosity. In addition, his sional geologists in both Europe and books provided a greatly valued source America. The Adventist readers of her of useful knowledge.83 The popularity books and journal articles would not of these Christian works apparently re- have been able to assess this. sulted in their inclusion in nearly every New England clergyman’s library.84 Thomas Dick: A violent Flood, a Most public libraries carried several Foreshadow of the Final Confla- copies of his books and, in addition, gration the books were extensively reviewed in On October 17, 1865, the Review and American periodicals.85 Reviewers in Herald editor who signed his articles those periodicals paid special attention with simply ‘G.,’ informed the readers to Dick’s contention that humanity’s that the writings of a Mr Thomas Dick, fall from grace had brought about who had earned himself the sobriquet punishments in the form of natural of the “Christian Philosopher,” cor- calamities such as earthquakes and roborated Ellen White’s panoramic tornadoes, whether or not they were vision of the Flood in Spiritual Gifts, as in agreement with his claims. published in 1864.80 The editor saw it as a ‘source of gratification’ that divine Methodists were especially attracted to truth was confirmed by the ‘philoso- Dick’s combination of robust Christian pher.’ Thomas Dick’s description of the values with solid education.86 White’s violent deluge as a consequence of the deep Methodist roots may have con- wickedness of man indeed shows many tributed to her becoming familiar with

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the writings of Dick. The editors of deep were broken up, the cataracts the Review and Herald were certainly of heaven were opened, and the whole familiar with him since between 1853 solid crust of our globe received such a and the early 1870s alone they used shock as rent the mountains asunder, brief quotations from his writings and hurled them into the plains”. as fillers of small open spaces more He also noted that during the Flood, than a dozen times.87 His views con- “dreadful explosions resounded”, cerning the importance of the fourth and that “mighty waters hurled their commandment were quoted several billows . . . in every direction, roll- times in the periodical. For example, ing immense rocks. . .”90 In Spiritual “This is a commandment which was Gifts III White at times used similar never abrogated, and which never can language. She writes that during the be abrogated, in relation to any intel- flood, “water seemed to come from ligent beings, so long as the creation heaven like mighty cataracts”, that exists, and so long as the universe “the foundations of the great deep remains as a memorial of his powers also were broken up” and that “rocks and intelligence.”88 This emphasis and earth were hurled in every di- on the importance of Sabbath would rection”. Further, she refers to trees have resonated well with Adventist “hurled, with stones and earth, into the doctrines. The late-nineteenth century swelling, boiling billows”.91 Adventist journal editor George Ama- don called him on one occasion, “That A more detailed account of the con- profound thinker and deep reasoner, sequences of “the wrath of Heaven Dr. Thomas Dick, frequently known against the ungodliness and unright- as ‘the Christian Philosopher,’ . . .”89 eousness of men” can be found in The Christian Philosopher, where Dick Of special interest in the context of outlines several supporting facts.92 this paper are Thomas Dick’s descrip- Firstly he describes the marks of ruin, tions of the violent nature of the Flood convulsion, and disorder visible in the and its suggested connection with the interior strata of the Earth as evidence wickedness of man as clearly stated of a moral revolution – the Flood − in his of and The that occurred since man was placed Christian Philosopher. What simi- on Earth. The twisted and convulsed larities and differences exist between rock strata provide a “visual memo- Thomas Dick and Ellen White’s pano- rial that man has rebelled against the ramic Flood vision and its implications authority of his Maker”. Secondly, for the wickedness of fallen humanity? he is convinced that the existence of volcanoes and their violent actions In his Dick re- “accompanied with thunder, lightning, lated how the, “fountains of the great frequent concussions of the earth, and

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dreadful subterraneous bellowings”, happened during the Flood as a sign of are a testimony to man’s depraved a notable increase of natural disasters intelligence. Thirdly, Dick refers to the just before the coming of Christ and ravages produced by earthquakes. He the end of the world. “Greater won- is convinced that thousands of human ders than have yet been seen will be beings died because “they belonged witnessed by those upon the earth a to a race of apostate intelligences, short period previous to the coming who had violated the commands of of Christ. . . . And there were voices their Creator”. And, finally, he refers and thunders and lightnings, and in similar vein to the effects of thun- there was a great earthquake, such derstorms, tempests and hurricanes.93 as was not since men were upon the earth, so mighty an earthquake and Dick is convinced that the discover- so great”.95 It is interesting to note ies of sciences such as the geology that after her 1864 publication of this of volcanoes and earthquakes give an panoramic vision of the Flood, there illustration of, and support for, the doc- followed a noticeable increase in the trine of the General Conflagration. The reporting of earthquakes in the Review “Sacred Oracle” predicts that a period and Herald. is approaching, when “the elements shall melt with fervent heat, and the Martyn Paine: Mountain Tops earth, and the works that are therein, Removed and Coal’s Scriptural shall be burned up”.94 He makes a Significance strong connection between protol- In 1856, a lengthy article by the Ameri- ogy, concerned with the origin of the can literalist or scriptural geologist Earth and mankind, and eschatology, Martyn Paine, published in The Prot- concerned with the end of the world estant Episcopal Quarterly Review, and mankind. In his description of the contains a number of elements that are Flood he emphasised violent natural equally pertinent to White’s panoramic elements more typical of the biblical flood description.96 Paine and White narrative of the end of the world. concurred on the removal of mountain tops due to the Flood, the burial of the In her vision of the Flood White in- forests by the eroded materials, and cludes similar extra-biblical elements. the causation of volcanoes by chemical The burning of coal and oil formed reactions such as the burning of coal. after uprooted trees were buried dur- In many ways Paine’s pejoratively ing the Flood would cause an increase intended term ‘theoretical’ geology in the occurrence of “earthquakes, equated with White’s depiction of volcanoes, fiery issues”, and under- ‘infidel’ geology. Since no human ground “thunder” towards “the end of observer had witnessed the actual the world”. She similarly views what deposition of geological strata, geol-

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ogy was only theoretical.97 The use When the waters attained a sub- of this term also reflected a distrust of stantial height, there were “rush- non-Baconian science. The Bible, in ing torrents from valley to valley, contrast, offered an infallible account. breaking down, or surmounting Paine thought that such theoretical every intervening obstacle; and geology therefore “opened the door laying prostrate the vast forests for a wide-spread infidelity.”98 with which the surface was eve- rywhere clothed. . . . the waters Martyn Paine (1794-1877) was the urged by violent tempests, and Episcopalian professor of medicine agitated by receiving the immense at the University of the City of New fragments of falling mountains . . . York. He left no doubt about his literal [and] by the force of the tempestu- understanding of the narratives of crea- ous winds, . . . large projecting and tion and the deluge.99 Paine showed his dependent portions of mountains, support for fellow scriptural geologist by their newly produced forests, David Lord’s Geognosy which he would frequently be sinking in the thought was written “in a spirit of surrounding waters.”102 forbearance and courtesy.” He noted Lord’s conclusion that “geology is He further hypothesised the “transmu- not a science, and never can become tation” of the vegetable matter through one.”100 Paine’s aim was to further chemical changes (‘fermentation’) into expose any pretension of harmonising coal.103 During his times, Parkinson’s geology with divine revelation. popular books bridged a gap between the more academically orientated sa- For Paine the coal formations of the vants and those who simply collected Carboniferous were evidence of the . His early century audience was ability of the Flood to dislodge the quite familiar and comfortable with luxuriant antediluvian vegetation and the religious context of his writings.104 deposit the layers of vegetation debris with strata of reworked sediment.101 White’s account of what she had seen This concept of the geological ac- in vision shows great similarities with tion of the Flood was not novel; the Paine’s writings: well-known medical practitioner and amateur geologist James Parkinson, In some places large quantities of for example, had in 1804 published a these immense trees were thrown very similar account of the deposition together and covered with stones of organic matter during the Flood. and earth by the commotions of Parkinson narrates the conditions as the flood. They have since petri- follows: fied and become coal, which accounts for the large coal beds

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which are now found.105 similar elements such as: an emphasis on the literal twenty-four hour days of Paine further alluded to the disap- creation linked to the fourth command- pearance of the hills from above the ment, the violent removal of mountain surface of the ground as another im- tops and forests, and the connection mense proof of the catastrophic deluge. between volcanoes and coal. In addi- White equally described the removal tion she provides the vividness of an of mountain tops and the formation eyewitness’ account. To Paine, the of huge hills and high mountains, coal formations establish the occur- although she attributes this more to rence of the general deluge, and “do strong winds drying up the flood wa- more for the triumph of the Bible than ters.106 Paine further spoke out strongly any other event.”109 Similarly, Ellen against the periods of long indefinite White stated that men, beasts, and trees periods that geologists require for buried in the earth at the time of the the creation of the Earth and instead flood were preserved as evidence of he took time to explain that the six its occurrence and its discovery would creation days were of natural dura- establish faith in biblical history.110 tion as unambiguously confirmed by the fourth commandment.107 White Paine recognised a greater force due similarly stated: to the recession of the waters of the deluge than for the rise of the waters.111 The weekly cycle of seven literal White similarly saw a greater geologi- days, six for labor, and the seventh cal activity during the final stages of for rest, which has been preserved the deluge when a tempest aids the and brought down through Bible recession of the waters. White nar- history, originated in the great rated the uprooting of antediluvian facts of the first seven days. . . . “immense forests” which were torn But the infidel supposition, that the up at the time of the flood and buried events of the first week required in the earth.112 Floating mats or rafts seven vast, indefinite periods for of vegetation were not a novel idea their accomplishment, strikes but had been put forward for example directly at the foundation of the by Williams in 1789, Parkinson in Sabbath of the fourth command- 1804, and Penn in 1825 prior to Paine ment.108 in 1856.113

As noted earlier, the publication of White and Paine differed on other in- the Protestant Episcopal Quarterly terpretations. While Paine saw the coal Review with Paine’s article predated formations specifically as evidence of White’s Scriptural Gifts by about the Flood, White suggested that all eight years. White’s narrative contains rock strata were laid down during the

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Flood. By the time they were written her later books she largely eliminated the catastrophic geological deluge ac- phrases such as, “I saw” and “I was counts of both Paine and White were shown”, which might have invited mis- totally out of step with the contempo- understanding or distrust on the part rary interpretations of field evidence of a non-Adventist readership. There by professional geologists. Such anti- were also some sceptical Adventists quated apologetic geological accounts who were known to be uncomfortable were, in the eyes of most nineteenth with her prophetic status. There is also century professional geologists, simply a decreased use of the terms ‘infidel’ vestigial remains of seventeenth and and ‘infidelity’. This fits with a general eighteenth century Mosaic natural trend that Marty observed towards the history explanations. early twentieth century in religious lit- erature in America, when Christianity SUBSEQUENT and its antagonists allowed each other DEVELOPMENT increasing space for a more profitable, While her earlier works, such as honest and intelligent interaction.116 Spiritual Gifts were written for the guidance of the “little flock” of fellow A number of things do not change over Adventists, publications after 1888 this period. A comparison of her treat- were written with the wider Christian ments of geological facts and processes audience in mind.114 Accordingly, there in Spiritual Gifts and Patriarchs and are notable differences in both content Prophets, shows virtually no develop- and style between Spiritual Gifts ment in her understanding of geologi- (1864), The Spirit of Prophecy (1870), cal concepts. Twenty-five years after and Patriarchs and Prophets (1890). firstputting pen to paper on this topic, White appears to have retained her Content views on the origin of earthquakes and Between Spiritual Gifts and Patriarchs volcanoes. New scientific insights are and Prophets there are noticeable not incorporated into later versions. differences in content, particularly in She does, however, speak out more those sections concerning the creation strongly against the naturalist meth- week and the Flood. For example, al- odology of the men of science which, though not strictly geological referenc- according to her, is “false science”. es, the controversial ‘amalgamation’ She remains convinced that human statements115 which seemed to imply science cannot search out the secrets interbreeding between animals and of the Most High which He has never humans were simply removed from revealed to men. She seems to imply all later reworkings. To the knowledge that only [prophetic] inspiration – as of the authors no reasons for these she experienced - can add knowledge deletions were ever given. Further, in to the history of the Flood, not geolo-

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gists. To her, plain scriptural facts are conveying the sense that she is report- more reliable than the suppositions of ing what she saw. In the 1870 version geologists. there is more use of a vivid present tense where narrative detail is added It is interesting to note that, even in and the emotional state of the great 1890, some 18 years after Darwin’s controversy characters is brought out first use of the term, Ellen White does more strongly. There is also greater not explicitly mention the term ‘evolu- use of adjectives, adverbs, and ad- tion’, or even the terms ‘descent with ditional clauses. By 1890 the style is modification’ or ‘natural selection’ in transformed again. Narrative detail has Patriarchs and Prophets. This pro- largely given way to moral exhorta- vides evidence that to some extent her tion. The style has become less vivid, main emphases may have remained containing more future tenses with fixated on the understandably more dependent clauses of time and purpose. geological concerns of the 1850s and An increase in abstract nouns, more 60s. Darwin first published in 1859 use of the passive voice, and imper- and it was probably some time until sonal constructions have also been discussions over ‘descent with modifi- noted.118 The vividness of the earlier cation’ and ‘natural selection’ surfaced versions that linked it so much to John in Ellen White’s circles. She does, of Milton’s compelling style in Paradise course, lament the fact that professed Lost is diminished. This change in Christians accept the work of creation style is explained by Bull and Lockhart as the result of natural causes and this as due to the improved literacy skills may be understood to refer to the in- of the author and also possibly to the creasing popularity of evolution at the greater influence of White’s editorial time. Certainly, her denial of the vast, assistants who helped in the prepara- indefinite periods of time put forward tion of her written material.119 by geologists in place of six literal days would eliminate the possibility of crea- CONCLUSION tion by these natural causes. White’s view of scientific methodol- ogy reflects the deep chasm that had Style developed between the knowledge- As has been widely noted, there is accumulating research activities based a clear change in writing style from on the testing of working hypotheses, Spiritual Gifts through The Spirit of the method increasingly used by prac- Prophecy to Patriarchs and Proph- tising professional geologists, and the ets.117 The former was characterised strict factual Baconianism which con- by a simple narrative style, with vivid tinued to be favoured by conservative and compelling short sentences and Christian groups. White considered predominant use of the past tense, geology as conventionally practiced,

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to be false science because it did not time? What are the disadvantag- accommodate the biblical Mosaic nar- es? What are the possible impli- rative; it did not consider supernatural cations if the language is actually events and because its use of assump- behind the times, although still tions was not perceived as being truly recognisable? factual. The Bible, in comparison, 2. The language of later editions of was based on facts and provided truth. Ellen White’s statements on Ori- Where she saw disagreement between gins issues were typically softened the results of the naturalist methodol- compared to her statements of ogy and her interpretation of Scripture, 1864. How are such changes of she considered that to be the result of style best understood? false science, of which the people had 3. How do you think Ellen White to be warned. would react today to the now well established, and very successful, White’s use of what was by then science of geology? anachronistic geological views sug- 4. Thomas Dick regarded the twisted gests that, even if aware of them, she and convulsed rock strata as a did not intend to reflect the state of “visual memorial that man has contemporary mid-nineteenth century rebelled against the authority of thinking. Instead, it seems, she used his Maker”. Is such a view defen- older ideas with which she was familiar sible today, given our better un- and that could easily be understood derstanding of tectonic processes by the general public. There were no deep inside the Earth and within novel insights in her geological phras- its crust? Does the fact that these ings. Although she expressed criticism same attributes of disorder and of the “infidel geologists’ claim that violence can also be seen in space, the world is much older than the Bible presumeably beyond the effects of record makes it,” it may be that her a human “fall”, affect the answer geological statements were not meant to this question? to reveal new understanding of future scientific, geological thinking but, REFERENCES 1 in the context of her time, simply to White, E. G. (2004). To be Like emphasise the importance and urgency . Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 154. of end time events for the Adventist 2 believers. Rudwick, M. J. (2009). “Biblical Flood and Geological Deluge: The Amicable Disassociation of Geol- QUESTIONS ogy and Genesis”, in Kolbl-Ebert, 1. What are the advantages of a pro- M. (ed.). (2009). Geology and phetic message which is couched Religion: A History of Harmony and essentially in the language of the Hostility. : The Geological Society,103−110.

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3 Johnson, S. (1828). A Dictionary of (September), 661. the English Language, Newly revised 17 Ibid., 662. and corrected, vol. 1 (of 2). Heidel- 18 berg: Joseph Engelmann, 584. Ibid., 677. 19 4 Wood, J. (1867). God’s Law on Bannister, H. M. (1854), Science Marriage: An Essay. The Primitive and Revelation. Methodist Quarterly Methodist Magazine vol. V, New Review, 36, 223. Series (February): 72. 20 Crocombe, J. (2011). “A Feast 5 Van Wyhe, J. (2004). Phrenology of Reason”: The Roots of William and the Origins of Victorian Scien- Miller’s Biblical Interpretation and tific . Aldershot: Ashgate, its Influence on the Seventh-day 155, 164. Adventist Church. Thesis: Univer- sity of Queensland, 173. Millerism 6 Marty, M.E. (2013). “The Infidel was an early 19th Century religious and the Indifferent.” The Marty Mar- movement which believed that the tin Center for the Advanced Study Second Advent of Christ would oc- of Religion, University of Chicago. cur around 1843, 44. The movement http://divinity.uchicago.edu/sight- was led by Baptist lay preacher, Wil- ings/infidel-and-indifferent-martin-e- liam Miller (1782-1849). Seventh- marty. (14/3/2014). day Adventism was an offshoot of 7 Ibid. Millerism and substantially followed

8 Miller’s Bible study methodology, Marty, M.E. (1961). The Infidel: interest in prophecy and focus on the and American Religion. urgency of the Second Coming. Cleveland, OH: The World Publish- ing Company, 11. 21 Ibid., 175. 9 Ibid., 105. 22 White, E. G. (1884). Notes of

10 Travel. Review and Herald, 61(47), Ibid., 15. (November 25), 738. 11 Ibid., 160. 23 Crocombe, J. (2011). op cit., 188. 12 Ibid., 13. 24 Ibid., 188, 193. 13 Land, G. (1986). Adventism in 25 Bates, J. (1846). The Seventh America. Grand Rapids, MI: William Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, from the Beginning to the Enter- 34. ing into the Gates of the Holy City, 14 Schneider, A. G. (1996). The According to the Commandments. Methodist Connection to Adventism. New-Bedford: Press of Benjamin Spectrum, 25(5), 26. Lindsay, 2; Knight, G. R. (2004). 15 Whidden, W. (1996). Ellen White Joseph Bates: The Real Founder of and John Wesley. Spectrum, 25(5), Seventh-day Adventism. Hagerstown, 48. MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 72. 16 Farrelly, M. J. (2008). God is the 26 Author of Both: Science, Religion Knight, G. R. (2000). A Search and Intellectualization of American for Identity: The Development of the Methodism. Church History, 77(3) Seventh-day Adventist Beliefs. Hag-

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erstown, MD: Review and Herald (Summer), 12.

Publishing Association, 71. 35 Ellen White presented the history 27 Bates, J. (1849). A Seal of the of this world as a part of a much Living God. A Hundred Forty-four larger drama, that of a cosmic battle Thousand of the Servants of God between Satan and the forces of evil Being Sealed. New-Bedford: Press and the God of heaven. She called of Benjamin Lindsay, 62,63. Bates this “the great controversy”, which referred specifically to Isaiah 24:5 descriptor became the title of one of & 6. her best known books. 28 White, E. G. (1864). Spiritual 36 See Patrick, A. N. (2014). “Au- Gifts, vol III. Battle creek, MI: thor”, in Aamodt, T. D., Land, G. Seventh-day Adventist Publishing and Numbers, R. L. (eds). (2014). Association, 91. Ellen Harmon White: American

29 Prophet. Oxford: Oxford University See the narrative of her vision at Press, 91; Veltman, F. (1990). The Bro. Howland’s home, early April Desire of Ages Project: the Data. 1847: White, E. G. (1847). “Dear Ministry 63(10), (October), 4. Brother Bates” in A Word to the Little Flock. New Brunswick: (May, 37 Veltman, F. (1990). The Desire 1847), 18-20; Also see the narrative of Ages Project: the Data. Ministry of her vision at Bro. Belden’s home 63(10), (October), 5.

on January 5, 1849: White, E. G. 38 Patrick, A. N. (2014). op cit., 96. (1882). “The Sealing,” in Early Writ- 39 ings, 2002 edition of 1882 version, Veltman, F. (1990). The Desire Coldwater, MI: Remnant Publica- of Ages Project: The Conclusions. tions, 2002), 34-5. Ministry 63(10), (October), 15. 40 30 White, E, G. (1851). A Sketch of White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 92. the Christian Experience and Views 41 Semonin, P. (2000). American of Ellen G. White. Saratoga Springs, Monster: How the Nation’s First NY: James White Press, 19. Prehistoric Creature became a Sym- 31 Knight, G. R. (1996). Meeting El- bol of National Identity. New York: len White: A Fresh Look at her Life, New York University Press, 2-3, 11, Writings and Major Themes. Hag- 16-7. erstown, MD: Review and Herald 42 During the early nineteenth Publishing Association, 14. century phrenology was a popular 32 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 87. pseudoscience that was based on measurements of the human skull 33 Johnson, D. R. (1996). Adventism from which apparently a large range on the Northwestern Frontier. Ber- of personal propensities could be de- rien Springs, MI: Oronoko Books, duced. George Combe (1788-1858) 99. was a well-known practitioner who 34 Greenleaf, F. (2006). Has the brought phrenology to the attention Leopard Changed its Spots?: A Com- of the British middle classes. He mentary on Purpose, Principle, and would eventually diverge towards Change in Adventist Education. Part discussing the relationship between I. Journal of Adventist Education, science and religion and would be

56 https://research.avondale.edu.au/css/vol10/iss1/3 24 Bootsman et al.: Infidel Geologists! The Cultural Context of Ellen White's Stateme

labeled an atheist and materialist. 56 White, E. G. (1904). Testimonies Phrenologists emphasised the work for the Church, vol. 8. Mountain of natural laws above God’s creation View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing by fiat or His continuing control over Association, 259-60.

nature. 57 Hare, E. (1986). “SDA Attitudes 43 Van Wyhe, J. (2004). Phrenology toward the Geological Sciences, and the Origins of Victorian Scien- Then and Now”. (unpublished docu- tific Naturalism. Aldershot: Ashgate, ment, (April), 6.

140. 58 Anonymous (1861). Are 44 Ibid., 127-8. Precluded by the Laws of Nature?

45 Review and Herald 17(11), (January Secord, J.A. (2000). Victo- rian Sensation: The Extraordinary 29, 1861): 81; Reprinted from Bap- American Publication, Reception, and Secret tist Magazine ( Baptist Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural ). History of Creation. Chicago: The 59 Sharratt, B. (1982). “The Appro- University of Chicago Press, 1. priation of Milton,” in Essays and

46 Studies, vol. 35, Bushrui, S. (ed). Ibid., 5. London: John Murray, 36. 47 Chambers, R. (1844). Vestiges 60 Stallard, M. (2011). Paradise Lost: of the Natural History of Creation. The Biblically Annotated Edition. London: John Churchill, 223. Macon, GA: Mercer University 48 Secord, J. A. (2000). op cit., 85. Press, xxiii. 49 Ibid., 265. 61 Ibid., 188. 50 Ibid., 274. 62 Pattison, M. (1923). Milton. Lon- 51 Ibid., 277. don: MacMillan & Co, 189. 63 52 Ibid., 323. Ibid., 184. 64 53 Willey, T. J. (2014). “Vestiges Patrick, A. N. (2013). “Post 98. of the Natural History of Crea- Ellen White’s inspiration, in view tion.” Blog of 30 August 2012 on of her use of the writings of John Spectrum Magazine website. http:// Milton.” Blog posted February spectrummagazine.org/node/4715. 26, 2013; http://adventiststudies. (10/1/2014). com/2013/02/26/post-98-elen-

54 whites-inspiration-in-view-of-her- Between 1850 and 1900 the use-of-the-writings-of-john-milton. Review and Herald “laws of nature” (30/3/2014). appeared in 138 issues; between 65 1850-59 in 9 issues; between 1860- Burnet, T. (1719). The Sacred 69 in 26 issues; between 1870-79 Theory of the Earth: Containing an in 24 issues; between 1880-89 in 43 Account of the Original of the Earth, issues and between 1890-99 in 37 And of all the General Changes issues. Between 1874 and 1900 The which it has undergone, Or is to un- Signs of the Times used the term 51 dergo, till the Consummation of All times. This continued after 1900. Things, vol. II. London: John Hooke, (This was originally published in 55 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 93.

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Latin in 1684.). Hopkins Press, 62. 66 Johns, W. H. (1977). Ellen G. 76 Werner considered both categories White and Subterranean Fires. Part of rock to be of a sedimentary na- 1, Ministry, 50(8), (August), 9,10. ture. See Mayer, W. (2009). Geologi-

67 cal Observations by the Reverend Ibid., 9; Also see White, E. G. Charles P. N. Wilton (1795-1859) in (1888). The Great Controversy. New South Wales and his Views on Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press the Relationship between Reli- Publishing Association, 258-60, 385, gion and Science, in Geology and 386. Religion: A History of Harmony and 68 White, E. G. (1878). Noah’s Time Hostility - Special Publications 310, and Ours. The Signs of the Times, Kölbl-Ebert, M. (ed). London: The 4(1), (January 3), 1; Also White, E. Geological Society, 200. G. (1879). The Flood. The Signs of 77 Ibid., 124; Also Werner, A. G. the Times, 5(11), (March 13), 82. (1789). Versuch einer Erklärung der 69 Wesley, J. (1826). “The Cause and Entstehung der Vulkanen durch die Cure of Earthquakes”, Sermon 129, Entzündung mächtiger Steinkohlen- first published in 1750, in Wesley, J. schichten, als ein Beytrag zu der (1826). The Works of the Rev. John Naturgeschichte des Basalts. Maga- Wesley vol 7, 1st Amer. ed. New zin für die Naturkunde Helvetiens York: J & J Harper; White, E. G. (by Albrecht Höpfner), 4 (1787- (1864). op cit., 69−89. 1789), 240−54. 70 Wesley, J. (1810). A Survey of the 78 Geikie, A. (1901). op cit., 124. Wisdom of God in the Creation: A 79 op cit. Compendium of Natural Philoso- White, E. G. (1864). , 79. phy, 2 vols. Lancaster, PA: Wiliam 80 Anonymous editorial [G.], (1865). Hamilton; White, E. G. (1864). op The Mighty Convulsions at the cit., 69−89. Flood. Review and Herald, 26(20)

71 (October 17), 156-7. It appears Kircher, A. (1664). Mundus Sub- that during the absence for health terraneous. Amsterdam: Janssonium reasons of Uriah Smith, the resident & Elizeum Weyerstraten. editor, this being concurrent with 72 Johns, W. H. (1977). Ellen G. James White’s treatment for a severe White and Subterranean Fires. Part stroke, George Amadon took care of 2. Ministry, 50(10), (October), 19. Smith’s editorial duties from August 73 Werner, A. G. (1787). Kurze Klas- to December 1865 and signed sifikation und Beschreibung der Ver- articles that he placed for him in the schiedenen Gebirgsarten. Dresden: Review and Herald with ‘G.’. Walther. 81 Dick, T. (1833). The Philosophy 74 Ospovat, A. M. (1960). Werner’s of Religion: Or an Illustration of the Influence on American Geology. Moral Laws of the Universe. Phila- Proceedings of the Oklahoma Acad- delphia: Key & Biddle, 57. emy of Science, 40, 99. 82 Bozeman, T. D. (1977). Protes- 75 Geikie, A. (1901). The Founders tants in an Age of Science. Chapel of Geology. Baltimore: The John Hill: The University of North Caro-

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lina Press, 59. Church Register III, no. II. (April), 83 Astore, W. J. (2001). Observing 161-281. God: Thomas Dick, , 97 Stiling, R. L. (1999). “Scriptural and Popular Science in Victorian Geology in America”, in Living- Britain and America. Aldershot: stone, D. N., Hart, D. G. and Noll, Ashgate Publishing, 171-4. M. A. eds, (1999). Evangelicals and

84 Science in Historical Perspective. Ibid., 186. Oxford: , 85 Ibid., 182. 184. 86 Ibid., 176. 98 Paine, M. (1856). op cit., 171. 87 Based on a quick word search in 99 Rupke, N. A. (2012). “Five Dis- the Review and Herald Archive. courses of Bible and Science 1750- Sometimes the quoted sections 2000,” in Buchwald, J. Z. (ed.). would be more extensive, as in (2012). A Master of Science History: Anonymous editorial: [Smith, U.] Essays in Honor of Charles Coulston (1868). Antediluvian Remains. Gillispie. Dordrecht: Springer, 184. Review and Herald, 31(8), (February 100 Paine, M. (1856). op cit., 163. 4), 117. 101 88 Ibid., 163. Cornell, M. E. (1864). Sabbath Discussion. Review and Herald, 102 Parkinson , J. (1804). Organic 23(15), (March 8), 114; Lamont, Remains of a Former World. An J. (1873). They Say, and Do Not. examination of the Mineralized Re- Review and Herald, 42(12), (Sep- mains of the Vegetables and Animals tember 2), 91. of the Antediluvian World; Generally termed Extraneous Fossils, Volume 89 Amadon, G. W. (1876). The Soci- 1. London: J. Robson, 257-60. Par- ety of Heaven. Review and Herald, kinson’s name would eventually be 48(20), (November 16), 154. attached to the degenerative medical 90 Dick, T. (1833). op cit., 57. condition that he had described as 91 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., ‘Shaking Palsy.’ 69−72. 103 Ibid., 253. For his description of 92 Dick, T. (1828). The Christian the fermentation process see pages Philosopher; Or, the Connection 183-4. of Science and Philosophy with 104 Lewis, C. L. E. (2009). “‘Our Religion. Brookfield, MA: E & G Favourite Science’: Lord Bute and Merriam, 313-22. James Parkinson searching for a 93 Ibid., 313-22. Theory of the Earth,” in Kölbl- Geology and 94 Ebert, M. (ed) (2009). Ibid., 325. Religion: A History of Harmony and 95 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., Hostility, (2009). Special Publica- 69−82. tions 310. London: The Geological Society, 123. 96 Paine, M. (1856). A Review of Theoretical Geology. The Protestant 105 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 79. Episcopal Quarterly Review and 106 Ibid., 77, 78.

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107 Paine, M. (1856). op cit., 188. Press, 24, 25. 108 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 118 Bull, M. and Lockhart, K. (2007). 90,91. Seeking a Sanctuary: Seventh-day

109 Adventism and the American Dream, Paine, M. (1856). op cit., 280. 2nd ed. Bloomington, IN: Indiana 110 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 95. University Press, 24, 25. 111 Paine, M. (1856). op cit, 229. 119 Ibid., 24, 25. 112 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 79. 113 Lynch, J. M. (2002). “‘Follies of the Present Day’: Scriptural Geology from 1817 to 1857.” http://jmlynch. wordpress.com/2010/06/03/follies- of-the-present-day-scriptural-geolo- gy-from-1817-1857/ (21/11/2014). (This is a lightly edited version of the Introduction to Lynch, J. M. (2002). Creationism and Scriptural Geology, 1817-1857. Bristol, UK: Thoemmes Press.) Also Penn, G. (1825). A Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geolo- gies. Volume II, 2nd edition. London: James Duncan, 93, 94. 114 Patrick, A. N. (2012). Private cor- respondence. 115 White, E. G. (1864). op cit., 64, 75. These “amalgamation” state- ments were some of White’s earliest comments on speciation. She appears to claim that humans and animals interbred, both before and after the Flood. Much discussion and controversy surrounded them from the time of writing. 116 Marty, M. (2013). op cit., 16. 117 Thompson, A. (1981). From Sinai to Golgotha, part V: the Theology of Ellen G. White: the Great Con- troversy Story. Adventist Review, (December 31), 158. Also Bull, M. and Lockhart, K. (2007). Seeking a Sanctuary: Seventh-day Adventism and the American Dream, 2nd ed. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University

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