in 1689

y the 1680s, Limerick had become one of the strongest fortresses in , and was the chief centre of the civil and military government of the south-west of the country, and second in importance only to . Other major walled cities and towns were , , Derry, Coleraine, Carrick c erg us, Dungannon, , Drogheda, Dublin, Waterford, Kinsale and Cork. By the standards of the time, it was a considerable achieve- ment - a medieval city that had not out- grown the areas enclosed by its centuries old walls which encompassed the English and Irish towns. While these were two distinct towns, they also were complimentary to one another, and between them had a combined circum- ference of 3 miles protecting an area of 70 acres. Although both towns were differ- ent in shape and character, they were roughly the same size at 35 acres each, King John's Castle, St. May'S Cathedral and Old Bridge, and joining them was only one bridge of four arches, known as Ye Bridge, the Tide Bridge, Baal's Bridge, or the Bald Bridge for the running ofboth towns. (Droichead Maol), i.e. a span without There were many stone memorials parapet walls. It had been built over the inserted in the walls, usually on or near narrowest point of the Abbey River in one of the gates and in some cases the 1340 when it replaced an existing struc- or Great Street, bisected the town and inscription referred to major repair works ture. There was a drawbridge on the stretched from the Island Gate (3) to that had been carried out. In all, there English Town side at Baal's Bridge North Baal's Bridge North Gate. (8). From the were about fourteen inscriptions and Gate.(8) Great Street ran many laneways: most were in Latin. For instance, built As the Irish Town was constructed Bishop's, Bonfield's, Bow, Broad, 'Change into the gateway (6) at the bottom of after the English Town, it was much bet- (Exchange), Creagh, Courthouse, Gaol Lane, facing St. Francis Abbey (G) ter fortified; its walls were up to 10ft Emlline's or Hemlin's, Fish, Flag, Gaol, was a niche with a statue of St. James and thick and 40 ft high in places, and had Gridiron, Halyard's, Jenkin's, Meeting- a tablet which read as follows: strong towers or bulwarks, some mount- house, Merritt's, Mill, Monks, Newgate, Sancte Iacobe ing cannon, and five gateways. (15)- (19) Prison, Quay, Red Lion, Stag, Tholsel Defende nos ab hoste The principal streets were An Boher Mor (Town Hall) and Whitehorse lanes. The Hic bellona tonat, sedet hic astraea (Broad Street) which ran south from street names were Castle or Thomond renascens, Baal's Bridge South Gate. (15) Branching Street, which led to Thomond Bridge, Hac pietas ad aquas, ac sacra pandit iter. from Broad Street was Mungret Street and across to the Clare side of the Anno domini MDCXLVII which ran south west as far as 'Mongrett' Shannon, St. Dominick Street, or Abbey R.R. Caroli Dominic Fanning Praetore Gate, (18) and John Street which ran Lane, and, of course, the High or Great David Creagh et Iacobo Sexton vicec. b , south-east as far as St. John's Gate, (17) Street. The principal buildings were King A direct translation of this inscription (also known as Kilmallock Gate). John's Castle (B),the Tholsel (I), the City reads: Mungret, Broad and Palmerstown lanes Courthouse (S) in Quay Lane (S), St. St. lames -. ran offthese streets. The major buildings Mary's Cathedral (A), the County Defend us from the enemy were Shambles Castle (J),Thomcore Courthous&(G), just outside the walls in Here war tlzunders; here renewed justice Castle (O),St. John's (Protestant) Church St. Francis Abbey (G),from which the sits; (L), the Pest House (hospital) (X), and, Abbey River takes its name, the Along tlzis way duty reveals the road to just outside the walls, St. Michael's Exchange (F), St. Peter's Cell Church (E), tlze waters and holy slzrines Church (M) was situated on a small Ald. Dominic Fanning's House (U), St. AD l647 island linked to the Abbey River. At that Dominick's Abbey (D),and St. Nicholas' In the reign of Charles; Dominic time, the Abbey River was known by its' Church (K). The English Town contained Fanning Mayor. Irish name, Gkabal Bkeag, meaning the lit- the parish of St. Mary (which included David Creagh and lames Sexton Sheriffs. tle branch (of the Shannon). The Irish Scattery Island, near , Co. Clare), Town contained the greater part of the and parts of the parishes of St. Nicholas At Mungret Gate (18) was another parish of St. John's and a part of that of and St. Munchin. The Great Street was inscription: St. Michael's. A considerable part of the lined with the many fine and substantial In the reign of town was made up of gardens and residences of the wealthier citizens, while King Clzarles orchards. the poorer inhabitants lived mainly in the Peter Creaglz - Mayor The English Town on King's Island Irish Town. The commercial activity of AD 1643 had many towers, mounting cannon at the English Town provided employ&^ -- - strategic points, and fourteen gateways outlets, many of which were filled by Another example was the dedication, in (l)- (14) and its' walls were 4 ft. thick in workers from the Irish Town. The gold letters on black marble, on the side most parts and 3 ftkothers. High Street, Assembly (Corporation) was responsible of the Bridge Gate (2) facing the city: The Freeman's Duties without Tnx or Rate Repair'd this Place the Thomond Bridge and Gate AD l674 Williram York, Esqr. Mayor.

Some of the surrounding townlands out- side the city were Kileely (), Shanbollye (Shanabooly), Cluoine- dreinagh (Clondrinagh), Cownagh (Coonagh), Cahir Davin, Farrintoine (Farranshone), Mone Mrahyr (Mona- braher), Prior's Land, Garryglosse (Garryglass), Rathbane, Corckanrye (Corkanree), Corballie (Corbally) and Gallwone (Galvone). These lands were made up of pasture, arable, meadow, red bog, marshland, dry arable and shrubby St. John's Gate and Citadel, drawn by Richard Ahern. wood. Some of the surrounding parishes were St. Patrick's, St. Laurence's, Kilmurry, Carnary (Cahirnarry) and the ground than it does today). English parliament usually permitted parish of Mongrett (Mungret). Outside Beside the west side of the cathedral exports to continue to countries it was at the walls of the Irish Town was Gallows was the Quay or Great Quay, constructed war with. Imports consisted of coffee, Green (V) where miscreants were hanged almost 200 years earlier (circa 15001, deal boards from Norway, hops ('best for major and not-so-major crime. On much of it built with money from the for- quality') from England, iron,-lemons, nearby Singland Hill was Ireton's Fort, feited cargo of contraband goods from a madder, oranges, sugar from the West and about a half-mile south of St. John's Bristol ship. (Limerick appears to have Indies, pottery from North Devon, Gate, (17) on the road to Kilmallock and had certain agreements with Bristol, cov- Staffordshire and Buckley, salt, sheep ('to Kilkenny, stood Cromwell's Fort. (These ering such trading transactions, and in improve local stock'), tobacco (by structures were renamed Mackay's Fort 1680 freemen of the city of Bristol did not Richard Pierce) from Antigua in the West and Count Nassau's Fort, respectively, by have to pay any inward or outward tolls Indies and wine. The bulk of these General de Ginkle, after two of his com- here.) The l00ft wide entrance was imports came from England, Scotland, manders, in 1691). On an area prone to guarded by two towers, and six pieces of Spain, France and Holland. On the flooding on the northern part of King's artillery, on the taller southern tower, whole, the volume and value of imports Island was another fortress, about a half- helped to make the quay a well protected exceeded that of exports, and smuggling mile north of Island Gate, (3), known also and safe harbour. Between the towers a was a common practice. as Cromwell's Fort - a star-shaped strong chain was extended for increased Close to Baal's Bridge and opposite stronghold and roughly squared at 100 defence. Dominick Fanning's house (U) stood the yards a side. There was yet another fort From the tall tower the wall reached Tholsel (I), which was built between on the Clare side of Thomond Bridge, to a height of about 30ft at low-water, 1449 and 1451. It had two large inscrip- called, appropriately, Thomond Fort (W), and ran for about 600ft eastwards to tions in Latin on the outside wall, one of while further out on the road to Ennis, at Quay Lane Gate (10). This section was which read: Killeely Cross, was the Mayor's Stone built on two levels, and the upper level Behold this building in two parts which read: was used as a walk by the people of the supported by columns. This paving was wh city. The wall had undergone major Kindly celestial justice occupies. oly ended at the repairs, nearly 50 years before, in With public money charges of the Corpo 1640/41, during Mayor William Comyn's Jordan Roche, Mayor of the City ration, lames Whit term of office. Inside the dock was an AD 1640 E Fitziames Exqvir irregular piece of water made up of Being maior anni di quays and jetties. The Great Quay was In the upper part of this two-storey MDCXXXVI11. capable of discharging vessels of 200 tons building was the town court, and justices or more, but the much larger merchant of the peace residing there were John Close by, a plentiful supply of timber ships could only sail to within a half-mile Bourke, Tiege McMahon, John Fitzgerald, was to be had from the Thomond Woods, of the city and, on occasions, no further John Ankettle and Edward Lacy. The and stone known as 'black marble' was than Castle. The large open area lower part was an Exchange, spanned by produced in Altamira Quarry. Near on the landwardside of the Great Quay a series of arches, where commercial was Quinpool Bridge, and six allowed ample space for the discharge transactions took place. This was one of miles further north, . On and loading of the city's imports and the essential buildings in the English the west side of St. Thomas' Island stood exports. Exports included ale, bacon, bar- Town, but in 1673 the Assembly the ancient Lax Weir, and to protect it ley, beans, beef, butter, cattle on the hoof, (Corporation) and the hub of the com- was the little castle known as Cazsleaiz an cdrn - for which Limerick was noted - mercial activity moved from this old Corra (Castle of the Weir) where mem- feathers, articles of frieze (wool), hides of building to the newly-built Exchange (F) bers of Limerick Corporation had the cattle, deer, goats and otters, horses, malt, on the Great Street. This was constructed privilege of being able to ' . . . have a oats peas, pipestaves, rapeseed, at the expense of Mayor William York salmon or more to eat in the weir-house and other types of fish, silver and lead and, some years later, in 1685, Mayor castle at any time for nothing,' while from the lands of John MacDermot Robert Smith donated 'the Nail', a lime- freemen could have as many as they O'Kennedy in the Barony of Upper stone pillar with a brass top on which could eat in the castle (at Lax Weir) for 9d Ormond and from the mines at Dunally tradesmen publicly paid their bills. In the - - each. Eastwards, on the Clare shore, was (both in Co. Tipperary), tallow, tanned same year he (Smith) repaired the Island Kilquane graveyard. hides, timber, wool and woolfells. These Gate (3) fortification and over the portal Inside the walls, the most outstanding exports were classed as going 'td -laced an engraving to commemorate the * - building was, of course, St. Mary's England' or 'to Foreign Parts' such as event. ~r - Cathedral (A), with itskidjoining college France, Spain, Holland, Portugal, Italy King John's Castle (B), an irregular and dean's house (which occupied more and other Mediterranean ports. The five-sided fortress with strongholds at the angles, dominated the city. The castle's early history is one of neglect: in 1330 it was badly in need of repair, and again in 1576 'the ruins of the King's Castle' were repaired. In 1611, the south- east tower, close to St. Nicholas' Church (K), was replaced by a solid four-sided bastion which overlooked the city and had 5 or 6 cannon 'on it. The north-west keep, that nearest to Thomond Bridge, is said to be the oldest part of the castle. In 1680, the constable was Lord Viscount Blessington, Sir William King served as governor, and some of the military sta- tioned there were Major McGuire, Thomas Cullen, George Creighton, Gilbert Talbot, Swift Nicks, Francis Jones and John Motlow. From the castle to the Clare side of the river ran a ledge of rock known as Curragour Falls, and at this point it was safe to walk across at low tide. Close by was the ancient Thomond Bridge (built c.1359 at the cost of £30.) of 14 arches on which was Bridge Gate (2), an egress and drawbridge. This gate was on the Clare side of the bridge between the 12th and 13th arch. The span was 150 Abbey River. As a result of this problem, tlements on top, which gave the place an yds in length and only 8 feet - 10 inches the foundations of the priory (H) were appearance of strength and dignity. in width, with a floor of planks. undermined and this led to the collapse These buildings were impressive, and Just inside Island Gate (3) was St. of part of the building in the 15th century. Limerick had been described as the 'City Munchin's church (C) which had been Across Baal's Bridge in the Irish Town of Castles'. The dwellings were narrow, founded in the 5th century by St. were some of the more prominent build- an average of 18ft in width and very long Munchin (or Manchenus), the first bish- ings were Droumcore (or Thomcore) - up to 208 ft. A smaller number of habi- op of Limerick, and was originally a Castle (O), built by Thomas Corre in tations were of cagework framed in tim- wooden structure. It was rebuilt by the 1401. The Citadel (R) was built into the ber and covered with thatch, slates, tiles Norsemen in the middle of the 10th cen- ramparts between 1590 and 1650 (the or other material. These were beginning tury and was the cathedral church until building we see in the grounds of St. to decline in number and were being the building of St. Mary's Cathedral in John's Hospital today is still, basically, replaced by the stronger more fire-resis- the late 12th century. Directly outside the same todav). Set into the wall close tant stone built houses. The cabins of the Island Gate (3) was a bowling green, a by was a memorial to the effect that on 1 poorer classes in the back lanes were of 'house of entertainment' (theatre), a large May, 1650, Mayor John Creagh and his wattle, covered with clay and thatch. garden area and a prominade. There sheriffs, David Rochfort and James They were easy victims to some fierce were smaller areas or lots let out by the Bonfield, gave £200 to cover the cost of fires that raged from time to time, such as constable of the King's Castle for grazing. outworks at the fortress. Inside the walls those that destroyed many houses in St. Dominick's Abbey (D) was built in was St. John's Protestant Church (L), and Creagh, Bonfield's and Hamlin's lane 1227 by Donogh Corbrac O'Brien, (buried in the direction of Mungret Gate (18) was during the early to mid-17th century. The there in 1241) King of Limerick, for the the newly-built (1688) Capuchin Church small number of homesteads outside the friars of the order of St. Dominick. (This (N), where the first Mass was said by walls were generally of the cabin type, brotherhood possessed lands in and Friar Maurice White from Clonmel. In whitewashed and thatched with straw about the municipality and a chapel on the north-west wall of the Irishtown was and leaves, with a hole in the roof, to let St. Thomas' Island.) The monastery had West Water Gate (19), which was one of the smoke out, and sometimes not, in been rebuilt by James Fitzjohn, 6th Earl the more elaborate entrances of the city. which case the door was left open. They of Desmond, in 1462. A papal university (It was probably built in the 14th century, seldom had a proper floor - just the earth was established there in 1644 by Pope and it is on this gateway that our present - and only some had windows. Inns, Innocent X. Just inside St. Peter's Cell coat of arms is based). There was an shops and business houses had signs Gate (4) was a nunnery founded in 1172 inner barrier, which was a replica of the hanging outside which were easily iden- for Augustinian nuns, dedicated to St. outer one, $or added defence should tifiable by people who where unable to Peter, and was known as St. Peter's Cell. attackers break through the outer gate. It read, and these signs also served for Outside the ramparts, near Gaol Lane got its name from its position on the advertising In the main, hous- Gate (61, was St. Francis' Abbey (G), western wall of the Irishtown and from es were not numbered, but in the wealth- which for the most part was in ruins. As its close proximity to the Abbey water- ier parts of the city they had developed a this priory was outside the city walls, it side, from which a small inlet was con- system whereby a merchant living at, for was officially in the county of Limerick, structed and ran almost to the gate itself. instance, number 4 Thomond Street in and the county court sat in this old edi- This little cove provided access for small the Englishtown might have had a small fice. On Sundays, it was used as a place boats. A short distance from West Water outhouse or cabin for his servants and of worship by a preacher named Baily. It Gate was St. Michael's Church (M), built workers, and this dwelling would have had been taken over by the Franciscans, in the late 12th century (destroyed by been given the number 4. on 4 October, 1687 (St. Francis' Day), and 1651) and its graveyard (which has sur- There were a total of 80 inns and tav- was consecrated by the Right Revd. John vived to this day). The church and grave- erns, including Francis Whittemare's 'The Moloney, Catholic Bishop of Limerick. yard were located on an island formed Signe of the Globe' and William Allen's, Close by Baal's Bridge North Gate (8) by a diversion of the Abbey River. on the same thoroughfare in the stood the priory of the Canons Regular of The houses of the weowle were for- tk&, Enelishtown. while over in the Irishtown L L 1 _- U St. Agustine (H). This south-east corner most part built of square blocks of stone, was the 'old Bear Inn' in Broad Street, of the English Town was low-lying and with Sellars underneath, many with slate which had been rebuilt nearly 50 years subject to floodingtat the bend of the roofs, some thatched and some with bat- earlier, in 1640, by Piers Creagh. It was ~ostlvtravellers who staved in these less often than todav but to consume shaven, which in turn led to the fashion l laces, but the accommodation as so much more. The populace was not self- for night-caps. Perched on the head or I ,retched and limited that they preferred indulgent regarding food, and it was wig was a wide-brimmed hat, with the stay in 'a gentleman's house'. They considered a sin to eat meat or eggs on brim turned up, and sometimes trimmed ken had to eat meals in these inns with Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays. with gold lace. Also worn were 3/4 shell, as knives and forks.were Prayers at meals were said in Latin. length coats, with ribbons on the shoul- nknown except in up-to-date establish- orchards were common and a large sec- ders and sleeves. Ribbons were also ~ents.The alcohol, served in pewter tion of the Irishtown was covered with attached to shoes, garters, shirts, tall ; lugs, was beer and whiskey, or wine them. Some of the fruit trees cultivated walking sticks and anywhere else space I dulterated with cider and spirits. were the May Duke Cherry, the could be found to attach a cluster. Lace 'r randy, claret and French claret was also Bellegarde Peach, and the Caine Apple, was used with almost as much abandon ~ailable.The inn-keepers could not sup- known also as the Irish ~trawberiyor and sometimes the clothes were richly ly liquor during religious services on Arbutus. embroidered. undays. Drunkenness was a national The English attempted to introduce a Women's clothes were not as elabo- ,eakness. and the sale of drink was sub- policy of segregation, as illustrated by a rately decorated as the men's, and ct to &iny regu'lations, including bye-law passed (in 1512) which stated ' . . women did not wear wigs. Their skirts cences. There were many large and . . . that no citizen should be admitted on touched the ground and the shoes were nall brewers, who employed a consid- the Panel (Corporation) as a full burgess, made of velvet, leather or silk, and were able number of people. The quality of Le beer varied considerablv. The streets, paved with stone from the ~calquarries, were rough and uneven, ~d in wet weather were knee-deep in ~udin parts. The scavengers (street- eaners) worked to keep the city clean ~t their efforts did not have the desired 'fect because of the inadequate street- eaning system. Some years earlier in i78. the town clerk and the controller of Le Assembly (Corporation) were pointed to devise methods 'for the 2eping of candle-light' on dark nights. esponsibility for street-lighting was laced upon householders and the sys- m wasthat lanterns and candles were mg from selected houses, determined J the mayor and sheriffs, from 5 p.m. to p.m. in winter. There appears to have 2en a problem with large numbers of timals because a resolution was passed unless he could speak English well, wear black or white in colour. Little jewellery r the Assembly which prohibited the English apparal . . . be a married man . . . was worn, except for a single strand 2eping of swine inside the walls and . ' This separatist policy was based on a necklace, by some women. Sewing and ~gson the streets after 10 p.m. residential qualification, but did not embroidery, making preserves and cor- The majority of the inhabitants spoke extend to the exclusion of the Irish labour dials, and, of course, the rearing of chil- ish, while the better educated and the force from the Englishtown during the dren was the usual routine of women. Jper classes required a knowledge of it working day. It was not very successful Fashionable colours for men and women 11y to communicate with workers and and was difficult to enforce. In fact, the were green, red, yellow and blue. Pocket mrvants. The speaking of Irish was not majority of house-owners were 'Irish watches on chains were carried by the garded as a mark of inferiority, and Papists' (Catholics), and while they were wealthier men, whose day began before as in fact spoken by Irish gentlemen in officially barred from administrative dawn with the ringing of the bell of St. mdon. English was generally used for posts, a number of 'Papists' were alder- Mary's Cathedral (A) at 4 a.m. After- ases and other legal documents, (even men. Limerick subjects continued to noons were regarded as time for recre- ills in Irish were an exception since the adopt English manners and customs and ation. To signal an end to the day, St. t20s). Irish surnames underwent great remained faithful to the crown. With the Mary's bells were again rung at 8 p.m., langes with the change-over fro? Irish accession of King James 1fin 1685, the by which time most people were prepar- English as the language of authority Catholic religion was officially recog- ing for bed. At that time, the new year td law. This produced a system that nized, a papist governor was appointed began on 25 March each year, in accor- as notoriously indifferent to the and a change occurred in the religious dance with the Julian Calendar. The )elling of English. ascendancy of the Assembly. Two years sequence in, for example, 1689 was 25 Diet was based primarily on milk and later, in 10 June, 1687, to celebrate the March, 1689, April, May . . . November, ; many solid and semi-solid forms. It birth of the Prince of Wales, a son of December, January, February and up to so included beans, beetroot, boxty James 11, Mayor Robert Hannan dis- 24 March, 1689, then came the beginning .cad, cabbage, cane sugar, cockles, tributed 3 hogsheads (approx. 190 gal- of the next new year, 25 March 1690, and abs, eggs, fish such as hake and lons) of wine, at his own expense, among so on. (The Gregorian Calendar came lchards, gruel, hens, honey, leeks the populace. (Some other forms of mea- into effect in most European countries oiled), metheglin (mead), milk - surement were the 'firkin', a small cask between 1582 and 1700, but did not heep's and goat's), mussels, mutton, capable of holding about 8 gals; 'barrell' apply in Ireland, England and Sweden kcake, oysters, peas, rabbits, salt, snuff which contained 311/2 gals or from 190 until 1752). gunmoney coins bore the ~d'sweet milk' - a mixture of new milk to 350 lbs, depending on its contents; month as well as the year, and so coins ~d'roots' (potatoes). Poorer people were 'hogshead' was a liquid measure of markemreh, 1689, and March, 1690, )t accustomed to regular meals, while capacity equal to 5z1/2 gals or 63 wine were more than likely issued in the same e affluent hardly considered brefast gals). month. meal, as sometimes it only consisted of Men of wealth and style wore long The houses of the upper classes were st a glass of claret or xeres (sherry). It hair, occasionally their own, but more elaborately furnished with expensive as customary in this period to drink often a wig. Heads were cropped or beds, carpets and wall-hangings; they were also comfortable, but sanitation was night, would sleep, in most cases without would be shared with these people, and undreamt of. Household effects usually sheets, on beds of straw and rushes. the news from other parts of the country included utensils for home-brewing and Whole families would sleep together and other countries was passed on. They distilling, large brass pans for boiling fully dressed in everyday clothes lying loved poetry and music, especially sad beef, a bathing-tub, which for the most down in order, the eldest daughter music of traditional Irish airs. Certain part was stored away in a backroom, and against the wall furthest from the door, qualities such as hospitality, conser- some people bought and kept pet mon- then all sisters according to their age; vatism, superstition to a remarkable keys. Those who were well off enjoyed bowls on the bowling green just outside Island Gate.'3' Football was a 'useful and charming exercise' with the ball made 'of leather, as large as a man's head and filled with wind; it is tossed with the feet . . . . '. They enjoyed fox-hunting on horseback, and some attended the princi- pal races at the Curragh, County Kildare, in March or April, and in September. Others preferred hunting pheasant, grouse, hare, partridge, woodcock and wild duck, with the assistance of hawks, nets or greyhounds. Another recognized form of recreation for gentlemen was shooting with the cumbersome single- barrelled and expensive, 'fowling piece'. Indoor games consisted of chess; a game of cards, of Spanish origin, called L'ombre; 'Tables' (dice); 'Playing at tables' (billiards) and shovelboard. People sometimes hired travelling acrobats, hg- glers or fire-eaters for their parties at which 'jests' were told and riddles posed. Thomond Bridge and Kings Island, 1680. Among the gentry, most men and women played the harp, and in their homes 1 or 2 instruments were to be next came the mother, then father and degree, credulity, improvidence, respect found. On occasions, a harper was hired sons in succession, and finally strangers for tradition and the aristocratic svstem. to play for them at their meals. These (travelling pedlars) closest to the door. courteousness, love of music, dancing men of leisure, professionals and busi- Sunday was the chief day for their pas- and story-telling were common to all nessmen, would sometimes transact times and sports, when they engaged in classes. The poorer people tended to be deals, or just converse over a light racing each other and hurling (the ball sometimes quarrelsome, curious, 'great refreshment in the city's popular coffee- used was made from hair torn from a liars', hard drinkers and more cheerful houses. Besides coffee, a chocolate drink, cow's back, rolled tightly with the hands and lively than the English. Practically advertised as 'an excellent West India until it became solid). There were 10 to 20 everyone had a great propensity to gam- drink' could be had, and a new beverage players a side, broken bones were a com- bling and it was indulged in at the drop was being introduced, through the cof- mon feature, and the victors prize was a of a hat at any hour of the day or night. fee-houses, known as 'China drink' or barrel or two of ale which was drunk on They tried their luck at 'tables' (dice), 'China ale' (tea). the spot. Wrestling was a recognized of cards known as 'Five Cards' or Clothes were washed only every few form of public entertainment, attracting 'All Fours', at public gatherings and in months and washday causid coniider- large crowds, and men taking part in it houses. Gamblers stood to lose not only able upheaval. The wealthy could reduce were sometimes killed. In general, people their money but also moveable goods, their workload by hiring water-carriers were cruel to animals and indifferent to and some were not above cheating on to bring water from a well or the river to their suffering. 'Sports' such as bull-bait- occasions. There were public lotteries, the house, to be heated in a cauldron, ing, dog-fighting and cock-fighting were with a chance to win £1,000 for l/- or and yet more water was required for enjoyed by all classes. Dancing was very 1,900 guineas for 5/- run by the govern- rinsing. The washing was done in the popular, and groups of people both ment, and sometimes the profits were kitchen or backyard while space for dry- young and old would gather under a allocated to a specific purpose, as was the ing was a problem in bad weather. large tree and, to the accompaniment of a case in June, 1665, when the money was others cleaned their clothes in the near- fiddle, a trymp (horn) or bagpipes, allotted to the Royal Fishing Company. est river by rubbing them against stone would dance the day away. During the In all classes, except the destitute, or sand and then leaving them on bushes hours of darkness, small groups would marriages were arranged by the parents. or rocks to dry in the wind or sunshine. meet in each others' homes and sit Upper class alliances were often conclud- Some houses had their own water supply around the fire playing music and telling ed by the wedding of their quite young through lead conduits and cisterns but stories. All would share a pipeful of children, some as young as 12 years of this source was unreliable as it failed reg- tobacco and a whiff of snuff, drink age. After the ceremony, the juvenile ularly due to the decay of the lead. This whiskey and talk. There was a system of bridegroom and bride were taken back to type of water supply was used mostly by poor relief in Limerick that was superior their ;espective homes to await an age brewers' inn-keepers and water-carriers. to that in any other part of the country. more fitting to matrimony. The more The impoverished of the city were Prostitution was widespread and carried common age of marriage was 17 to 18 hard-working and supplied practically on, among other places, in the taverns, years, large families were produced, and all their own wants, such as making their and venereal disease caused many prob- at least half of the children died in infan- own clothes from sheev's wool and lems and often resulted in death. cy. Polygamy was common and, in an brogues (shoes) from cowhide. Some Both the rich and poor were generous, attempt to enforce monogamy, the Irish e grew 'a square' of hemp or flax which hospitable, affectionate towaids the- Jarliakent found it necessary to pass a they used for spinning and weaving the children and fond of strangers passing law over 50 years earlier in 1634. Bigamy family's clothes. Inside their tiny homes through, particularly French or Spanish was confined to the more prosperous there was at least dne family who, at wayfarers. Some of what they had to eat classes, but sexual promiscuity was gen- eral. Divorces were relatively easy to obtain. After a baptism ceremony, a wealthy couple would celebrate the event by inviting friends to their resi- dence where meat, fish, milk and butter were available, while music was provid- ed by harp, jews-trumps or bagpipes. Sometimes, men would cohabit, without condition, with single women, their chil- dren were considered legitimate in their father's lifetime but after his death became 'bastards'. Illegitimacy was com- mon and had not constituted a very seri- ous handicap in life, but when English government had established itself as the undisputed authority, the illegitimate son could r)o longer hold a position of legal equality compared with the legitimate son/s. The aristocracy thought it no shame to keep a mistress openly. Ordinary people had not a very high sense of morality but were, on the whole, a decent good-mannered lot. Personal cleanlmess was not consid- ered essential by anyone; everyone was dirty, as it was the norm to go for months without bathing. The rich were liberal in their use of perfumes but did not succeed in overcoming the much stronger scent education and considered it the luxury of setting out. The trek by the shortest route of unwashed bodies; lice in their heads the few, while the middle class sent their of 120 miles to Dublin took about 4 days, and wigs and bugs in their beds were children to schools intended for those of to Cork 3 days, and trips to Galway were taken for granted. Nudity in its proper the poorer freemen. usually made by sea. One of the dangers place was not indecent, and many people Here is a list of some of the Christian on the roads all over the country was the slept unclothed. All ranks, men and names, not already cited: Bryne, rapparees (highwaymen). They operated women, were excessive tobacco smokers Christopher, Dermud, Garrett, Geoffrey, in bands of 20 to 30, and sometimes as and most kept a pipe in their possession ' Humphrie, Lawrence, Marttin, Matthew, many as 100, with some of the group on . . . and yea, the very children too . . .' Patrick, Phillip, Raulfe, Stephen and foot. Known as the 'tories' or 'kerns', their One habit that was considered absolutely Nicholas. Some of the surnames were activities in counties Clare and Kerry disgusting was that of wind. It was so Arthur, Bell, Bendon, Benetts, Bones, caused much trouble for travellers, and abhorred that it was hardly ever even Cantillons, Chevens, Cockayne, Connor, some people were afraid to travel mentioned by name. Comyn, Crabbs, Creagh-fiz-Richard, because of them. In Limerick, there were Superstitious beliefs and practises Dallman, Daniell, Davis, Doudins, a few hackney carriages and sedan-chairs were many and varied: for instance, all Dowlye, Duffe-Creagh, Fentons, licenced by the Assembly. Communic- classes believed in the existence of ban- Ffaninge, Ffinttington, Field, Fitz-Nicho, ations between Ireland and the outside shees, while those in rural areas believed Fox, Fullfowrds, Gaffens, Galway, world were not as backward as those in fairies. From the very badly off to the Gibbins, Gilbert Graliands, Hallie, within the country. Weather permitting, aristocratic, the fear of witchcraft was Harrold, Harte, Harttwells, Hartstonge, there was a weekly sailing from Dublin widespread. Any man setting out on a Holmes, Holton, Hopkins, Joanes, to Holyhead, and there were other routes journey in the morning would be upset Jackson, Kash, Kemp, Lee, Lysaght, such as those from Limerick, Carrick and probably would return home if he McJohn, Monsell, Mullonie, Newman, Fergus, Waterford and Cork. A passenger met a red-headed women. The poorer Nihill, Oge-Wheit, O'Grady, Peacocke, did not always land where he intended inhabitants hung a St. Bridget's Cross Pery, Petchlie, Power, Raskes, Rick, Roch, as a change of wind could result in a ship over the door to secure the house from Roch-fiz-Jurdane, Ronane, Rose, bound for Limerick ending up in Cork, fire, and under the cross was a horseshoe Savadge, Scotts, Southwell, Stacpoll, Waterford or elsewhere. What turned out to deter devils, witches and thieves. Stapleton, Stephens, Stritch, Synner, to be a particularly lengthy journey was There was poverty, discomfort, pain and Thyrry, Trants, Trenells, Wade, Walle, undertaken by a Mr. Freke and his son death and these were usually accepted as Waller, Wad, Watter, Webb, Wheitroe, who left Chester in England on 15 marks of God's will to be borne with White-fitz-Edmond, Wilkinson, Willson, August for Dublin, and 'affter haveing courage and good cheer. Most people Yearwell and Young. bin neer seven week cast up and downe . may have been careless in attending reli- Travel was on horseback, and roads . . . . every howre expecting the fate of a gious services but were, for the most were so bad that even main routes were mercyless sea', eventually arrived in part, passively and traditionally Catholic. little more than ill-defined tracks, and Dublin on 25 September. This passage The priests attempted to keep the wheeled traffic encountered constant dif- would normally have taken 5 or 6 days. Catholic faith alive, but the activities of ficulties such as carts and carriages sink- The usual port of departure or arrival in the Church were somewhat disorga- ing axle-deep or overturning in muddy England for ships travelling to and from nized. The priests were also commanded or soft patches. The poor did not have Limerick, and other ports in the south of to prohibit drinking at wakes, the hold- reason to travel, and, in any case, the the country, was Bristol. People travelling ing of wakes at night and to condemn long hours of work did not allow it. by sea needed 'passes' issued by a man in bandits and superstitious practises. They Usually, only the wealthy or government authority. Lighthouses were beginning to were forbidden to drink whiskey in pub- officials would have reason to set off on emerge as an aid to shipping. However, lic, attend fairs or markets, or take a horseback to, say, Dublin. Even this was dangers were not confined to tempests, female (even a relative) with them on a rare occurrence and of consider- _- unchartered shores or half-rotten food, horseback. importance in their lives, with a corre- because crews and passengers had to The poor, bqth Protestant and sponding amount of danger attached to contend with pirates from as far away as Catholic, were almost entirely without it, that frequently wills were made before Algeria. They stole the ships and sold the people on board as slaves in North in 24 hours'. Medicines from 'physicians' Africa-men and women fetched about that would 'cure all ulcers, scabs, sores, £40 each. itch, leprosies, and venereal diseases . . . Weather had its extremes too. For at all times of the year, in all bodies, example, on the 3 November, 1683, a expecting nothing if he cures not'. This severe frost 8 ft. thick appeared on the cure-all cost three shillings for a quart, or Shannon and lasted for over 4 months. one shilling for a box of the pills, and 'a Locals took advantage of this by taking a better purger . . . was never given, for short-cut from the King's Island to they cleanse the body of all imgurities, Parteen, crossing the ice on foot with which are the cause of dropsie?, gouts, horses and carts. scurvies, stone or gravel, paids in the Men of influence and position had neck and other parts'. The 'heale$C~ome- close connections in England, and corre- times ended his message by warnfng the spondence between Limerick and reader to 'take heed whom vou trust in London took between 5 to 10 days, but in medicine, for its become a common cheat bad conditions up to a month or more. to profess it'. Correspondents wrote in duplicate (in The types of fuel used were turf, coal, case a letter got lost), the postal service, found in coffee-houses, and contained wood, furze, fodder and cowdung which established by Cromwell over 30 years snippets of news from Amsterdam, had been dried in the sun. earlier, in 1657, pressed on against the Brussels, Cologne, Constantinople, King James set up a mint of his own odds. Letters, however, were still lost or Cremona, Genoa, Hamburg, Hungary, in the deanery house next to St. Mary's opened en route. The cost of the post, or Lincoln, London, Paris, Rome, Stock- Cathedral (A), and one of the commis- 'the mail', was relatively high. A letter holm, The Hague, Venice, Vienna and sioners in charge was Walter Plunket. from Limerick, via Dublin and Holy- Warsaw. Most of the news from capital Here 'gun money' was minted from head, to 'Warwacksheare' (Warwickshire) and other municipalities being about brass. However, the normal everyday in England, cost the following: armies, imperial forces and ambassadors currency was made up of foreign coins Post paid to Dublin 4d (in one hand) being sent here and there. There was also from England, Scotland, Spain, Portugal Forward to London 2d (in another hand) information on merchant ships and their and France. Those in circulation were as From London to Warwacksheare cargos at sea, the countries they were follows (their value being determined by 2d (in yet another hand) coming from and when they were weight): gold coins were the double ~otai8d. expected to arrive in Limerick or other ducat (£0-18-0); guinea (£1-4-OIE1.20); Irish ports. The news also reported on riders (£1-2-6); Spanish or French There was a reluctance to use the mail for people found drowned or hanged, the quadruple pistole (£3-4-0) and Spanish short distances and there was no recog- deaths of aldermen and prominent peo- suffrain (£1-8-0). The silver coins were nized machinery for house-to-house ple, thefts of money from shops, people the ducatoon (£0-5-9); English crown (£0- delivery. In some places, the local post- being 'knockt' down and robbed by 5-5); English shilling (£0-1-1); Mexico or master delivered letters in Englishtowns thieves, proclamations from 'His Seville piece of eight (£0-4-9); old Peru free of charge. Prepayment was not the Majesty's Castle of Dublin', murder trials piece and French Louis (£0-4-6); pillar norm, as there was no guarantee a letter and accounts of notorious tories (high- piece of eight (£0-4-8); Portugal Royal would reach its destination if there were waymen). Some of the advertisements, (£0-3-8) and the rix dollar or cross dollar no fee to be collected. were for money, exchequer bills or goods, (£0-2-4l/2). Other coins were the far- Word from other towns and villages usually silverware, lost or stolen, with thing, halfpenny, penny, sixpence, groat was brought by wandering pedlars, who rewards of 1 to 5 guineas being offered. (21/2p), shilling, half-crown and crown, sold small quantities of salt, snuff and Servants, having 'ran off' after robbing with farthings,halfpennys, and pennies tobacco to the poor. There were also their 'masters', were described in detail making up the bulk of change in daily weekly newspapers, printed in Dublin or and any information making identifica- use. The standard of engraving was London, such as The Athenian Mercury, tion easier was given, for example, 'he is sometimes poor, and it was not easy to The Post Man, The Protestant Mercury, a speaker of Irish'. There were outlandish determine the official issue from counter- News-Letter, Post Boy and The Flying Post notices by quacks claiming medical skills feit money. There were also tokens, pri- or The Post Master, all made up of 1 or 2 and marvellous remedies: 'All clap (vene- vately struck, on thin copper, brass or leaves, costing Id or 2d. These could be real disease) pains etc. eased by purging lead flan, in denominations of Id, l/2d and l/4d. The blanks came in all shapes and sizes, but round ones were most common. They were used in the same manner as cash, and the people generally accepted them as a form of money even though they could only be redeemed for goods. Tokens were issued by merchants, chandlers, butche~sand apothecaries such as Anthony Bartlett, John Bennet, Edward Clarke, Rowland Creagh, Thomas Linch, Thomas Marten, Richard Pearce and Edward Wight. Everyday items cost: ale (hogshead) £3 butter (llb) 8d cabin .of a poor man was valued at 5/- chicken COW Douay Bible dogs (sporting) eggs (20) gloves (ladies) haircut hat hearth tax, hen horse horse (well-bred) horse nag knife or fork meal in a tavern military despatches by footman barrel of wine, aquavitae (whiskey), a to Waterford and Cork pack of cloth or 12 hats, horse-drawn mutton (a quarter) trailers of hides or timber 4d, and boat- pig loads of rapeseed coming into quay l/-. postage, Limerick to The freemen were exempted from the Dublin or Cork tolls or duties normally payable at the salmon gates and, on becoming one, each new sheep, freeman paid an initial fee of almost El to shirt (of fine quality) the Assembly. If one were not a freeman, stockings one could not belong to one of the trade wine (quart) guilds (or corporations). The freedom of wool (per ton) the city was occasionally presented, with considerable ceremony, to a distin- The whole annual expense of a poor fam- guished man as a mark of the city's ily of 2 adults and 4 children was about respect and honour. From time to time, Woodcut of plaque over 55/- while at the other end of the scale, freemen were asked to forego one or Mungret Gate. an income of about £500 was required for other of their privileges. Nearly 20 years Wrn&i"iV* *aw~~~vw~"~~~*'"~.a,.a,.a,vbg~*sW*i'a*e.*'w%*7 all the wants and luxuries of a family earlier, in 1673, they were required to pay could not avail of medical aid. As the sci- mixing in fashionable circles. Interest the tolls, as the extra money was needed ence of surgery was still in its infancy, it rates for a mortgage were as high as 10%, to repair Thomond Bridge, and in 1679 was regarded almost as a trade rather and for borrowing money 8%, compared lost the same immunity for 2 years, as the than a profession and was practised in a with only 4% in Holland. The poor were money went to meet the heavy costs very rough and ready way by barbers as forced to pawn their clothes or other nec- incurred in protracted litigation with Sir a sort of spare time job. The connection essary implements, and for the sum of El George Preston concerning the Assem- between hairdressing and surgery was would repay 6d every week. The mayor's bly's salmon weir. accepted and officially recognized, as salary was £200 annually, plus his out-of- Trades in the city were those of bak- there was a glut of barber-chirurgeons pocket expenses; his chef was paid £10 ers, bricklayers, brogue (shoe)-makers, (surgeons). printing was provided by a per year and given a free linen cloak; butchers, carpenters, carvers, chandlers, Mr. Reid and Samuel Terry. The tanning scavengers earned E6 annually and confectioners, cooks, coopers, curriers, of hides provided much employment, labourers were paid 4d a day and their dyers, glover, gunsmiths, joiners, linen- and many tanneries were located inside dinner. Doctors' fees were very high; for weavers, locksmiths, malsters, masons, the east wall of the Irishtown and in instance, Dr. Thomas Arthur of Mungret millers, periwig (wig)-makers, pewterers, parts of the Englishtown. There were 4 Street visited his patients (doctors did plasterers, ropemakers, saddlers, sailors, corn mills worked by the coming and not have consulting facilities in their own sailmakers, schoolmasters, shearmen, going of the tide (an unusual feature at homes) and charged 10/- to £1 in the 'big ships carpenters, slaters, smiths, tailors, the time): the Queen's Mill and Thomas houses' and half-a-crown to the less-well- tanners, tobacco-makers, weavers and Arthur's Mill, built near the Curragour to-do. wool-combers. The profession of the bard Falls on the River Shannon; the other two In summer, the gates of the English was the most honoured in the country, were on the Abbey River, one, Nicholas and Irish towns opened at 4 a.m. and and these scholars could write in Latin Arthur's Mill, was midway between closed at 10 p.m. and in winter 7 a.m. to 9 with as much ease as they did in hmbh - Baal's Bridge North Gate (8) and Creagh p.m. The tolls levied at these gates when Such banking as was done was in the Lane Gate (9), and opposite it, near St. goods were assing in or out of the city hands of brokers who were usually gold- Michael's Church (M), was the Prior's or varied from 'I /4da on a sheep, to 3d on a smiths. The majority of the population Common Mill. There were also several horse-operated works inside both towns. often. A case in point at this time was Practically every craft had its organized when 218 barrels of gunpowder, stored in guild which was governed by strict rules. the tall tower at the southern end of the Two big markets were held each year, quay, exploded accidently. Nearly one the fairs of St. John the Baptist and St. hundred people were killed, including James, which lasted for 2 weeks. During Sheriff Abraham Bowman, Alderman the latter, no arrest for debt could be John Lacy and Arthur Lillis. The blast made, and to show that this was the case, shook the whole city and, as a,result, a white glove was hung outside the Zachary Holland and Mrs. Butler "died of Exchange (F). It was at fairs and other the fright'. I such gatherings that the town crier or a The people of Limerick had the ability bellman would make announcements of to withstand the rigours of siege$ such public interest. Causes of complaint from as that by 's son-in-law, tradesmen and sellers were the large Henry Ireton in 1651. Their spirit would number of hucksters coming in from the soon be put to the test again, as two more country to sell their wares, poultry, wild- sieges were to follow in 1690 and in 1691. fowl and rabbits, in the streets, and they On Thursday, 17 July, 1690, John also bbstructed the movement of traffic Stevens, a regular visitor to Limerick, through the city. Attempts were made to had this to sav: '. . . . when first I saw this keep them out but the regulations had city, about 4 years before, it was inferior little effect. Dealers and traders also com- to none in Ireland but Dublin and not to plained of the noise from the shambles very many in England. I have lived to see (slaughter-houses), and the strong smells it reduced to a heap of rubbish . . . . . from the fish markets, which they sought Such are the effects of war'. to confine to certain areas. Outside the walls, on the Clare side, SOURCES % was the extensive Thomond Forest which 1. Limerick - Its Roots in the Past by supplied the city with timber for build- Betty Deane, TCD, 1974 ing and fuel, and which was also export- 2. The Ancient Walls of Limerick by ed to England for the building of Harold Leask, MRIA., 1941 galleons. In the forests, among the ani- 3. Thomas Dineley 'S MSS of l680 mals to be found and hunted, were bad- 4. Civil Survey of 1654 - 1656, Vol IV, gers, foxes, wolves and squirrels; pine 1938 martens were scarce and their fur valu- 5. The by Maurice able. Lenihan, publ. 1866 An organized system of policing was were publicly either burned alive or 6. Irish Life in the 17th Century by unknown and, as the streets were dan- hung, drawn and quartered at Gallows Edward McLysaght, publ 1939 gerous at night, it was the military, who Green (V). While the death sentence was 7. Old Limerick Journals of December, were seldom available when required, applied to all 'serious' offences, it was not 1946, and numbers 1, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, that was called out. The soldiers were applied in cases of the then equally seri- 13,15, and 16 from 1979 to 1983. easily bribed, and just as easily intimidat- ous crime of witchcraft, probably because 8. The History of Limerick by John ed. In criminal court cases, particularly of the general air of superstition. Ferrar, 1767,1787 where the accused were poor men, mis- The population was increasing and 9. The Economic History of Ireland in carriages of justice were frequent. had begun to outgrow Limerick's old 17th century by George O'Brien, 1919 Debtors found themselves in prison, if walls. The city, was densely populated 10. 1690 Journal of John Stevens, 1912 unable to discharge their liabilities, for with some 11,000 people. (A careful cen- 11. The Anatomy of Costume by Robert the greater part of their lives. In many sus taken in 1659 showed the total popu- Selbie, 1977 cases, they were incarcerated without lation of Ireland at 500,091 of which 12. Everyday Dress 1650 - 1900 by trial, and some died of starvation inside 153,282 lived in Munster). While the Elizabeth Ewing, 1984 prison. Bribery and corruption were part enclosure functioned as a protective 13. England: Collection of the Yearly Bills and parcel of the system and permeated device, it was also a health hazard and of Mortality from l657 to 1758,1759 the whole government service, even to regularly led to plagues of smallpox, 14. Coins and Tokens of Ireland by Peter the customs officers who would pass typhus and bubo (bubonic), all of which Seaby, 1970 gentlemen's baggage when bribed tb do wiped out many people. These insanitary 15. A Handbook of Coins of the British so. There was great difficulty in execut- conditions and the general way of life led Isles by Howard W. Bradley, 1982 ing impartiality, as many of those in to other diseases and illnesses such as: 16. Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 5, 1983 power were protected by officers and 'Ague (acute and violent fever), 17. Strongholds of the Realm by Charles were also protecting others. Most offi- 'Bloody flux' (dysentery), 'Griping of the Knightly, 1979 cials had their price. One exception to guts' (spasmodic constricting pains in the 18. Derry 'S Walls by Paul Hippsley, 1988 this general rule occurred in 1670 when stomach), 'Planet-struck' (becoming para- 19. Historic Limerick: The City and its Mayor Robert Shute was accused at the lytic because of the supposed malign Treasures by Laurence Walsh, 1984 Assizes of raping his maid and of other influence of an adverse planet), 'Rising of 20. Limerick Field Club Journal, 1897 to serious crimes. crooked dealings and the Lights' (hysteria), 'Scald head' (head 1900, Vol3,1901. dishonesty in business were rare, but diseased with ring worm), 'Spotted or 21. Excavations of the Medieval To W n petty thieving was common. Allowing Purple Fever' (swine fever), 'St. Defences at Charlotte Quay by A. for the relative scarcitv of valuables. the Anthony's Fire' (shingles) 'Starved' and Lynch, 1984. incidence of burglary has low. poaching 'Tympany' (swelling or tumour of any of deer, cows and sheep was common- kind.) The author wishes to thank the National place, and they were also attacked by Almost half of the children born died Library, Dublin, the British Library, dogs and wolves. Perjury was somewhat before the age of 5 years. A very small London, the Central Library, Belfast, the rare, and one of the punishments for this number, 1 in a 1,000, attained 90 years Limerick City Reference Library, Larry crime was to have l or 2 ears nailed to and only 1 in 3,100 lived to 100 yearia- _.Walsh, ~imkrickMuseum, delie 0' the pillory, but it was not rigorously upwards. Because there was such igno- Rahilly, Limerick Corporation, Brendan enforced. Forgery resulted in the loss of 1 rance regarding safety, fatal accidents Smith, c/o C.B.S. Sexton Street, Limerick, or 2 ears. The pe$etrators of murder from drowning and fire occurred all too Kevin Hannan and Jim Kemmy.