coev ^Ht^e- kiCMC ^^JCs Q( Discussion Paper
A Global Overview of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
Prepared by Edmund Green, UNEP-WCMC June 2001
with assistance from Jerry Harrison, Javier Baltran, Lucy Conway, Sergio Martins and Mark Spalding
UNEP WCMC Discussion paper: A Global Oven'iew of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
Table of Contents
List Of Tables, Figures And Maps 3
Introduction 4
An Overview of the World Heritage Convention 4 What the Convention contains 4 How the Convention works 4 The criteria for selection 4 Protecting endangered sites 5 Background to this report 5
Tropical Marine, Coastal And Small Island Ecosystems In World Heritage Sites 7
Working definition of tropical, coastal and small island ecosystems 7 Present coverage under the convention 7 Future coverage under the Convention 8 Sites in danger 8 Present coverage of tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems under other international conventions and programmes 8
The relative distribution and size of tropical marine, coastal and small island World Heritage Sites ... 10
The Distribution of existing World Heritage Sites in Relation to Important Tropical Marine Ecosystems and Species 13
Coral Reefs 13 Mangroves 13 Marine Turtles 14 Seagrasses 14
Data Sources 15 Discussion paper: A Global Ch'en'iew of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
List Of Tables, Figures And Maps
Table Title Page
Table 1 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites currently on the World 16
Heritage list Table 2 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites currently included either 20
in a State Party potential World Heritage list or which have been nominated but not inscribed. Table 3 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites that are presently on the 23
list of World Heritage in Danger Table 4 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites recognised under other 24 international conventions and programmes Table 5 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems protected areas which may 28 merit consideration for World Heritage nomination
List of Figures
Figure Title Page coastal 11 Figure 1 The relative distribution of existing world heritage sites in tropical marine, and small island ecosystems by region, by number and size. Figure 2 The size distribution of existing world heritage sites in tropical marine, coastal and 11 small island ecosystems.
List of Maps
Map Title the Heritage Map 1 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites currently on World
list Map 2 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites currently included either in a State Party potential World Heritage list or which have been nominated but not inscribed. Map 3 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites that are presently on the list of World Heritage in Danger Map 4 Tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites recognised under other international conventions and programmes Map 5 The distribution of World Heritage sites which include coral reefs Map 6 The distribution of World Heritage sites which include mangroves Map 7 The distribution of World Heritage sites which include marine turtle nesting beaches Map 8 The distribution of World Heritage sites which include seagrass beds Discussion paper: A Global Ch'en'iew of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
Introduction
An Overview of the World Heritage Convention'
The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World Heritage Convention) was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. To date, more than 150 countries have adhered to the Convention, making it one of the most universal international legal instruments for the protection of the cultural and natural heritage. UNESCO provides the Convention's Secretariat.
What the Convention contains
The Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites which can be considered for inscription on the World Heritage List, and sets out the duties of State Parties in identifying potential sites and their role in protecting and preserving them. By signing the Convention, each country pledges to conserve not only the World Heritage sites situated on its territory, but also to protect its national heritage. The Convention further describes the function of the World Heritage Committee, how its members are elected and their terms of office, and specifies the professional advisory bodies to which it can turn for advice in selecting the sites to be listed. The Convention explains how the World Heritage Fund is to be used and managed and under what conditions international financial assistance may be provided.
How the Convention works
The application for a site to be inscribed on the World Heritage List must come from the country itself. UNESCO makes no recommendations for listing. The application has to include a plan detailing how
the site is managed and protected in national legislation. The World Heritage Committee meets once a year and examines the applications on the basis of technical evaluations. These independent evaluations of proposed cultural and natural sites are provided by two advisory bodies, the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the World Conservation Union (lUCN) respectively. A third advisory body, the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Culmral Property, (ICCROM) provides expert advice on restoring monuments and organises training courses.
Once a site is selected, its name and location are placed on the World Heritage List.
The criteria for selection
To be included on the World Heritage List, sites must satisfy culmral and natural selection criteria. These criteria are explained in the Operational Guidelines which, besides the text of the Convention, is the main document on World Heritage. The criteria have been revised regularly by the Committee to match the evolution of the World Heritage concept itself.
For a property to be included on the World Heritage List as natural heritage, the World Heritage
Committee must find that it meets one or more of the following :
(i) be outstanding examples representing major stages of the earth's history, including the record of life, significant ongoing geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features; or
Source - http://www.unesco.org/whc/nwhc/pages/home/pages/index.htm Discussion paper: A Global Ch'erview of Tropical Marine, Coaslal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
(ii) be outstanding examples representing significant ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals; or
(iii) contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance; or
(iv) contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.
The protection, management and integrity of the site are also important considerations. Mixed sites have both outstanding natural and cultural values. Since 1992 significant interactions between people and the natural environment have been recognised as culmral landscapes.
Protecting endangered sites
World Heritage conservation is a continuous process. Listing a site does little good if it subsequently falls into a state of disrepair or if a development project risks destroying the qualities that made the site suitable for World Heritage status in the first place. The credibility of World Heritage stems from countries' regular reporting on the condition of sites, on measures taken to preserve them, and on their efforts to raise public awareness of culmral and natural heritage. If a country is not fulfilling its obligations under the Convention, it risks having its sites deleted from the World Heritage List. In practice, countries take their responsibility very seriously, and the World Heritage Committee will be alerted - by individuals, governments, non-governmental organisations, or other groups - to possible dangers to a site. If the alert is justified, and the problem serious enough, the site will be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. This list is designed to call the world's attention to natural or human-made conditions which threaten the characteristics for which the site was originally inscribed on the World Heritage List. Endangered sites on this list are entitled to particular attention and emergency action. In urgent cases, such as outbreak of war, the Committee will make the listing itself without having received a formal request.
Background to this report
A Global Strategy for a balanced and representative World Heritage List was adopted by the World Heritage Committee in 1994. Its aim is to ensure that the List reflects the world's cultural and namral diversity of outstanding universal value. Conferences and studies aimed at developing and implementing the Global Strategy have been held or are planned in Africa, the Pacific region, the Arab region, the Andean region, the Caribbean, central Asia and south-east Asia, and various thematic studies have also been carried out.
The lUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), under the leadership of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), is directing efforts to review the coverage coastal marine and small island ecosystems by the WHC using innovative multi-site based cluster and trans- border approaches to prepare World Heritage area nominations. In support of this work UNEP-WCMC has conducted this assessment of currently listed sites, to assist the identification of potential tropical coastal, marine and small island ecosystems for nomination as World Heritage sites. The findings of in this assessment will be reviewed by a panel of experts in a workshop to be held September 2001. These experts will examine current World Heritage listings and determine gaps and constraints for the nomination of trans-border and cluster sites, as well as, expanding the listing to include more sites that represent the natural and biodiversity significance in the tropical region. Results from the workshop the Heritage will be compiled in a report to states party to the World Heritage Convention and World Committee. Discussion paper: A Global Chennew of Tropical Marine. Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
This effort will lead to a scientifically-based consensus for potential World Heritage sites in the tropical realm with emphasis on cluster, trans-border, and multi-site based approaches for further nomination consideration. A pilot project that will prepare a strategy for executing a cluster and trans-border nomination will be developed. In collaboration with the UNESCO, lUCN, the donor community, and states party to the Convention, country participation will be sought to execute nomination of a multi-site nomination to the World Heritage Committee.
Comments on this document should be addressed to:
Dr. Edmund Green Head, Marine and Coastal Programme UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3 ODL United Kingdom
Tel: (44) 1223 277314 Fax: (44) 1223 277136 E mail: ed. green@unep-wcmc .org
Electronic copies of this document, including maps, are available on-line at http:// Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosyslems and ihe World Heritage List
Tropical Marine, Coastal And Small Island Ecosystems In World Heritage Sites
Working definition of tropical, coastal and small island ecosystems
In preparing this document a working definition of 'tropical marine and coastal' was used which defined:
(i) marine components as those areas from deep ocean to areas immediately below high water level;
(ii) coastal components as those areas of land and brackish and fresh water immediately adjacent or in close proximity to the sea;
(iii) tropical areas to include sub-tropical areas approximately within latitudes 30° N and 30° S.
This broad working definition was adopted in the interest of completeness. It includes some World Heritage Sites which have minimal marine or coastal components, or sites for which the marine and coastal components were not the major considerations for nomination. However it has the advantage of not excluding some sites which would have occurred with a more rigorous definition. For example the Everglades National Park would have been excluded under a strict geographical definition of 'tropical' at whereas it clearly in the spirit of the Global Strategy it should be included. The expert panel the September workshop can decide whether this definition, and the sites which have been included under it, are appropriate.
Present coverage under the convention
There are presently 139 sites listed under natural criteria, and 23 under mixed natural and culmral criteria. Of these 50 have a marine component and 33 contain a tropical marine, coastal or small island component. Details of these 33 sites are listed in Table 1. Six are also recognised under the Ramsar Convention- and nine are Biosphere Reserves'. No new marine sites have been nominated since 1999, Eleven when four were added to the list, bringing the total number of designations in the 1990s to 16. contain sites were designated in the 1980s and two in the 1970s. The oldest World Heritage Site to a tropical marine, coastal or small island component is the Galapagos Islands which was designated in 1978.
The most frequent namral criteria for selection has been N (iv), which has been used in 23 (79%) of the World Heritage Sites in Table 1. Other criteria have been used thus: N (i) 9 sites, 31 %, N (iii) 17 sites, 59% and N (ii) 19 sites (66%).
The marine or coastal component of one World Heritage Sites in Table 1, the Hawaii Volcanoes designation of this site are National Park in the USA, is not clear. The principal reasons for the
sea, it be that the marine and geological, and although it lies within the tropics, adjacent to the may for the coastal components are incidental. However in the absence of further information and sake of
completeness it has been included in this report.
tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems sites Map 1 displays the distribution of the Heritage Sites. There currently on the World Heritage list. Large areas of ocean have few or no World South America. There is only are no sites in the Red Sea and Gulf of Arabia, or on the western coast of
http://www.ramsar.org/ ' http://www.unesco.org/mab/ .
Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine. Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
one site in western Africa (Banc d'Arguin National Park) and one site in eastern Africa (the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park). By comparison with the Caribbean and South East Asia/ Australia, the Indian and Pacific Oceans are poorly covered.
Future coverage under the Convention
Table 2 lists the details of sites which are either (i) included in a State Party indicative list, or (ii) which have been nominated but not inscribed. There are eight sites in eight countries and their distribution
(Map 2) goes some way to addressing the gaps in existing coverage with two in west Africa, one in the Red Sea and a further site in the Pacific Ocean. However there are none on the western coa.st of South America or the eastern coast of Africa. Of the sites in Map 2 one site has been withdrawn from consideration for nomination and a further four have been deferred for more than a decade, so its unlikely that the distribution of existing tropical marine, coastal and small island sites will be changed significantly by the addition of any sites in Table 2.
Sites in danger
If serious and justifiable concern exists then a site can be listed by the World Heritage Committee on the List of World Heritage in Danger, in accordance with Article 1 1 (4) of the Convention which
The Committee shall establish, keep up to date and publish, whenever circumstances shall so require,
under the title of "List of World Heritage in Danger", a list of the property appearing in the World Heritage List for the conservation of which major operations are necessary and for which assistance has been requested under this Convention. This list shall contain an estimate of the cost of such operations.
The list may include only such property forming part of the culmral and namral heritage as is threatened by serious and specific dangers, such as the threat of disappearance caused by accelerated deterioration, large- scale public or private projects or rapid urban or tourist development projects; destruction caused by changes in the use or ownership of the land; major alterations due to unknown causes; abandonment for any reason whatsoever; the outbreak or the threat of an armed conflict; calamities and cataclysms; serious fires, earthquakes, landslides; volcanic eruptions; changes in water
level, floods and tidal waves. The Committee may at any time, in case of urgent need, make a new entry in the List of World Heritage in Danger and publicise such entry immediately.
Two of the 29 existing World Heritage Sites containing tropical marine, coastal or small island components have been placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. They are the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve in Honduras and the Everglades National Park in the USA (Table 3 and Map 3).
Present coverage of tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems under other international conventions and programmes
Twenty-five Biosphere Reserves in 14 countries contain tropical marine, coastal and small island
ecosystems (Table 4). The total area of these is approximately 40 million ha, of which 30.5 million ha
is known to be marine (only 1% of this is core area, 25% is buffer area and the remaining 74%. most
of which is in the Seaflower Reserve, Colombia, as transition area). The distribution of these Biosphere
Reserves is plotted in Map 4. Nine Biosphere Reserves are also World Heritage Sites and are therefore
listed in Table 1
" http://www.unesco.org/whc/nwhc/pages/doc/main.htm .
Disaission paper: .4 Global Overview uf Tropical Marine. Coastal and Smalt Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
Forty-five Ramsar Sites in 24 countries contain tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems
(Table 5). The total area of these is 5.7 million ha, but the area of the marine component is unknown.
The distribution of these Ramsar Sites is also plotted in Map 4. Six Ramsar Sites are also World
Heritage Sites and are therefore listed in Table 1
The coverage of tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems under the Unesco Man and the
Biosphere Programme and the Ramsar Convention is extensive in the Caribbean and western Africa north of the equator. There are also several Biosphere Reserves and Ramsar Sites in south-east Asia, though only one in the Indonesian archipelago. As is the case with the World Heritage Convention the coverage of tropical marine, coastal and small island ecosystems under these two international agreements is poor on the western coast of South America, and in the Red Sea and southern Asia. Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine. Coastal and Small Island Ecosyslems and ihe World Heritage List
The relative distribution and size of tropical marine, coastal and small island World Heritage Sites
Udrady's Biogeographical Realms" have been used here to preserve consistency with existing thematic studies of the Convention'' and the classification of World Heritage Sites. These are defined as a continent or sub-continent-sized area with unifying features of geography and fauna/flora/vegetation.
Boundary information is not available. Five realms are relevant to this report in that they include tropical areas:
Afrotropical Realm
An African realm, the majority of which is covered by tropical vegetation and faunation. It includes all of the African continent south of the Sahara, including its shelf islands, the islands of St. Helena and
Ascension, Madagascar and the islands surrounding it (with the exception of the Seychelles and Amirantes).
Indomalayan Realm
This consists of the mainland of South-East Asia, south of the temperate-Palaearctic Himalayas chain and the continuing Szechwan Mountains.
Oceanian Realm
This large realm comprises the island groups of the Tropical Pacific. Essentially this includes Papua New Guinea, Micronesia, Hawaii, Southeastern Polynesia, Central Poynesia, New Caledonia and East Melanesia.
Australian Realm
This realm only contains the continent of Australia (including Tasmainia).
Neotropical Realm The northern limits of the Neotropical Realm comprise three main areas, the coastal areas of Baja California and Sinaloa. Southern Florida, and the Carribean Archipelago, Central America, South
America and all its islands on the continental shelf (with the exception of the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego) and the islands of Fernando de Noronha and South Trinidade.
As Figure 1 shows a total of 40 million ha is protected in areas listed under the World Heritage Convention in the Australian realm, an area more than three times as large as the Neotropical realm. The latter has twice as many World Heritage Sites but these are smaller. The dominance of the
Australian realm is due to the size of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Table 1). The Indomalayan realm contains a number (8) of World Heritage Sites comparable to the Neotropical, but these cover a much smaller area, of which only 2% is known to be marine.
' Miklos D.F. Udvardy, A Classification of the Biogeograpliical Provinces of the World. Prepared as a contribution to UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme Project No. 8. lUCN Occasional Paper No. 18. lUCN, Morges, Switzerland, 1975.
* e.g. Thorsell, J. et al., 1997. A Global Overview of Forest Protected Aieas on the World Heritage List. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
to
D Total Area
(8 D Known Marine Area
v\0\I -
83% 9(0 15
2% 0"/. 61% 42% no, 1 '" 1 *' 0% - 1
^^ v^^ ^^ .# #" ^ >&^ ^^' ^^ NO" v-^
Figure 1. The relative distribution of tropical marine, coastal and small island World Heritage Sites.
The proportion of total area known to be marine is given as a percentage, and the number of sites in each realm is given in parentheses. Therefore 61 % of the total area within the 12 World Heritage Sites in the Neotropical realm is known to be marine.
16 14 Total Area « o 12 o Total Marine Area 10 -•- O 8 "Z N 6 o 4 - '3 5 - O 2 o n ^ -o- E 3 <# <# # .# *N' 1^ 5f^^ .#^ t^^ *N*
Total Area of World Heritage Sites (ha)
is logarithmic and labels Figure 2. The size distribution of existing World Heritage Sites. The x-axis existing indicate the maximum size of the category. Y-axis labels indicate the number of World Site between 1,000- Heritage Sites in that size class. Therefore there is one existing World Heritage of in existing World Heritage Sites is 10,000 ha in total area. The size distribution of known marine area also plotted.
11 Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine. Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
Most (15) tropical marine, coastal and small island World Heritage Sites are between 100,000 and 1 million ha in total area (Figure 2). However the size distribution is somewhat different if only the known marine area is taken into account - the majority of World Heritage Sites include 10,000-
100,000 ha of known marine area. The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area is the largest World Heritage Site, and the only one in excess of 10 million ha (both in total and total marine area).
Henderson Island is the smallest, at 3,700 ha.
Figure 1 suggests that priority for any future tropical marine, coastal and small island site nominations should be in the Indomalayan, Paleartic, Afrotropical or Oceania realms. Although at present these four realms include half of the World Heritage Sites with tropical marine, coastal and small island components these cover a relatively small area of which an even smaller fraction is known to be marine. While the relatively large size of the Great Barrier Reef accounts for some of this discrepancy this is not the only cause. The other major factor is the relatively large number of World Heritage Sites in the Neotropical realm (Map 1).
The size distribution plotted in Figure 2 is presumably a consequence, amongst other factors, of the ecosystems at these locations and various political and practical decisions taken when these sites were established as protected areas. It may suggest an overall need for more tropical marine, coastal and small island World Heritage Sites with larger (100,000 - 10,000,000 ha) marine areas, but the size of any future nominations should clearly be determined by the specific situation at each site. A key consideration would be the types of tropical marine and coastal ecosystem included in a nominated site. The following section provides a preliminary overview of the existing coverage of coral reefs, mangroves, marine turtle nesting and feeding areas and seagrasses by the World Heritage Convention, although any such overview is necessarily dependant on the availability of information.
12 Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine, Coaslal anil Small Island Ecosyslems ami ihe World Heritage List
The Distribution of existing World Heritage Sites in Relation to Important Tropical Marine Ecosystems and Species
Coral Reefs
The distribution of World Heritage sites which include coral reefs is plotted in Map 5 . It is not possible to calculate the total area of coral reef covered by the World Heritage Convention: this data was not available for any of the 15 sites in Map 5. Although unknown the total is likely to be large in that the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Site contains more than 10% of world's coral reefs. However comparison of Map 5 with the following table of coral reef area by region^ may be useful in the development of the Global Strategy:
Region Area (km') % of world total
Caribbean 20,000 7.0
Atlantic 1,600 0.6
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 17,400 6.1
Arabian Gulf and Arabian Sea 4,200 1.5
Indian Ocean 32,000 11.3
Southeast Asia 91,700 32.3
Pacific 115.900 40.8
Eastern Pacific 1,600 0.6
Total 284,300
The eastern Pacific contains a small proportion of the world's coral reefs but 3 of the 15 World Heritage Sites which include coral reefs. This may be indicative that the WHC is effectively covering coral reefs in this region. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and the Arabian Gulf and Arabian Sea, contain 7.6% of the world's coral reefs but none of these occur within a World Heritage Site (indeed as stated previously there are no World Heritage Sites in these two regions). The Indian Ocean contains 11.3% of the world's coral reefs but only one World Heritage Site which includes coral reefs (Aldabra Atoll). This indicates that the that the WHC is not effectively covering coral reefs in these regions. The same conclusion can be drawn for the wider Pacific with 40.8% of the world's reefs and just 2 of the 15 World Heritage Sites which include coral reefs.
Mangroves
The distribution of the 23 World Heritage sites which include mangroves is plotted in Map 6. Large areas of mangrove occur in World Heriatge Sites such as the Everglades National Park, the Sundarbans, the Sundarbans National Park and the Darien National Park but as Map 6 illustrates there are no World Heritage Sites which contain mangroves in South America. With the exception of Banc d'Arguin National Park in Mauritania, which is the northernmost extent of mangroves in the western Atlantic, the same situation applies to continental Africa. The World Heritage Convention is therefore not covering mangroves in either South America or Africa despite globally significant mangroves forests on these continents.
' Source: Spalding, M., Ravilious, C. and Green, E. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California
Press, 4 1 6pp.
13 Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine. Coasial and Small Island Ecosyslems and the World Herilage List
Marine Turtles
The distribution of the 12 World Heritage sites known to include marine turtle nesting beaches is plotted in Map 7. As has been noted already for coral reefs and mangroves, Uirtle nesting beaches in South America, Africa, the Middle East and Indian Ocean are poorly covered by the Convention. There are globally important nesting beaches along the western coast of central America Lepidochelys olivacea (olive ridley mrtle) and Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback mrtle) and Gulf of Mexico where iox Lepidochelys kempii (Kemp's ridley turtle) which may merit attention under the Global Strategy.
Seagrasses
The distribution of the 9 World Heritage sites known to include seagrass beds* is plotted in Map 8.
However the global distribution of seagrasses is so poorly known that little can be concluded from this map.
' Source for the seagrass distribution: Coral World: produced by National Geographic Society, Committee for Research and Exploration, grant number 6097-97.
14 Discussion paper: A Global Overview of Tropical Marine, Coastal and Small Island Ecosystems and the World Heritage List
Data Sources
lUCN. 1997. A global overview of wetland and marine protected areas on the world heritage list. A contribution to the Global Theme Study of World Heritage Natural Sites. Natural Heritage Programme, lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. September 1997.
UNEP-WCMC, 2000. A global overview of protected areas on the world heritage list of particular importance for biodiversity. A contribution to the Global Theme Study of World Heritage Natural Sites, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. November 2000.
UNEP-WCMC Natural site datasheets for the World Heritage Convention. http://www.unesco.org/whc/nwhc/pages/sites/main.htm
The UNEP-WCMC/WCPA World Database on Protected Areas
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank, lUCN (1995). A Global Representative
System Of Marine Protected Areas . Vols. I-IV.
lUCN (1998). 1997 United Nations List of Protected Areas. Prepared by UNEP-WCMC and WCPA.
lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Ixii -I- 412pp.
Spalding MD, Raviiious C and Green EP (2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the UNEP- World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA
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