The Water Industry As World Heritage Thematic Study

Home , Canal de Marseille, Elan Valley Reservoirs, Lake Vyrnwy, Maulbronn Monastery, Water industry, William Lindley

The Water Industry as World Heritage Thematic Study

James Douet for TICCIH The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage

The Water Industry as World Heritage Thematic Study

James Douet TICCIH - The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage, is the international association for industrial archaeology and industrial heritage.

Its aim is to study, protect, conserve and explain the remains of industrialisation. For further information and how to join see www.ticcih.org.

An interactive digital edition of this report can be downloaded, with the other thematic studies, from the TICCIH website.

Frontispiece: R. C. Harris filtration plant, Toronto, Canada (© Taylor Hazell Architects)

TICCIH gratefully acknowledge the support received from the European Commission for the publication of this book.

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

1. Context 9

2. Introduction 12 2.1 Scope 12 2.2 Chronology 13 2.3 Comparative studies 14 2.4 The water industry on the World Heritage List 15 2.5 Collaboration 16

3. Terminology 18

4. Historical development of water infrastructure 23 4.1. Ancient and Classical supply systems 23 4.2. Early modern water provision 1500–1800 26 4.3. Industrialization 1800–80 36 4.4. Water and sewage combined 1880–1920 53 4.5. Modern water systems since 1920 56

5. Areas and values of significance 59

6. The water industry as World Heritage 61

7. UNESCO evaluation criteria relevant to the water industry 66 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 70 8.1. Augsburg hydraulic engineering, hydropower and drinking water, Germany 72 8.2. Sete Fontes aqueduct, Portugal 76 8.3. Tarnowskie Góry mine and water-management system, Poland 79 8.4. Águas Livres aqueduct and water-supply system, Portugal 83 8.5. Old Croton aqueduct, USA 87 8.6. Kew Bridge and Kempton Park pumping stations, UK 92 8.7. Berlin Radialsystem sewage treatment network, Germany 97 8.8. Boston Metropolitan Waterworks Museum, USA 101 8.9. Vyrnwy and Elan Valley distant supply schemes, UK 106 8.10. Melbourne sewage system and Spotswood pumping station, Australia 110 8.11. Palacio de las Aguas Corrientes service reservoirs, Argentina 113 8.12. Old Wastewater Treatment Plant Prague-Bubeneč, Czech Republic 117 8.13. Prague-Podolí water treatment plant, Czech Republic 121 8.14. R. C. Harris filtration plant, Canada 125

9. Conclusions 130

10. Bibliography 132 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The modern water industry grew in response to rising demand for water caused by industrialization and consequent concentrations of urban populations. By the early 19th century these were starting to overwhelm traditional sources of water and customs of waste removal, resulting in repeated epidemics of waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid and yellow fever. To overcome this historical threat to human development, referred to by environmental historians as the Sanitary Crisis, new technological solutions, engineering practices, administrative arrangements and legal frameworks had to be worked out, underpinned by advances in scientific and medical understanding of the transmission of disease and the purification of water. An infrastructure to collect, distribute and treat water for human consumption was assembled – and in many cases retro-fitted – first of all in the larger cities and subsequently to urban landscapes everywhere. Systems grew which integrated distant sources of fresh water from upland dams and reservoirs; pumped supplies raised from underground aquifers, rivers and lakes; distribution networks of aqueducts, pipelines, pumping stations and water towers; and filter and treatment centres where impurities could be removed. Early modern patchworks of local water supply gradually meshed, refashioned urban areas, extended to other technologies, and led to the development of the modern network city. In helping to overcome the Sanitary Crisis, and enabling later urban growth to proceed without the suffering encountered during the 19th century, the water infrastructure made a major contribu- 8 tion to human development, and the most historically significant elements, taking authenticity and integrity into account, should be identified and recognized. The present work, commissioned by TICCIH, is one in a series of comparative thematic studies which propose criteria by which the material evidence of different industrial sectors can be assessed. These are pertinent for the World Heritage List as well as for national and regional heritage inventories. A historical summary identifies when and where the important advances in the water industry took place so as to help recognize both the outstanding as well as the most representative surviving sites – the unique but also the ubiquitous – and to locate poten- tially significant ones. A selection of case studies is included to aid the comparative analysis of historic properties. Overall, in our view the water infrastructure from the pre-industrial period is comparatively well represented in the UNESCO list, although with a preponderance of aqueduct bridges, but the heritage of the modern water industry is almost entirely absent, despite its unarguable relevance to human development. A selection of outstanding networks or collections of integrated sites should be made to correct this imbalance.

1. Context

1.1 Thematic studies This report forms part of a series of comparative thematic studies of the heritage of different industrial sectors organized by TICCIH in its role as the designated consultant to lCOMOS in matters related to the study and preservation of industrial heritage. ICO- MOS counsels UNESCO on properties to be added to the World Heritage List, drawing on its advice from TICCIH. Although the format varies, in general these comparative studies summarize the worldwide history of the sector, identifying the period, location and authors of the most significant developments in order to provide a contextual framework to help identify the outstanding as well as the most representative plant, buildings, sites or landscapes produced by the chosen sector. The theoretical and practical considerations of these properties as World Heritage sites is examined in the light of the criteria for Outstanding Universal Value in UNESCO’s Operational Guidelines for the Implementa- tion of the World Heritage Convention. A selection of case studies, written by different authors, contributes to the comparative evaluation of different sites around the world, although without making any recommendations. The immediate beneficiary of the report is UNESCO, to help it distinguish places eligible for inscription on the World Heritage List, but the criteria are applicable to other national or regional denominations. 11 12 The Water Industry as World Heritage World Heritage Listaswell asonnational Tentative Lists.They presented as case studies are already properties inscribed on the Universal Value. Amongtheplacesincluded inthediscussionor to betakenintoconsideration inanassessmentofOutstanding acterize thosefeatures ofthisclassculturalheritagewhichought not recommend anyspecificplaces,intendingrathertohelp char- for inscriptiononthe World Heritage Listby UNESCO.It does ferent Thismaybeusefulforassessingsitesputforward properties. tofacilitatetheevaluation andcomparisonofdif- of thisindustry together as much accessible information as possibleon the heritage the conclusions. les AigüesinBarcelona inApril 2018toconfirm aconsensusfor ument ataninternationalmeetinghostedby theMuseu Agbarde improvements, concludingwiththepresentation ofthefinaldoc- and professional spread, theincorporationoftheirsuggestionsand whowerevant experts soughttogive arepresentative geographical amination of theliterature during2017,consultationwith rele- The process ofpreparing this consistedofadesk-basedex - report 1.3 Methodology — — — — The will report 1.2 Objectives The study does not introduce new research, serving todraw The studydoesnotintroduce new research, serving scapes whichbestrepresent thesecontributions. provide comparative datatohelpidentifythesitesorland- butions tohumandevelopment; and madesignificantcontri- determine whenthewaterindustry widespread practicalapplication; developments,tify criticalorgateway aswell asthoseofmost plot thetechnicalevolution ofthemaincomponentstoiden- anditsimpactonhumansettlements; water industry summarize the global development of the infrastructure of the 1. Context 13 serve as intended is not inclusion and their the theme illustrate to sites. Heritage World as of their potential an indication 2. Introduction

2.1 Scope The parameters defining this study relate to the methodology out- lined in Professor Michel Cotte’s 2015 report for ICOMOS, The cultural heritages of water. This ambitious and wide-ranging work seeks to provide ‘a methodology for the identification and then the preservation of such heritages, in a wider context, not only for properties which could be nominated for the World Heritage List, but also for places of regional or local importance’ (Cotte 2015, 11). Cotte recognizes the utility of a ‘thematic category-based approach’ similar to previous TICCIH comparative studies such as that of navigation canals (Hughes 1996), railways (Coulls 1999) or quarries (Gwyn, unpublished). This is the approach of the current study which is focused under the first general category in the typology that he proposes:

1. The acquisition, management and control of water to make it available for purposes of human use: – water collection, drainage, wells, boreholes, etc., – the storage of water at various scales, dams, cisterns, etc., – the transport of water as a tangible resource, [pumps], – water treatment upstream and downstream of use (settling, 14 filtration, pollution removal, recycling, etc.). 2.Introduction 15 Use of water for irrigation, transport and navigation, generat- Use water power. or direct energy, ing hydraulic of natural water (floods and droughts). Control spas, recreation). and health (leisure, Water mythology and religion). (forecasting, knowledge Water and gardens). landscapes (parks Designed collection (wells, boreholes), (wells, collection reservoirs),storage (dams, stations, reservoirs, (aqueducts, pumping distribution cis- and mains networks), towers, terns, water of natural and wastewater chemical and (filtration, treatment biological treatment). The TICCIH water industry study examines the infrastructure The water during the industrial built for the management of drinking Tagil Charter. Nizhny it in the 2003 TICCIH defines period, as found in such as are urban supply networks pre-industrial Simple in so far as they included are China, Arabia and the Classical world of the engineering origins to the infrastructure some of the provide aqueduct bridges and storage primarily dams, modern industry, cisterns. 2.2 Chronology 3. 4. 5. 6. 2. The site typologies which will be examined therefore include: therefore be examined will which site typologies The — — — — for man- not exclusively of these types of sites are many Evidently consumption, and may also serveaging water for human for irriga- or defence for control, flood in power, generate to canals, as tion, five other the are study of this scope the from Excluded recreation. by Cotte: categories defined 16 The Water Industry as World Heritage ture intheshapingofmoderncityby theearly20 relevant totherest of theworld. the late18 ment ofthesenetworks from theonsetofindustrializationfrom The mainhistoricalfocusofthestudyistherefore onthedevelop- built by theFederal government inthe20 six American National Historic Landmarks criteriatohighdams et al.(2005)isarigorous considerationoftheapplication built forwatersupply, notablyin theRoman Empire. Billington ueducts, andpumpsfornavigationcanals,butincludes examples Monument List(Hughes aq- 1996)assessesdams,earthworks, tems comparabletothatofAugsburg. The International Canal ofEngland, andexaminesotherwatersys- industry and sewage Monuments inSlovakia. ment systeminGermany, andBanská Štiavnica andthe Technical burg (Kluger 2013) and the Upper Harz mining water-manage- Hydropower, Drinking Water andDecorative Fountains ofAugs- Management System inPoland, theHydraulic Engineering and age List,andtheseinclude Tarnowskie Underground Góry Water analyses are nominated forthe done for properties World Herit - grey literature ofunpublishedagencyreports. Partial comparative territories,andmaybewithinthe they considerortoparticular tigations that have beenfoundare limited either inthetypologies of sitesandlandscapesthewaterindustry. inves- partial Thefew This isthefirstglobalcomparative studyassessingthesignificance 2.3 Comparativestudies many citiesandtowns by thelate19 sors tomore elaboratecentralized city-widesystemsadoptedby networks, sources pumpingfacilitiesandnew ofsupply... precur- refers to theseasproto-systems, ‘offering distribution rudimentary examined asthepioneersofmodernwaterindustry. Melosi Douet (1995)isanassessmentoftheheritagewater The simple urban water networks of early modern Europe are th century,- andthefundamentalrole ofthis infrastruc th century’ (Melosi 2008,39). th century butwhichare century th century. 2.Introduction 17 The only property or landscape on the list including compo- to waiting are supply water with associated directly sites Two in transporting wa- involved The properties on the List that are At the time of publishing this report no modern systems or net- the time of publishing this report At and treating for supplying drinking water or for removing works although List, Heritage World the on inscribed wastewatersare UNESCO (Wil- by recognized some individual components are lems & Schaik 2015). is the met- supply of drinking water nents for the industrialized - Wa Góry and its Underground Tarnowskie al mining complex the of Part 2017. in inscribed Poland, in System Management ter ‘the the claim that it includes justification for its inscription is water supply systems based on the first large-scale public world’s although ICOMOS’ pumping of groundwater’, steam-powered was little survivingtechnical mission noted that there tangible ev- justify the inscription of this idence of this. The criteria used to 8.5. in Section presented metal mine are European - Drink and Hydropower, Engineering be assessed, the Hydraulic on the German of Augsburg Fountains and Decorative Water ing with its Aqueduct, Livres Águas List, and the Baroque Tentative on that of Portugal. associated conduits and reservoir, and engi- inscribed for their architectural ter for human use are 2.4 The water industry on the World industry on the World 2.4 The water Heritage List ...while historians of technology of technology historians ...while to sanitary little attention have given historians and urban technologies, had health have of public historians that conditions say about the much to water supplies need for new led to the 682 Hamlin 1992,) and sewers. ( 18 The Water Industry as World Heritage in makingitasuccess. de lesAigueswhosedirector, Sònia Hernández, wasinstrumental the conference whichconcludedtheproject attheMuseu Agbar commenting onearlyversions. Eusebi Casanelleshelpedarrange TICCIH, andSusan Ross andDennis de Witt were generous in ticular encouragementofStephen Hughes andPatrick Martin of Itwith aconsiderableteamofexperts. wasdeveloped withthepar- This thematic is the review effort result ofawideinterdisciplinary 2.5 Cooperation the Technical Monuments inSlovakia. water-management systeminGermany andBanská Štiavnica and – ,orearlymodernmininglandscapestheUpper Harzmining Ancient Villages inSouthern Anhui – XidiandHongcun inChina features of canal navigations – the Old Town of Lijiang and the oftheRideauCanalinCanada. part type to be built in Europe. The 1826–32 Jones Falls Dam forms buttress damatLampy, addedin1777–81,wasthesecondofthat revetment damwithlowearth walls,whilethemasonry masonry retain feedwaterforthesummitlevel. St Ferréol (1667–71)isan Two are oftheCanalduMidi part inFrance, whichwere raisedto water system. monastic inGermany includeselementsofa13th-century astery accessing andstoringground water. The Gothic Maulbronn Mon- typology withamonumentalarchitectural designdeveloped for Rani-ki-VavThe 11th-century Stepwell in India isacharacteristic towhichtheyarecal skillofplanningandconstruction testament. Tembleque aqueductinMexico. Eachisrecognized forthetechni- via, Tarragona, Spain, andPont duGard, France, andthePadre Theseareneering importance. thethree Roman aqueductsin Sego- Some urbanwater-supply networks are includedassecondary The only dams which are inscribed are along canal navigations. 2.Introduction 19 Sheridan Burke, Australia Burke, Sheridan Spain Casanelles, Eusebi UK Chrimes, Michael Cotte, France Michel Professor US Witt, J De Dennis Germany Föhl, Axel Germany Haspel, Jörg Germany Höhmann, Rolf UK Hughes, Stephen US Hunter, Meisha Republic Czech Jiroušková, Šárka Dr Portugal Lopes Cordeiro, Manuel José Professor US Martin, Patrick Professor Italy Preite, Massimo Professor US Morin, Bode Dr UK Porter, John Canada Ross, Susan Professor Argentina Tartarini, Jorge Correspondents — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 3. Terminology

This section briefly defines the technical terms describing water infrastructure used throughout the report.

Public water supply (PWS): a system that provides water via piping or other constructed conveyances to the public for human consumption.

Public sewage collection and treatment (PSCC): a system that removes domestic sewage and treats it to remove contaminants and leave environmentally safe water.

Separate sewage system (SSS): separate sewers that do not carry storm water, which is removed in an independent pipe system.

Combined sewage system (CSS): combined sewage systems removing both sewage and urban rain run-off.

Sanitation: the systems for taking dirty water and other waste products away from building to protect people’s health.

Waterworks: a general term covering the following — a water or sewage treatment plant; — a pumping station including the pump house, ancillary buildings, accommodation and landscaping; and — a building containing pumps and the motor to drive them.

20 3. Terminology 21 impounding reservoirs: formed when a valley is closed by a is closed by impounding reservoirs: formed when a valley to be the flow allows dam which holds back the water and regulated. pumped water. holding reservoirs: store water prior to treatment. storage reservoirs: store service water prior to distribution, under reservoirs: store ground. or above embankment dams: made of compacted materials such as of compacted materials dams: made embankment of impervious or earth a core rock most have and material. or concrete reinforced mass or from gravity dams: made stone masonry to hold back water primarily and designed straight but some are Most of the materials. weight the by a curvedhave axis. of the weight the dams: curved direct and arch upstream - foundations and abutments. Arch–gravi water against the the propertiesty dams combine of the two types. – – – – – – – : tall, narrow tower to regulate mains pressure or or mains pressure to regulate tower standpipe: tall, narrow act as a buffer for pumped water. and the flow and controls : regulates tower or discharge valve incorporated and may be separate or of reservoir water, level in the dam. : an inclined gallery excavated into a hillside to strike an qanat: an inclined gallery excavated aquifer. house: houses sluice gates, valve gatehouse, outlet works, or pumps. valves rainfall, and/or collected : holds water collected from reservoir which it can flow aquifers, from and underground rivers from under gravity to the consumer. : a large covered holding reservoir. holding : a large covered cistern constructeddam: a barrier water and raise its to hold back as for well as a reservoir forming used for water supply, level, electricity. or to generate such as irrigation other purposes — — — — — Collection and storage and Collection — — 22 The Water Industry as World Heritage — Distribution — — — — — applied towhatisreally anaqueductbridge. water from aremote source, usuallyby gravity, butoften aqueduct: apipe,conduitorchanneldesignedtotransport water supplies. whose purposeistoreach theaquiferandraiseunderground well, borehole: abored, drilled or driven shaft,oradughole pressurize mains. water tower: raisedwaterstoragestructure toholdwaterand water pumps. steam pumpingengine:reciprocating primemover linkedto totreatmentwastewater facilitiesorrivers. sewer: asystemofunderground pipesthatcollectanddeliver often rainwater. cistern: smalltank(usuallycovered) tostore drinkingwater, – – – – – – – against gravity. siphon: pipeorconduitthrough whichwaterwillflow conduit: openductorchannel. pipeline: closed,usuallyburied,tubes. plants tousers. waterfrom treatment pipelinescarrying mains: arterial der compoundedexamples were widely used. erating pumpsdirectly orthrough acrank. 2-and3-cylin- cylinder(s),op - engine:steamenginewithvertical vertical der(s), operatingpumpsthrough cranksorrockers. horizontal engine:steamenginewith horizontal cylin- tive models (theCornishengine)are used. rotative models(withacrankandflywheel)non-rota - on thewallsofenginehouseoriron columns.Both ating pumpsthrough either ahorizontal beam supported cylinder,beam engine:steamenginewithavertical oper- 3. Terminology 23 sand bed with a thin bio- rapid gravity filter: sand bed with a thin and slow a Rapid filters have drinking water. to treat logical layer by backwashing. cleansed coarser filter medium and are settlement: open lagoon in which suspended pollutants out of the sink to the bottom and the liquid overflows enclosure. of treatment contact beds: container in which aerobic sewage is facilitated. to allow septic tank: tank used to detain domestic wastes the settling of solids. – – – – filter house: building containing rapid filter tanks. sedimentation tanks: wastewater tanks in which floating for removed are skimmed off and settled solids wastes are disposal. plant: a facility designed sewage (or wastewater) treatment - and to re domestic sources the wastewater from to receive public damage water quality and threaten materials that move a combi- employ examples health when discharged. Modern steps and bacterial decomposi- nation of mechanical removal results. the desired tion to achieve : the place where a sewer or drain discharges. sewer or a place where : the outfall which may be housing pumps, station: a building pumping motors, engine, oil or electric steam power, animal by moved power. of motive or other sources head: point of public spring- or conduit fountain-, well-, and some- often decorative free, usually water distribution, in design. times monumental in a tank or reservoir of sand or gravel filter beds: layers which water passes to purify through drained at the bottom it. — — — — — — Treatment — 24 The Water Industry as World Heritage — — to users. ry, treatment ofwaterfordelivery and/ortertiary secondary water treatment outprima- plant:afacilitydesignedtocarry treatmenteuphemism forasewage plant. sometimesa tributing itonagriculturallandasafertilizer; sewage farm by: afacilitytodisposeofhumansewage dis- 4. Historical development of water infrastructure

The default or natural sources of water for human communities were rainfall collected in tanks or cisterns, raised or pumped up from the aquifer, or conveyed from the nearest stream, river or lake. Sewage and effluent was buried, spread on fields as manure, or allowed to disperse naturally from below-ground privies and cesspits. Surface drains carried waste away to the nearest water body with no attempt at treatment.

4.1. Ancient and Classical supply systems Since the earliest attempts to obtain more reliable or abundant water, organized supply and waste removal systems have been struc- tured around urban settlements (Angelakis & Zheng 2015). 25 26 The Water Industry as World Heritage Spain. (©CharlyMorlock, Wikipedia Commons) The Cornalvo gravitydamsuppliedwater tothe Roman cityof Mérida in created largeholdingreservoirs. dams at The twoearth Mérida, Spain, from the2nd century stored waterfortheRoman town ofGlanum in1stcentury example,the 1994). Theoldestsurviving Vallon de Baume dam, supply, arch developing and buttress structural dams (Schnitter (Smith 1975). crete. Lengthypipelinesincludedsectionsofpressurized siphon of 130 The Eifel aqueductsupplyingCologne(80 Gard onthe50 the aqueductbridgesinSegovia, Spain (98 mans’ commitment to large-scalewatersupply. Examples include ticated raisedbridgesectionswhichwere symptomaticoftheRo- The Romans were thefirstsocietytoimpoundrivers forwater Many Roman towns were suppliedby aqueductswithsophis- km, mostlybelow withcon- ground, andwasconstructed km channelsupplyingNimes, France (20 ce) hadatotallength ce), orthePont du bce). bce ce. 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 27 of water in 3 m Water transported to urban areas by aqueducts was typically aqueducts was typically by transported areas to urban Water the Byzantine capital (Mays et al. 2013). capital (Mays the Byzantine Various low-lift pumping mechanisms were employed to raise wa- to raise employed were mechanisms pumping low-lift Various include These gravity. under move to thereby levels ter to higher , a the shaduf power; animal and water by norias moved wheels or and counterweight; beam with a bucket swinging - and Archime 2011). series (Hassan as in singly as well dean screws, masonry From vaulted, in towns. of edge the on cisterns stored dis- or towers, and water to storage tanks might be raised it here homes to public fountains and some private tributed via conduits was pipes and artisanal both by water carriers. It and workshops - Rome, Carthage and Constantinople (Is sewers. also used to flush distribution systems than were water developed tanbul) had better - Capacious vault century. in modern cities until the 19th achieved partlyby filled were cisterns in Constantinople ed underground cis- Yerebatan The had considerable capacity. long aqueducts and constructed between Basilica) Cisterna or Palace, Sunken (the tern up to 80,000 532 and 542 was one of sixty to store 28 The Water Industry as World Heritage dustrial sector from the 16 Europe. Water provision begantoassumethecharacter ofanin- works from themuchsimpler schemestosupplywaterinmedieval Centuries separatethesesophisticated Roman andByzantine net- 1500–1800 4.2. Earlymodernwaterprovision CreativeRobert Raderschatt, Commons) was brought 19 kmthrough channelsincorporatingtwoRoman aqueducts.(© Recycled thevaults ofthe columnssupport Yerebatan cistern inIstanbul. Water th century. Asurbanpopulationsgrew, 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 29 -century spring system to bring th - Refor the Protestant and after century, th (restoration of Rome) programme programme of Rome) (restoration Romae renovatio A more extensive system was built in Istanbul between 1453 between system was built in Istanbul extensive A more ThePius V water to Canterbury surviving cathedral, and whose most visible heads. The and public fountains and conduit cisterns are structures monastery wa- built an extensive at Maulbronn monks Cistercian the 13 ter system during Small-scale water-supply networks were built to serve built monas- were water-supply networks Small-scale such as the 12 tic communities, Distant gravity supply the traditional sources became stressed. Private cesspits and privies privies cesspits and Private stressed. became sources the traditional sup- and the amount wells nearby from raised the water polluted built themselves Communities stretched. increasingly plied was from water natural bring to aqueducts using systems water-supply primitive and contrived sources distant, uncontaminated, more to storage cisterns. water raise river pumps to mation monastic systems were adapted into municipal networks. networks. adapted into municipal systems were mation monastic distributed drinking public fountains, human water carriers From and men collected excrement water to consumers, while night-soil disposed of it or sold it for manure. incor- Halkah urban supply network Ottoman and 1755. The lines connecting dams and porated sixteen independent supply public baths aqueducts to some 435 fountains, springs through supplied network The Kirkçesme and mosques within the city. and 1554–63 from neighbourhoods lower to of charge free water masonryconduits, filters, distribution had settling basins, covered 2008). (Dinçkal and water towers centres adapted and modernized the ancient hydraulic infrastructure of infrastructure the ancient hydraulic adapted and modernized 1585 Felice 1560–70, Acqua Vergine the city after 1570: Acqua com- was project the when 1630, By 1607–12. Paola Acqua and eighty documented public fountains and hun- were plete, there ones, each connected to one of the aqueducts by of private dreds conduits (Rinnie 2011). hidden underground 30 The Water Industry as World Heritage (Wikipedia Commons) (Wikipedia the CounterReformation renewal ofthewater-supplysysteminRome. Public fountainheadsliketheFontana dell’acqua Felice were of part carry watertoMarseille, markcarry an apogeeoftherevived Roman Aguas Livres andtheAqueduc Saint-Clément, erected in1765to sections ofarched aqueduct. accessedby smallinspection houses,with derground stonegallery aqueduct, waterfollowing the13 kmroute mostlythrough anun - and wascompletedin1623.It alsofollowed thelineofaRoman Although Lisbon’s 1744AlcantarábridgeontheAguaducto das The Aqueduc Médicis was ordered by Henri IVto supply Paris 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 31

th century th century the company had th The artificial New River in London opened in 1613 to carry in London New River The artificial km of pipeline, divided between pressurized pressurized 460 km of pipeline, divided between approximately and smaller service pipes linked to individual houses. Lon- ‘mains’ unique until the 19 would remain consumer water network don’s Je voudrais que toutes les maisons de Paris les maisons de Paris voudrais que toutes Je de Londres. eussent de l’eau, comme celles had (I wish all the houses of Paris do.) water like those of London ntoine de (Letter from Voltaire to A Parcieux (1767), Oeuvres complètes de , vol. 60, 241) Voltaire tradition of gravity-fed bridge aqueducts with precisely engineered engineered with precisely bridge aqueducts of gravity-fed tradition another century. at least did not end for that tradition gradients, as However, Portugal 1880. from dates aqueduct in The Alviela 19 in the reliable more cheaper and pipes became iron they offered new possibilities. While the High Bridge that carries Bridge that High While the new possibilities. they offered River the North across aqueduct Croton 1837–42 Old York’s New a spectacular example of a true looks like aqueduct to Manhattan mason- the than elevation lower significantly a to rises it bridge, rythem between water carries and ends, its at conduits gravity 1975). The of an inverted pipes siphon (Smith the iron through Cochituate aqueduct is 1846–8 of Boston’s crossing Charles River pipe inverted siphon. a similar iron accomplished using a channel with springs 45 km north water from of the city, fresh the marking as well As aqueduct. wooden of sections including company in urban wa- early participation commercial of a private of wooden pipes network Company’s River the New ter supply, in developments technological connected to customers pioneered to the modern urban model water distribution which would lead the late 18 By city. of the networked - Europe point for growing and was the constant reference century, 2015). an and American cities (Tomory 32 The Water Industry as World Heritage water and wastewater networkswater andwastewater inthe15 including Augsburg, Munich and Nuremberg alsobuilt gravity-fed was well known andinfluential(Kluger2013).Citiesin Bavaria holding towers anddistributeittopublicfountains.Thesystem pumps driven toliftriver by watertodifferent three waterwheels Tor (Red Gate) inAugsburg, builtin1416. It housedreciprocating The oldestwatersystemincentral Europe isprobably the Rotes es towork pistonpumps,raisingriver wateruptostoragecisterns. burg, Bremen below andDanzig bridg- hadmountedwaterwheels vakia. as inthecaseoflocalsilver minesofBanská Štiavnica inSlo - as a side benefit ofsophisticated arrangementsfor draining mines, Central European towns begantobesupplied withdrinkingwater fiting from theapplicationofpistonpumptominedrainage. technological advance in the development of water supply, bene- Pumping drinkingwaterfrom rivers represented animportant agement techniquesdeveloped forore miningincentralEurope. in theearlymodernperiod,sectorbenefitedfrom water-man- While there waslittlepressure toadvance water-supplytechnology Pumped systems accessible river water. By theearly15 intownsconstructed incentralEurope totakeadvantage ofeasily vate households (Winiwarter etal.2016). vate households (Winiwarter pumped uptothetopofatower anddistributedviapipestopri- 1422. After1511thecityerected well houses where waterwas Italy. waterto Thefirstaqueductcarrying Munichwasbuiltin from theAlps, drawingonRenaissance hydraulic techniquesfrom In the14 th century complexliftingmechanismswere being century th century citizens inAugs century - th century usingwater century 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 33 (middle) and Großer Wasserturm (right). (Creative Commons) (right). (Creative Wasserturm (middle) and Großer Augsburg, Germany: Upper Brunnenmeisterhaus (left), Kleiner Wasserturm Wasserturm Brunnenmeisterhaus (left), Kleiner Upper Germany: Augsburg, Piston pumps worked by waterwheels raised river water up to the Rotes Tor in Tor water up to the Rotes waterwheels by pumps worked raised river Piston 34 The Water Industry as World Heritage in America(McMahon 1988; Marks 2010). works famous,by the1850s most depictedarchitectural work Palladian architecture ofthepumphousemadeFairmount water- excavatedraise watertothereservoir ontopofFairmount hill.The operatingbucketpumpsto four pairsoflargebreast waterwheels Philadelphia’s municipal Water Commission replaced themwith from theSchuylkill river in1801.Disappointed withtheservice, Centre Square abstracting schemeinPhiladelphia, whichstarted forthepioneer reservoir boilers topumpahigh-level service beamengineswithwood-firedHenry Latrobe usedtworotary after steam-powered pumpingenginesbecame available. Benjamin able, water-powered pumpingwasoccasionallycompetitive even cisterns throughout thesettlement. to acollectingtower, andfrom there waterflowed by gravityto cast-iron pumpswhichforced springwater through woodenpipes in theUnited States. powered Awaterwheel three single-acting begun in1754andisconsidered theoldestwaterpumpingstation Moravian communitiesinNorth was America.Thewaterworks lehem, Pennsylvania, whichwasamongthefirstofanumber to North America by immigrants.Anearly example is in Beth- 1813 and1853. untilthey were dismantledin in 1673.Theycontinuedservice and asecondpumpingsystemontheNotre-Dame bridgewasbuilt had twosuctionpumpswhichlifted710 m fountains. The Pompe dela Samaritaine onthe Pont Neuf bridge Tuileries gardens public went andasmallproportion tosomeforty Paris toraisewaterfrom theSeine totheLouvre palaceandthe 2014). from whichitcouldflow tocustomers(Grudgings & Tymków bank in 1726, forcingthe rivernorth water to a higherreservoir pumps, andtwomore were on builtfortheChelseawaterworks underLondonBridge operatingaseriesofbucket al waterwheels to raisewaterfrom theRiver ThamesinLondon1582,twotid- When thelocationandeconomicconditionswere favour- Water-management techniqueswere transferred from Europe A large waterwheel pumpwascommissionedby HenriA largewaterwheel IVin by aDutchA pumpedsystemwasconstructed waterengineer 3 adaytoreservoir, 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 35

(© Ben Franske, Creative Commons) Creative (© Ben Franske, where waterwheels replaced beam engines to work the lift pumps. the lift pumps. beam engines to work waterwheels replaced where The Fairmount waterworks on the Schuylkill river in Philadelphia in waterworks on the Schuylkill river Fairmount The - steam in Mon over preferred was also pumping Water-driven treal where two breast wheels were put into operation in 1856 to wheels were two breast where treal added in 1864. A steam turbine was lift pumps, and a Jonval work win- in the freezing overcome engine was incorporated in 1864 to 1886 added between engines were steam Worthington Four ter. of water and a combination and 1905, but the system remained the water still raised by of about 60 percent with steam power, installed in 1903, until were the turbines. The first electric pumps for the city’s source became the power hydroelectricity eventually 2013). water supply (Ross 36 The Water Industry as World Heritage England intheearly18 from andwastewater evenof sewage low-lying settlements. and would eventually provide the energy to remove large volumes additionalsourcestion ofgroundwater ofwater, intoimportant steam engine.Thismaderiver pumpingandlaterborehole abstrac- ment ofmodernwaterandwastesystemswastheinvention ofthe The criticaltechnologicaldevelopment fortheprogressive develop - Steam pumping abstraction. city in1788.Paris wouldinfuture rely ondistantsources toriver was notacommercial successandthe companywasboughtby the early water architecture with two Watt-type engines. The scheme water to the city, the Gros-Caillou pump house a fine example of beside theSeine in1782and1788whichtrebled thequantityof built two steam-powered pumping stations on the English model capacity (Tomory 2015).Theprivate CompagniedesEauxde Paris companies relied exclusively onenginesofthe Watt type for new ufactured withMathew by Boulton.TheLondon hispartnership gine withaseparatecondenserdeveloped by James Watt andman - much more powerful, reliable and economicalsteampumpingen- mills asamotive force pumpingmechanisms. engines overlapped windmillsandanimal tread- withwaterwheels, pump water in New York in 1774. This first generation of steam Europe andinNorth America. Two engineswere brieflyusedto pumping technologywassoontransferred tootherlargecitiesin and leadpipestobothprivate homesandpublicfountains.Steam and distributedintermittentlythrough bored tree-trunk mains Thames tidemillsin1743. Water wasstoredreservoirs inservice were builttosupplementtheChelsea Water Works Company’s tween 1726 and 1732 by the York Buildings Company. Two more en-type atmosphericenginewhichwasoperatedinLondonbe- The first‘fire engine’ tobeusedforwatersupplywas a Newcom- opment was driven by the imperative toreduce fuel consumption. Effective steam-powered pumpingengines were firstbuiltin From the 1780s onwards water supply projects could use the th century todraincoalmines,anddevel- century 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 37

(© Chris Allen, Creative Commons) (© Chris Allen, Creative The 1820 Boulton & Watt beam engine, one of two originally The 1820 Boulton & and moved upstream to the Kew Bridge pumping station in 1840. Bridge to the Kew upstream and moved installed at Chelsea pumping station beside the River Thames in London the River installed at Chelsea pumping station beside 38 The Water Industry as World Heritage typhoid were reform. powerful ifintermittentstimulitosanitary rate,whileperiodicepidemicsofcholeraand the risingmortality living conditionsinurbanareas couldbetrackedstatisticallyin chemical industriesaddedtoxic compounds.Thedeteriorating the naturalcapacityofrivers todilute.Laterinthecentury, new processes farbeyond liketanningandbrewing dumpedwastewater ing largequantitiesofsoftwater. Moreover, traditionalindustrial sumption, processes suchasdyeing andbleachingtextilesdemand- had toencounter(Hassan 1985). legal problems ofaformandmagnitudetheyhadnotpreviously tives were setoftechnical,financialand facedwithabewildering acceleration inpopulationgrowth. Citizens andtheirrepresenta- ditions brought about by industrialization andtheaccompanying North livingcon- Americafacedarisingurbancrisisofinsanitary throughout the19 continued todevelop thissystem withever-longer aqueducts supply from upland sources (Barraqué 2015). periodoflong-distance for naturallycleanwater opened anew ized intowns throughout the industrializing world.Thepreference water companies,manyofwhichwere bought outandmunicipal- scale projects wasusuallybeyond thecapabilitiesofexistingprivate distances. Theplanning,financingand execution ofsuchlarge- recommended bringingwaterfrom natural sources atever greater orpollutedriver water onasufficientlylargescale,engineers dirty drinking wateravailable tothecitizens. With nowayoftreating wasasoftenthemotive asmakingcleanandsufficient for industry the fast-growing manufacturingtowns where obtainingsoftwater ones,especiallyin older water-supplysystemsandtobuildnew The increase inurbanpopulationsencouragedinitiatives toextend Distant gravitysupply From theearly decadesofthe19 4.3. Industrialization1800–80 Water contributedtotheriseincon- consumedby industry Paris haddrawnonremote suppliessinceRoman times,and th andearly20 th th centuries.The Canaldela Vil- century, citiesinEurope and 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 39 century, century, th After a cholera outbreak in the 1830s, New Yorkers voted to voted Yorkers the 1830s, New in After a cholera outbreak 1855 municipal scheme to bring water 55 km from Glasgow’s lette was started under Napoleon and completed in 1821. During During in 1821. and completed was startedlette under Napoleon the added Belgrand, Eugène engineer, his reforms Haussmann’s more and three aqueducts (1866–74) Vanne (1863–5) and Dhuis – Voulzie and Loing (1897–1900) (1890–3), – Avre built were to was distributed Water in 1925. system was completed until the the 15 dating back to fountains, some public numerous both monumental, decorative (the emblematic Wallace fountains) Wallace emblematic (the decorative both monumental, began to be only lost their utility once homes and functional. They 1880s. the supply from connected to the mains the largest in the world, water system, then construct the Croton it with a 65 km and connected river Croton which dammed the stations, serviceaqueduct to pumping reservoirs and holding tanks was highly visible, and even This infrastructure within the city. landscape ‘ghost’ a left has it disappeared has much now though a distant supply strategy, behind. The city continued to follow 1905 when the watersheds from adding the Catskill/Delaware ever-increasing insufficient for the system proved original Croton it was completed in 1911, the original the time consumption. By much larger by reservoirs overlaid and aqueduct had been Croton ones (Bone 2006). - with a rapidly expanding popula Faced Loch Katrine is exemplary. the Glasgow cholera epidemics, tion and sequences of devastating suppliers private-sector of its water from Corporation took control ‘unques- was new a built and project The gravitational scheme. combining city, the for showpiece municipal prime the tionably the nurturing technology with of quality Victorian the wonders of 2000). (Maver water’ Highland pure 40 The Water Industry as World Heritage Waterworks in1856-59.(©Sheila Winstone, Creative Commons) scheme designedby civilengineerJohn Frederic Bateman fortheGlasgow Loch Venacher sluicehousecontrols thewaterflowKatrine alongthe Loch en-Provence wascompleted in1854.Another earlyarch damisat François Zola ofanintegratedwater-supply schemeforAix- aspart entific approach. The innovative arch damdesigned by masonry 19 modern analytical design methods (Chrimes 2009). In the mid- from theerabeforean outstandingexampleof damconstruction over 1 kminlengththatsuppliedwatertoHyderabad, andwas in India buttress dam wasbuiltin1808,amulti-arch masonry dams were raisedtocreate The holdingreservoirs. Meer Alumdam th Both structural arch damsandmassiveBoth structural gravityorembankment century, damdesignadvanced towards amore rational,sci-

4. Historical development of water infrastructure 41

(Creative Commons) (Creative The Barrage Zola is an early masonry arch dam built to provide Zola is an early masonry dam built to provide Barrage arch The Aix-en-Provence with safe water following a cholera epidemic in the city. a cholera epidemic in the city. with safe water following Aix-en-Provence T de Sazilly (1853) in France and William Rankine (1858) William and in France (1853) T de Sazilly A. in Britain. Many British industrial cities tapped long-distance sup- tapped long-distance industrial cities British Many in Britain. masonry impressive gravity upland reservoirs by formed plies from (1891) supplied Liverpool Wales Vrynwy reservoir in dams. The with an ornate dam and the largest in Europe, with water and was civic Victorian perfect to monument ‘the outlet tower: neo-Gothic that a The fact pride, conservative and cheap labour. engineering is almost completely in the depths… drowned whole village lies 1975, 123). (Smith forgotten’ - to sup and used in 1855 completed Australia, Parramatta, Lake masonry of volume modest whose is indicative water, ply drinking mid-century could dam builders By design method. of a rational of the work from research body of theoretical a growing draw on J. 42 The Water Industry as World Heritage as a kit of parts, it wasmanufacturedas akitofparts, by theBelgian Marcinelle Aguas Corrientes inBuenos Aires isanotableexample. Conceived largetanks,ofwhichthe structures, effectively very Palacio delos by Sacré Coeurchurch. Athird typologywere whollymechanical was decoratedwithneo-Baroque detailstocomplement thenear- as localparks. Others have architectural camouflage: Montmartre els. Many are suchreservoirs concealed,grassedover anddouble concrete tothe vaulted roofs, supports sometimesonmultiplelev- (Beaumont-Maillet 1991). divided between fourfloorswithseparateriver andspringwater ducts, 19 Like thecisternsassociatedwithClassicalandpre-modern aque- Urban servicereservoirs threatened by ever-growing demandforcleanwater(Ritvo 2007). hinterlands,whoseinterestsinhabitants oftheirdistantrural were ronmental confrontations between metropolitan centres and the asaprototype foragrowingthat wouldserve numberofenvi- Manchester’s Thirlmere project inthe1870s. It sparked aconflict in water watersheds fromcould already distant rural be observed from rivers closer to hand.Opposition tocitiessourcing their States, despitetheimprovements infilteringandtreating water 202,000 m ant in1865withacapacityof95,000 m through its aqueduct system. Eugene Belgrand built Ménilmont- werereservoirs builtinHaussmann’s Paris toholdwaterbrought in asthecity’sserve watertower virtual (Ross 2011).Largemasonry Royal Park, takingadvantage ofthetopography ofthemountainto withintheFrederick1946, partly LawOlmsted designedMount Montreal between builtasequenceofeightreservoirs 1856and in 1906 at the confluence ofthe Old and New Croton aqueducts. isanopenbasinsurrounded byervoir anembankment,completed their locationandthespaceavailable. New York’s Jerome Park res- which mightbeopenorcovered,in urbanreservoirs, depending on tinued tobebuiltintothe20 Internally thesemassive storage cisternshadstone,cast-iron or Large damstoholdbackriver watertosupplylargecitiescon- th century distantsupplyaqueductsfrequently terminated century 3 , in1874,whileMontmartre couldstore 11,000 m th century, especiallyintheUnited 3 and Montsouris, with 3

4. Historical development of water infrastructure 43

th th of water extracted from the River Plate. the River extracted from of water 3 A generally Italianate design of pumping station with semi- design of pumping station A generally Italianate Steam pumping in after 1812 steam engine was developed high-pressure A reliable it took which from tin-mining district of Cornwall, the English parts rotating such as a engines do not have its name. Cornish and by the piston movement controlled are flywheel, but rather many on the Cor- engines, Beam the valves. opening and closing the waterworks much of the 19 for workhorse nish pattern, were et Couillet foundryet Couillet by pieces made with terracotta decorated and capital in the Argentine and assembled England, & Co. Doulton floors stored on three water tanks Twelve and 1894. 1887 between 72,700 m century: three Cornish engines were erected in Lyon in 1853, of in Lyon erected century: were Cornish engines three survives,one which raw The Rhone. the from abstracting water gallery and then pumped up a covered through water was filtered to high servicerotary reservoirs. The compound engine designed Belgian German, British, French, was used by Woolf Arthurby the steam engineers in pumping stations all around and Dutch be found in Lisbon, Leicester world, and operational examples can waterworksand at the Goulburn in Australia. the 1850s as the became established by windows arched circular (1869) and Ryhope architecture. of industrial style’ ‘waterworks leading water en- designed by were in England (1881) Papplewick double-acting employed and (1807–93) Hawksley Thomas gineer rural from water boreholes. raise to engines beam compounded gleaming, oiled machineryWith - richly tiled engine hous in dark, 19 the epitome of the they are es, set in landscaped parklands, century beam engine waterworks. 44 The Water Industry as World Heritage en pipescontinuedtobelaidinNorth Americaandelsewhere. from the Thames in London,a pattern whichbecameknown as in 1829by waterengineer James Simpson forwaterabstracted was improved until the first publicslow sandfilters were installed forableachworks atGreenockstructed inScotland.Thetechnique was in1804, the surplusfrom anexperimental sandfiltercon- The firstfiltered river watertobesuppliedforlocalconsumption Filtering (© John A.Speakman, Wikimedia Commons) forthefutureimportant British kingtoinaugurate itin1859. the originalpairofCornish engines.Thepumpingstationwassufficiently Keefer in Hamilton Canada, waterworks, now astream museumcontaining The styleasapplied by engineer ThomasColtrin Italianate waterworks cast-iron pipesinEurope inthe early 19 with therisingcostoftimberpipes,acceleratedintroduction of The higher pressures generated by steam pumping, combined th century, althoughwood- the English system. Though only a couple of metres deep, slow sand filters were very extensive undertakings usually constructed on urban margins such as at Ivry in Paris.

Filtry Lindleya (Lindley’s filters) opened in 1886 to distribute filtered river water in Warsaw. Named after the prolific water engineer William Lindley, it includes a group of slow sand filters, covered reservoir, pumping station and water tower. (Creative Commons)

Filtering river water was made obligatory in England in 1855, but the use of slow sand filter beds spread only slowly in Europe and North America. Clear evidence that it was effective against disease was given by a typhoid outbreak in Hamburg in 1892 in which the unfiltered drinking water from the Elbe produced many more cases of the disease than the filtered water in nearby Altona.

45 46 The Water Industry as World Heritage towns from themiddleof19 pressurized constantsupplysystemswhichbecameprevalent in Water towers andstandpipeswere integralcomponentsofthenew Water towers designed by avant-garde architects. War withrationalistandexpressionist watertowers, sometimes crete replaced construction historicistdesignsaftertheFirst World ble landscapefeatures intheUnited States. Modernism andcon- 1904) inGermany in1883,were widelyusedandwere very nota- turrets. Metal tanks,suchasthatpatentedby Otto Intze (1843– disguised tolooklikeClassicalcolumnsormedieval citadelsand supply, towers worldswere inboththeoldandnew frequently the mostvisiblerepresentation ofthespread ofdomesticwater storage andmaintainingthepressure ofsupplytoconsumers.As (1869). Water towers combinedthefunctionsofhigh-level local in Hamburg (1842),Louisville(1860),Kew(1867)andChicago located closetopumpingstationssuchasthespectacularexamples ram pumpsandinthemainssupplynetwork. Standpipes were to actasbuffersbetween thepressure ofwaterfrom steam-driven th century. Standpipes were built 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 47 following a damaging fire and a cholera epidemic. (Creative Commons) and a cholera epidemic. (Creative a damaging fire following The Greek Revival pumping station and its cast-iron standpipe tower in standpipe tower and its cast-iron pumping station Revival Greek The Louisville, USA. The waterworksby public subscription in 1860 was built 48 The Water Industry as World Heritage (Benidickson 2007,4) linking wastetowater. municipalinfrastructure vast networksof purifyingwatersupplies, nowunderpins of involving chemicalandmechanicalmeans disease,andeventually transmission of burgeoning cities, thenwiththebacterial organicmaterialsfrom borne removalof initiatives, firstassociatedwiththewater- revolutionarytechnical ...a seriesof problems. Mid-19and sanitary uptake ofthewatercloset,exacerbatedratherthaneasedhealth crease inthevolume beingbrought in, coupledwiththespreading In towns benefitingfrom sources thesenew ofcleanwater, the in- Wastewater drainagesystems remarkable. ofinfrastructure orpersonalamenities,allthemoreconstruction revolution, whethermeasuredsanitary ratesor infallingmortality This makesthesubsequentaccomplishmentsassociatedwith removal infrastructure toanalready complexurbanenvironment. began onbuildingthehouses,existingcitieshadtoretro-fit waste in Barcelona mightplanarationaldrainagenetwork before work urbandistrictslike the1850sEixample1988, 55).Althoughnew selves andconfusion’ inapositionof‘bewilderment... (Hamlin additional function ofsewersuntiloverwhelmed, althoughthede - (Tarr 2011). Existing stormdrainsinmanytowns tookonthe waste, usingtheirdiluting and cleansingcapacityasnatural‘sinks’ traditional andmostexpedient waytoremove therisingvolume of to replace thetraditionalprivypitandcesspool.Rivers were the den andcontaminatedurban landscapesasthewaterclosetbegan the 19 The water-supplynetworks thatdeveloped duringthe first half th century increased pressure century toremove from wastewater sod- th century urbanitesfoundthem- century 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 49 century: ‘By the 1840s what may be described as the brief the 1840s what century: ‘By Before the work of Pasteur (1862), Schloesing and Munts (1862), Schloesing and Munts of Pasteur the work Before The optimum practical means of large-scale urban distribution urban large-scale of means practical optimum The municipal authorities strug companies and public Both private - th in the water industry was be- experiment with laissez-faire British 1985). (Hassan as a failure’ ginning to be recognized theo- bacterial purification, the rival (1880s) on (1877), and Koch theory)anti-contagion (the miasmic ries of contagion and further clean water and of source confused the task of choosing a suitable proponents sanitary Influential of building effective infrastructure. sewage disposal, such proper of practical hygiene, clean water and (1818–1901), Pettenkofer von as the eminent epidemiologist Max disease, insisting contagion as an explanation for could also reject rather than drainage (Winiwarteron a focus on ventilation et al. 2016). - (Gan continued systems drainage or combined separate over bate dy 1999). op- The determined. to be still had waste of removal and water of - supply or intermit domestic constant high-pressure tions included the conservancy/dry to cisterns; tent pumping sewage system of sewers; human waste dis- flushing through disposal or waterborne the fertilizer; of as choice fields the on spread or rivers into persed timber, (bored for pipelines and sewers most adequate materials drain the most effective pipe...); and even brick, glazed cast-iron, This situation made water- pear-shaped, etc.). oval, (round, profile urban in the fight to improve engineers the key protagonists works living conditions. facili- and waste-treatment adequate water-supply gled to develop access generally had longer planning horizons, ties. Municipalities from and freedom social motivation to cheaper capital, stronger credited with are usually constraints. These and shareholder profit systems during the later private of municipal over the prevalence 19 50 The Water Industry as World Heritage er mains which led into the intercept sewer along the riverbank. the space under the raised buildingsandbetween- thebrick sew by 1–1.5 m.Mud from dredging theChicagoriver helpedfilled literally jackedupover thebricksewers,raisinglevel ofthecity oftheflat,low-lyingthe surface city, andexistingbuildings were designed acombinedsewer systemin1855whichhadtobelaidon unbearable foritscitizens. Engineer Ellis Chesbrough (1813–86) go river as theoutfallforitsdrainswhenpollutionbecame wash- andbathhousesfollowing theexampleofLiverpool. social benefitswhichwouldflow from thesystem,Lindleybuilt and chimneyinRothenburgsort. With abroad ideaofthefurther work, which includedthewell-known combinedstandpipetower downstream.further Steam engineswere usedtopumpthenet- abstracted above the city and the wastedumped in the River Elbe tion ofthecityfollowing itsgreat fire in1842.River waterwas ofthereconstrucbined waterandsewernetwork- wasbuiltaspart (1808–1900), whoconsultedChadwick.Hamburg’s 48 kmcom- in Hamburg, tothedesignofBritish engineer William Lindley advocated by Chadwick wasalready in1842 underconstruction the previous drainageinfrastructure. of wouldhelppayfor theconstruction end-use ofurbansewage circulation oftheblood,wascentred onthehopethatagricultural that headvocated, imaginatively represented by thearterial/venous health’ (Hamlin 1992,680).Theintegratedengineeringsystem sewers,betterventilated streetswaterworks, andhouses–topublic credit forrecognizing ofpublicworks – thecentralimportance oftheLabouringPopulationSanitary ofGreat Britain (1842),goes intothe Chadwick, authorofthefamousReport ofanInquiry Europe andAmerica:‘To reformer Edwin theEnglish sanitary andbut wasalsoinfluentialin tant notonlyinhisown country took shapebetween 1843and1845(Melosi 2008).It wasimpor- systems wick (1800–90)forbuildingintegratedwaterandsewage The theoretical frameworkdeveloped in England by Edwin Chad- The Chadwickhydraulicsystem Rapidly growing Chicagowas forced toabandontheChica- systemonthelinesif notspecifications A pioneeringsewage 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 51

(© Christine Matthews, Creative Commons) Creative (© Christine Matthews, converted to triple expansion operation in 1901 and 1902. to triple converted The restored interior of the 1865 Crossness sewage pumping Crossness interior of the 1865 restored The station, London, had four single cylinder James Watt beam engines, Watt station, London, had four single cylinder James Sanitary reform developed rapidly in Europe during the second rapidly in Europe developed Sanitary reform Drinking water was abstracted from Lake Michigan, but the intake the intake but Michigan, Lake from abstracted was water Drinking 6.2 km deep in 1866, tunnelling further offshore moved had to be 1972). pollution (Cain from free lake to obtain water under the were new system city’s of the highly visible components The most which are tower, and standpipe pumping station the neo-Gothic - and a pub waterworks examples of steam outstanding architecture civic importancelic statement of the of the project. centurythe of half sewageand water as by seen be to came systems infrastructure’ of civilized standard urban elites as part of a ‘new 1988, 318). in Brown quoted Hofman, (Wolfgang 52 The Water Industry as World Heritage ers, land dispersal continued during the 20 16,000 hectaresfertilize offarmland.In citieswithoutmajorriv - 1878 and all twelve were completed byto 1909,supplyingsewage urban area. The first one, Radialsystem III, went into operation in ofthe of each,from whichthewastewaspumped totheoutskirts twelve districts,settingasteampumpingstation atthelowest part whose urbanplanreformed thecity. Hobrecht dividedBerlin into in 1869 by the building engineer James Hobrecht (1825–1902) thesurroundingthe wastetofertilize farmland.It wasdesigned sewer systemintegratedintoBerlin appliedthisconceptofusing faeces fortheircommercial value asfertilizer. Thecomprehensive waterborne wasteremoval human becausetheywantedtoreserve water intotheriver atjusttwopoints,Asnières andSaint-Denis. by ahuge iron siphonundertheSeine, now dischargedallwaste- after atyphoidepidemic. Two intercept collecteurs,linkedin1868 by farmers.Eventually systemwasconstructed acombinedsewage becauseofthelong-establishedeconomicusemadesewage partly a separatestorm-watersystemanddiscouragedwaterbornesewers, sels. Under Baron Haussmann (1809–91),Paris initiallyoptedfor pipes wasadoptedby othercities,includingAmsterdam andBrus- shaped mainsewersbuiltofbrickandPortland cement,andglazed ture, withhugebeamenginestooperatethepumps. Crossness, impressive further examplesofpublichealtharchitec- ing tideattwooutfallsteampumpingstations,Abbey Mills and railway. The untreated was discharged onto the ebb- wastewater embankment parallelwiththeriver incorporatinganunderground ing stations. The two intercept sewers were built into a substantial under gravitytowards thesea,liftedperiodicallyby steampump- beforesewage itentered theThamesandmoved itdownstream tte (1819–91)wasaccepted.It and intercepted combinedrun-off a comprehensive planby thesanitationengineerJoseph Bazalge- Thames outsidethe British Parliament known asthe Great Stink, and 1875.Following ahorrendous episodein1858the sewage drainage schemeforthecitytobeimplementedbetween 1859 Both ChadwickinLondonandHaussmann inParis opposed The Londonmodelofintercept sewers,steampumping,egg- ofThe London sizeprompted andacomprehensive importance th century. Only rising levels of industrial pollution in the 1930s ended the system in the German capital, and it was replaced by modern filter treatment.

The Berlin sewage pumping station Radialsystem IX in Berlin. (Creative Commons)

Rotterdam followed the example of Hamburg and adapted its canal network in 1863 to a sewage system, but had to boost the movement of waste in the 1880s with steam pumping stations modelled on those in Berlin (Hård & Misa 2010). British, French and German engineers transferred technology and infrastructure to later industrializing countries within Europe and later to Asia, South American and territories under colonial 53 54 The Water Industry as World Heritage ing infrastructure totreat theeffluent. ferred- optiontosolveproblem theirsewage ratherthanconstruct that thedilutingcapacityoflocalrivers continuedtobethepre- treatment ofsewage meant nomic costandtechnicaluncertainty and urbansociety. (Gandy1999) relationshipsbetweenwater a newsetof urbanorderandintroduced conceptions of pre-modern overwhelmed theremnantsof aversion tohumanwaste,eventually inorganic fertilizersandgrowingpublic water usage,alongwiththeadventof diseaseandgrowing dual pressuresof thenineteenthcentury,By theendof the continuously intotheRiver Plate. Most andstormwaterdischarging districtshadcombinedsewage age wasadmittedviaregular chambersintointercepting sewers. with the sewer system, draining to the lowest where- part the sew corrientes’. intandem The publicwatersupplywasconstructed French reservoir, Renaissance-style service the‘Palacio delasaguas and pumpedby James Watt &Co. steamenginestoamonumental River Plate above thecity. It waspassedthrough sandfilters,stored inBuenosstructed Aires in1872–83,waterwasdrawnfrom the administration. For theintegratedwaterandsewer systemcon - In ofthe19 Americancitiesin thelatterpart th century, theeco- 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 55 century. The first high arch dams in the United States United arch dams in the The first high century. th century falling and typhoid, a urban mortality rates were th commonly used barometer of the state of public health, had almost of the state of public health, had commonly used barometer 1988). (Brown vanished Water filtration of filtering drinking water Rapid sand filters enhanced the speed devices – water jets, backwashing, or revolving using mechanical North The first – to clean the filter beds. sand agitators or stirrers - in 1885. San Jersey, American plant was built in Somerville, New to drinking water in itary bleaching powder engineers introduced in 1896. Construction of the first continuous-use chlorin- Austria by in 1902, was followed Belgium, ation plant in Middelkerke, compact, this low-cost Faster and more years later. Chicago five Dams - of Port gravity dams, the introduction in the analysis of Advances and modern construction equipment and land cement concrete, be built from to size unprecedented of dams allowed techniques the early 20 By the 1880s, the basic technological patterns and administrative patterns and administrative basic technological the 1880s, the By been had sewageand supply water urban of operation removal disease of waterborne pressure the continued Under out. worked to improve citizens from social pressure combined with epidemics to commission and build cities began numerous living conditions, Lou- under municipal control. water schemes, predominantly (1843–1910) established Koch Robert (1822–95) and is Pasteur the germ theoryof cholera disease and bacteria as the cause of miasma of bacteriology ended the The emergence and typhoid. theoryor anti-contagion was disease as an explanation for how sanitary engineers with a finally provided and transmitted in towns By the on which to plan sanitaryscientific understanding systems. early 20 4.4. Water and sewage combined combined sewage and Water 4.4. 1880–1920 were constructed in 1907, the Pathfinder and Shoshone irrigation Shoshone and constructed in 1907, the Pathfinder were et al. 2005). dams (Billington 56 The Water Industry as World Heritage engine. often carriedthrough intotheinteriorandcherishedsteam pete withitforstylisticvariety andexuberance,anexpressiveness tion. Of thebuildingsofperiod,onlyrailwaystationscancom- gines. Five large triple expansion engines were installed at Kemp- thington design, and there were eventually ten steam pumping en- direct-acting tripleexpansionenginesbasedontheAmerican Wor- (1897) inMelbourne wasequippedwithfournon-rotative 300 hp the largerpumpingstations. Spotswood pumping station sewage compoundengines predominated high-speedvertical in century pumps below, before passingtoacondenser. By theendof19 ders arrangedinlinedirectly over the crankshaft,withtheplunger configuration, steamisexpandedsuccessively through three cylin- introduced intoapumpingstationintheUnited States. In this Zawada pumping stationinKarchowice, Poland. ity forsubmersibleelectricpumps,andtwo1925engines atthe Cornellà pumping station in Barcelona which generated electric- the French Société Lyonnaise deMécanique etd’Électricité atthe withsteam;fourmanufacturedin 1914and1927stillrun by include twopumpingenginesatMill Meece inEngland, installed as aninexpensive andreliable power source. Surviving examples pound steamengines,whichwere chosenformanywaterworks ble-acting pumps.Amore commonsolutionwashorizontal com- worked by three Jonval turbinesconnectedtohorizontal dou- Augsburg ofacomprehensive formedpart water-supplysystem The1879pumpsatthe and sewage. in Hochablass waterworks tocompetewithbeamenginesformovinggies started bothwater chemical treatment theywere abletoprevent diseasesliketyphoid. built by municipalities to treat watersupplies,andcombinedwith fect drinkingwater. Bothslow sandandmechanicalfilters were the 19 The mostsymbolicand representative architectural expression of Steam-powered pumping technique becamewidespread intheearly20 Later inthe19 In tripleexpansionengines 1886thefirstinverted werevertical th -century sanitary revolution wasthesteampumpingsta- sanitary -century th century awidervariety ofpumpingtechnolo- century th century todisin- century th

4. Historical development of water infrastructure 57 - in sewage treat revolution lead to a conceptual Bacteriology prin- into a working decomposition was developed Biological Mechanical sewage treatment used strainers, filters and various set- used strainers, filters and sewage treatment Mechanical recyclable of waste and remove the volume tlement tanks to reduce for responsible were sons three Lindley and his William materials. thirty cities across water and waste systems for over steam-powered the second half of the 19th century. during central and east Europe - aimed to facilitate and acceler which now ment in the 1890s, sewagedecomposed which naturally. processes biological ate the Station Experiment laboratories like the Lawrence Bacteriological (1886) began to conduct of Health Board of the Massachusetts to techniques treatment chemical analysis of water and evaluate make water safe. Sanitary engineering emerged as a corps capable new in- cities sanitary developing of growing and infrastructure, corporated integral sanitary health community ensure systems to 2008). (Melosi outfall at the London Crossness working Digbin William ciple by Sutton in south London and he built the first contact bed at works, the trickling Station invented Experiment in 1896. The Lawrence and the modern airtight containing an- septic tank chamber filter, 1988). (Hamlin 1896 in patented in England bacteria was aerobic Manchester in in was discovered sludge process The activated to of the plant required in the size in a reduction 1912, resulting sewage. treat Sewage treatment ton Park, London, in 1904, which became the biggest pumping pumping biggest the became 1904, which in London, ton Park, in 1928. The four added were two more when Europe station in 1903 at the Cincinnati in erected expansion engines 1000 hp triple This enormous in the world. weight) waterworks (by the largest are wa- periodic the city’s ended river, the Ohio from water plant drew mortality fever its typhoid rate. reduced ter shortages and greatly 58 The Water Industry as World Heritage crete and,especiallyin theUnited States, metaltanks.Many places towers andretention dams. Towers were builtfrom reinforced con- script buildingsorwere hiddenunderground. pumpingstationswereing steadilyfordecades,new small,non-de- mersible pumps.Although manysteamenginescontinuedpump- by muchsmaller andmore compactelectric motorslinkedtosub- (Verne 1997).But by the1920s steamengineswere beingreplaced River Seine andpumpingstations dominatedby giantwaterworks the 1860scityonehundred years intothe future, hepictured the When Jules Verne wrote Paris, projecting inthetwentieth century chitectural expression ofsanitationbegantoshrinkanddisappear. try’s development century. inthenew lative requirements, provided theparametersforwaterindus- and improved treatment technologies,togetherwithstricterlegis- coverage,lished systems,territorial expansion from urbantorural modern urban infrastructure. Thetechnicaldevelopment ofestab- ter-supply systems,andtheyhadbecomeanessentialfeature of By the 1920s most existing towns wa- and cities had inserted (Kaika &Swyngedouw2000,121) disappeared fromtheurbanimagination. underground andin-house.Theyalso while thewaterflowsdisappeared became mereengineeringconstructs,... towers, damsand[pumping] plants to disappearfromthecityscape.Water to losetheirmobilizingpowersandbegan progressstarted and materialshrinesof During thetwentiethcentury, thesymbiotic 4.5. Modernwatersystemssince1920 Engineering designbravurabecame largelyrestricted towater With thechangeover ofthear- toelectricpumps, amajorpart 4. Historical development of water infrastructure 59 C. Harris water C. Harris per day. per day. 3 architecture of the 1941 R. architecture

Whilst most large dams were built for flood control, irrigation irrigation control, built for flood large dams were Whilst most of often complexes plants were and waste-treatment Water- treatment plant in Toronto represented a threshold in Canadian a threshold represented Toronto plant in treatment water- the grandiose Podolské Prague, In public infrastructure. Vlat- built in 1929 was constructed the works to filter water from filters and a chlorination plant with aerated sand through river ava a capacity of 35–40,000 m continued to use water towers as expressions of local identity; the identity; of local expressions as towers use water to continued to be the claimed is in Belgium (1978) Mechelen-Zuid Modernist tower) (or mushroom 143 m. The svampen at tallest tower world’s and is reproduced, has been widely in 1958 in Sweden designed symbol. as a national Arabia and Saudi in Kuwait deployed reservoirs dams for drinking-water or to generate hydroelectricity, such as development, a major impact on urban continued to have area and extend the Los Angeles metropolitan those built to supply et al. 2005). 1936 (Billington from dimensions runningtanks and chambers of various a low-level Nev- filtration and biological treatment. sequence of mechanical ertheless, the combination of a particular with the technology in notable resulted on occasions water clean significance of local landscape The scale, engineering innovation, projects. architectural design and Art Deco 60 The Water Industry as World Heritage treatment plantinPrague. (©Prague Waterworks Museum) Parabolic concrete arches over the1929filterhouseof Podolské intended tohelp alleviatelocalunemployment. Linnwood water-treatment ofbothwas plant.The construction purification plant,as well asin Milwaukee’s Deco imposingArt anddam,pumpingstation Canada, withastoragereservoir designs ofthe1930–3Glenmore systeminCalgary, waterworks difficult economiccircumstances. Thiscanbeclearly readinthe tion of water treatment plants inorder to help provide work in the America additionalcare- wassometimestakenwiththeconstruc manifestation. With theonsetofGreat Depression inNorth uted toahigherstandard ofengineering andofitsarchitectural Particular historical circumstances alsosometimes contrib- 5. Areas and values of significance

Technology: Specific areas of technology which are significant are — Dam design — Aqueduct planning — Pumping technology — The evolution of prime movers for pumping — Water filtration — Sewage treatment

Economy: The water industry has facilitated and promoted economic development associated with towns and industry — Urban growth — Industrial development — Territorial expansion

61 62 The Water Industry as World Heritage — — — — — andurbanlandscapeimplications: bution have considerablerural ofnetworks andsystemsofwaterdistri- Landscape: Construction — — — — — are try Social factors:Some ofthesocialconsequences ofthewaterindus- Insertion oflarge-scaleengineeringinfrastructure Habitation ofaridterritories Alteration ofnaturalfluvialanduplandlandscapes stations, watertreatment works andstoragetowers Architectural designofwaterinfrastructure, notably pumping Transforming urbanlandscapes pre-19th-century Superior personalhygiene andlivingstandardsComfort ofurbanites Greater equalityoflivingconditions Elimination ofwaterborne disease Enabling large-scaleurbanareas 6. The water industry as World Heritage

This section draws some conclusions from the historical study above, and suggests outstanding historical themes for the water industry and the attributes which might justify protecting and con- serving the most significant properties and landscapes, including their consideration for inscription on the World Heritage List.

Authenticity and integrity The authenticity of heritage sites means that their cultural value is ‘truthfully and credibly expressed through a variety of attributes’. These are both tangible attributes, expressed in form, design, materials, use or function; and intangible ones, as in techniques and management systems, or traditions, customs and beliefs. For integrity UNESCO understands that the historic resource is sufficiently complete for its Outstanding Universal Value to be recognizable. In other words, its physical attributes must still survive and be evident so that they are able to communicate this value. Both authen- 63 64 The Water Industry as World Heritage ministrative capability. ‘Thesanitation revolution occupiesapiv- derstanding, technology, medical knowledge, financing and ad- were retro-fitted tocities,despitedebilitatinginadequaciesin un- urban life. Water-supply and,later, systems sewage-management rateandpreventedversed therisingmortality thebreakdown of and a half which reintroduced- during the subsequent century ter-transmitted diseasessuchascholeraandtyphoid. of extreme squalor, andexposingeven thewealthiest todeadlywa- rivers, and resulting inthe poorest urbaniteslivinginconditions waste, based around wells, privies, drains and nearby streams or ditional small-scalesystemsforsupplyingwaterand removing universally characterizes industrializationsoonoverwhelmed tra- ed there. Thecloseconcentrationofpeopleandfactorieswhich ies andtowork intheindustrieswhichwere increasingly locat- in growing numbers of people moving to live in towns and cit- accompanied industrialization. Crisis totheurbanSanitary which response ofthewaterindustry The outstandinghistoricalthemeofuniversal human value isthe Themes evolving socio-technicalsystems’ (Coulls1999,7). a railway landscape or location: railways are nature by their very Heritage sites,‘continuity ofwhatmakes through changeispart as World corridors (UNESCO2016,76).AsindicatedinRailways World Heritage Convention, intheannexonhistorictransportation 1996) andtheOperational guidelinesfortheimplementationof thenticity, aswell asthe World Heritage studyoncanals(Hughes ter, anaspectalready recognized intheNara Declaration onAu- renewal, updatingandmaintenanceare intrinsictotheircharac- original purpose,includingmanycovered by thisstudy. Continual dustrial heritage,isthatagreat numberare stillbeingusedfortheir remarkable, distinguishingthemespeciallywithinthein- industry Outstanding Universal Value (UNESCO2016). oftheassessment ticity andintegrityhave tobesatisfiedaspart A seriesoftechnical,scientific andadministrative changeswas From thelate18thcentury, theIndustrial Revolution resulted One of the things which of the makes water historic properties 6. The water industry as World Heritage 65 centuries. Allowing Allowing centuries. th and early 20 early and th Ancient engineering solutions to water supply: Schemes Ancient engineering solutions to impounding dams, lengths of channels or tunnels, involving of levels aqueducts demonstrate impressive and elevated not matched and organizational capacity, technical knowledge until the early modern period, and on which the designers of later schemes depended for practical understanding and inspiration. By the early 20th century construction the By infrastructure of vast immense and in the these technical achievements in Pride waste systems remains of urban water-supply and The historic In considering the heritage of the water industry, places and land- the heritage of the water industry, considering In particularscapes should be given attention when they contain tan- of the following: gible evidence to illustrate one or more — Priorities otal role in most accounts of late-nineteenth century of late-nineteenth accounts in most role otal urbanization 307). 1988, (Brown States’ and the United in Europe clean of volumes large move to means effective the and networks bi- of mechanical, with the invention effluent, coupled water and life enabled water, purifying for techniques chemical and ological to people the filth and risk that had seemed to continue without Applying their future. decades to jeopardize the preceding through London, Philadelphia, Paris, in tested first solutions technical the inhabitants of the experience of the or Prague, Berlin York, New if (even cities needed not to be repeated the early industrializing of the in the rest as cities later regions, by they sometimes were) better living conditions. towards the same route world followed city the industrial to the challenge of response effortcombined in in- as well as visible, the of execution and design the that meant of the highest quality. were visible, components of these networks and engineering architecture Contemporaries accepted that the they put on its the value functional to express should go beyond contribution to civilised life. intellectual, financial and tech- is the manifestation of an immense effortnological 19 the during for maintenance and updating, much of it continues to provide the of it continues to provide for maintenance and updating, much vital service for which it was built. 66 The Water Industry as World Heritage — — — — — technology for19 Pumping stations:Steam pumpingengineswere thecritical obtained. nities andthenaturallandscapesfrom whichthewaterwas rural commu- ments, butsometimeswithnegative effectson the growth andthedevelopmentsettle- ofnew ofindustry benefits forurbanwater-supplyandwaste-disposalsystems, more regular historical volumes ofwaterwithimportant larger, cheaperandsaferdams.Theyguaranteedgreater and advances indamtechnologyandhydraulics whichproduced Dams andreservoirs: Distant supplyschemes encouraged by Baroque urbanplanningconceptsinthe17 emphasis public fountainsandconduitheads,given further supply andpumpingtechnologytodeliver potablewaterto works forurbanwaterdistributionusingbothdistantgravity nical advances intheRenaissance produced innovative net- Pre-industrial water-supplysystems:Citygrowth andtech- 19 producedpurification ofsewage theparadigm shiftoutofthe transmission ofwaterborne diseasesandofthetreatment and Scientific advances: Thescientificunderstandingofthe ratesandtheendofmajorepidemics. of mortality accessible forpublicvisits,whichcontributedtothe decline dramatic investments by urbangovernments, oftenmade mains andintercept sewers retro-fitted tolargecities were Underground systems:Thelargeunderground networks of pumping. from hydraulic through steamtoelectricmotive power for they were set.Some displaymultipletechnologies, extending tural expressions andinthecomposedlandscapeswhich the mechanicalengineering,through sophisticatedarchitec- communities wasfrequently madeexplicitinthequalityof significance forthesocialandeconomic wellbeing oftheir and experimental treatment centres. one. Many ofthediscoveries were madeatpubliclaboratories th century ‘miasmic’ century eraofurbandrainagetothemodern th -century waterandwastesystems.Their -century th century. 6. The water industry as World Heritage 67

th -century th is a fundamental attribute of water distribution of water distribution attribute is a fundamental Connectivity isolating indi- separating or that by so networks, systems and may be value cultural their overall or sections vidual elements - incor supply infrastructure distant Pre-industrial diminished. cisterns and towers aqueducts, porated dams, reservoirs, wells, the 19 During as urban fountains or conduit heads. as well water and drainage systems, contributing to the development systems, contributing to the development water and drainage city’. of the modern ‘network be con- water systems may therefore Components of historic as defined properties’ as parts of a whole, or as ‘serial sidered sites UNESCO (2016, 29), which may combine multiple by - as both cultural and natural proper as well within a territory, than value has more ties, and in which the complete system separately. its components considered century these developed towards the network model, both for the network century towards these developed and clean water and for removing collecting and distributing customary waste. This became treating in the 20 Further attributes which may contribute to the significance of of significance to the contribute may which attributes Further water industry sites: — Public utilities, particularly water, made water, particularly Public utilities, (Melosi 2012, 38) possible the modern city. — 7. UNESCO evaluation criteria relevant to the water industry

One aim of this report is to establish whether the most significant historic resources of the water industry can be considered as having ‘universal human value’, and, if so, on what grounds and how they should be evaluated.

Selection criteria The criteria for choosing World Heritage are defined in the revised Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Her- itage Convention.

68 7. UNESCO evaluation criteria relevant to the water industry 69 century, European technology was transferred technology was transferred European century, th (ii) to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span over of human values, (ii) to exhibit an important interchange in on developments world, of the area a cultural of time or within or land- arts, monumental town-planning or technology, architecture scape design; diffusion of water management, This criterion would apply to the as intangible no- typologies, as well technologies and architectural Re- cleanliness and scientific understanding. tions of modernity, along into central Europe naissance water technology was carried adopted in the engineering traditions were French trade routes. military British trans- engineers Independence. after States United - Dur elsewhere. and Australia India, to techniques hydraulic ferred ing the early 19 (i) to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius; creative of human a masterpiece represent (i) to - pro infrastructure character of major the collaborative Although of a cen- engineer’ the ‘heroic above recognized jects is generally tury- imprint of an in bear the strong projects ago, many major Henry Latrobe’s Benjamin and personality. knowledge dividual’s - architec his combined reflects scheme for Philadelphia pioneering in London, Bertrand Bazalgette background. tural and engineering the Keefer in Canada or Thomas Coltrin in Paris, and Haussmann linked with major all closely are central Europe Lindley family in in particular of citizens the lives which transformed urban reforms the new of as key exemplars repercussions cities and had wider technology. to North America, colonial possessions and later-industrializing America, to North many Ameri- America and Asia. Like Latrobe, nations in South instrumental in and were in Europe can water engineers travelled American cities, to North transferring the emerging technology the end of the century, Towards including Boston and Chicago. waste in notably reversed, was transfer of technology flow this and dam construction, as American sanitarytreatment engineers engineers and influenced infrastruc into environmental - developed planning outside their country. ture 70 The Water Industry as World Heritage out ofthepopular resistance tothedemands for more waterfor the defenceand protection of naturallandscapes hasdeveloped the growth inconsumption,bothdomesticandindustrial. Finally, lands from which they have sought water has been determined by sequences. The rural hinter- relationship between citiesandthe altered natural environments, withbothpositive andnegative con- impounding andabstractionfrom aquifersby pumping have urban environment. Projects toobtainwaterfrom rivers through the needtomanageflow waterthrough the ofcleananddirty The plansand buildings of numerous settlements are testimonyto extending insomecasesover manycenturiesoreven millennia. between humanity andnature,been oneofthecriticalinterfaces The relationship between settlementsandtheir needforwaterhas become vulnerable undertheimpact ofirreversible change; or humaninteraction withtheenvironment especiallywhenithas land-use, orsea-usewhichisrepresentative ofaculture (orcultures), (v) tobeanoutstandingexampleofatraditional humansettlement, works) aswell asindividualbuildingsmayillustratethis. damsandaqueducts,treatment compact ensembles(waterworks, purificationfacilities. for new Such landscapes,networks, more water consumption.Higher standards ofhygieneandhealthcalled the waterinfrastructure builttocopewithrisingpopulationsand landscapeswereboth urbananduplandrural radicallyaltered by an industrialeconomyassociatedwiththeIndustrial Revolution, early modernperiod.During thechangefrom anagriculturalto technical originsextendbackintothewater-supplyschemesof Crisis Sanitary isafundamentalaspectofurbanhistory.tury Its infrastructure intotowns andcitiesinresponse tothe19 try. Thecomplicatedprocess ofinventing and retro-fitting sanitary This isthemost relevant oftheselectioncriteriatowaterindus- stage(s) inhumanhistory; or technologicalensemblelandscapewhichillustrates (a)significant (iv) tobeanoutstandingexampleofatypebuilding,architectural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which hasdisappeared; (iii) tobearauniqueoratleastexceptional testimonytoacultural th -cen- 7. UNESCO evaluation criteria relevant to the water industry 71 -century predicament. th - living tradi or with events or tangibly associated directly (vi) to be of works with artistic ideas, or with beliefs, tions, with and literary Committee considers that this significance. (The outstanding universal criteria); other with conjunction in used be preferably should criterion This criterion supports of places associated with the consideration the resolve to technical understanding of how the scientific and urban admin- to changes the as with well as Sanitaryurban Crisis, For put them into effect. to required istration and management Koch or Robert contribution of Louis Pasteur example, the huge of or disease, waterborne in bacteria of role the understanding to the technical solution to the Chadwick in conceptualizing William mid-19 urbanites, evidenced from numerous schemes such as Manchester’s as Manchester’s such schemes numerous from evidenced urbanites, the from its water sourcing Francisco San or reservoir, Thirlmere Park. National Yosemite in the valley Hetchy Hetch 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison

This section presents an array of historic infrastructure, buildings, ensembles and landscapes created by the water industry around the world, from different historical periods, technologies and degrees of completeness, prepared by or with the help of people familiar with their heritage values. The intention is to provide a selection of case studies by which heritage managers and others might make comparisons to gain a better idea of the relative significance of other sites and the importance of different attributes. They are presented in a broad historical sequence, although some sites contain components separated by many hundreds of years. All of them include significant elements; their inclusion does not imply any recommendation, and the same applies to places not discussed here. Because of the constraints under which this thematic study was undertaken it has not been possible to obtain the global geographical representation of the historic sites of the water industry which 72 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 73 The case studies have been edited so that they conform as close- been edited so that have The case studies was sought at the outset. Here the historical and technological gaps and technological the historical Here the outset. at was sought outstanding examples the cultural ones: than less problematic are - cov industrialization, the period of throughout from provided are in- which were all the site typologies and of this study, by ered this through maintained have as we 2.1. But Section in troduced industry the water of the report, mirror also a powerful heritage is is it and built, was it which for communities the of values human examples from more be better illuminated by this which would and Latin America. settlements in Asia format to help make comparisons. regular ly as possible to a 8.1. Augsburg hydraulic engineering, hydropower and drinking water, Germany Rolf Höhmann, Bureau for Industrial Archaeology, Germany

The double-acting piston pumps and air pressure vessels in the 1879 Hochablass water pumping station. (© Felix Hartmann, Wikimedia Commons)

74 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 75 -century th -century wa- century, and century, th th centuries, separated clean th - and early 20 th century to mod- in response th and 17 th - a re contains city of Augsburg Bavarian Water from the canals was raised using piston pumps driven off driven pumps piston using raised was canals the from Water Augsburg was one of the self-governed German Free Free German was one of the self-governed history:Brief Augsburg the clean water from Cities, and the earliest canals collecting Augsburg water 1216. The documented from are forest Stadtwald of early in two phases: the water management system developed the 13 modern times, between ter-power generating stations. ter-power : The city’s water infrastructure includes aqueducts, water infrastructure inventoryBrief : The city’s pumping stations and water-driven canals and weir, water towers, a 19 period, heads of the Baroque monumental cistern ern demands for water from citizens and for industry. citizens from ern demands for water The description: General Presentation and analysis and Presentation Germany of Augsburg, and Landkreis City of Augsburg Location: as an inte- developed of water infrastructure landscape markable 13 the system from water-management grated urban updated and expanded in the late 19 updated and expanded drinking water from process water. The Hochablass weir appeared weir appeared Hochablass The water. process drinking water from Lech the River in 1346 and guides water from in public records times several was reconstructed of canals. It network into a broad ran on the surface, some- Watercourses 1552 and 1912. between contamination. by endangered side, and so were times side by ). The bored waterwheels (Wasserkünste reversible via a set of levers to pressure sensitive were timber pipes that distributed the water installed, and these changes so open compensation reservoirs were to – the precursors necessitated the constructionin turn of towers Tor Rotes building of this phase was the The key later water towers. technical installations to pump and which housed the Gate) (Red where centre, the city into qualities water different the distribute - and Hercu Mercury drinking fountains (Augustus, bronze three celebrated sculptors. 1600, designed by installed around les) were water-power pumping station, and 19 water-power 76 The Water Industry as World Heritage the 17 expression inbuildingsand monumental fountainsequivalent to derived from ore miningincentralEurope. Thesefind architectural pumping techniquesreflecting Renaissance technicaldevelopments many and probably in centralEurope. The development of water (Lower Waterworks) are essentiallytheoldestwatertowers inGer- er) attheRotes Tor (Red Gate) aswell astheUntere Brunnenturm (Large Water Tower) andtheKleine Wasserturm (Small Water Tow- urban watermanagementover 800years. The Große Wasserturm toric sitesinAugsburg provide evidenceforthedevelopment of Cultural and symbolic dimension: hydraulic electricalpower generation. andturbines,butthesewere laterfollowedusing waterwheels by rivers. Water power was at first used for direct mechanical drives developed alongthecourseofLechand and industry Wertach were widenedtosupplythegrowing industrialdemandforwater, the water. Theexistingwatercoursesoutsidethehistoriccitywalls Maschinenfabrik Augsburg, predecessor oftoday’s MAN,topump It hashorizontal pumpsandfourairpressure chambers built by and theneo-Renaissance Neubach wasbuiltin1879. waterworks ter pumpedfrom deepwells. Thetowers were decommissioned water channelsfrom theStadtwald forests were replaced by wa- evaluation oftheAugsburg watersupply. drinking Thesurface epidemics andtheresulting research intohygieneledtoanew showing thecontinuousdevelopment of an urbanwater-supply needs oftheir citizens for adequateprovision of drinkingwater, complete evidenceforthe response by urbangovernors tothe Comparative analysis: Few towns intheworldcanprovide such textile, machineandpaper factories. theearlyindustrializationofAugsburg,supported encouraging national MANcompany. Thewaterpower provided by thecanals gy, somemanufactured by localmanufacturers includingtheinter- to raiseunderground supplieswithinnovative pumpingtechnolo- Responding toitsindustrialization,thecityupdatedsystem During the19 th -century Baroque-century watermanagementofRome. th -century industrializationprocess, cholera -century The remarkable collection of his- 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 77 -century waterworks in- using th novative pumping technology and wider exploitation of the water of the water and wider exploitation technology pumping novative generating power. supply for Wasserbau und Wasserkraft, Trinkwasser und Trinkwasser Wasserkraft, und M. (2013). Wasserbau Kluger, - Wasser Die historische Augsburger Brunnenkunst in Augsburg. . Stadt Vergleich im europaweiten Denkmäler wirtschaft und ihre Augsburg. Kluger, M. (2013). Historische Wasserwirtschaft und Wasserkunst Wasserkunst und Wasserwirtschaft M. (2013). Historische Kluger, und urme, Brunnenkunst Wassert Kanallandschaft, in Augsburg: Context-Verl. Augsburg: Wasserkraft. Biffi, A., Bühler, D., Ciriacono, S., Daube, J., Diemer, D., Föhl, D., Diemer, Daube, J., D., Ciriacono, S., Bühler, A., Biffi, S., Kluger, K., Kaiser, R., Holly, M., Höhmann, A., Grambow, R., A., Mair, Lindenmaier, M., Krauss, M., Lenz, G., Liebig, N., M., Rajkay, Popplow, F., R., Otillinger, H., Neumeier, Nacken, Studien Wasserwirtschaft. und die H. (2017). Augsburg B., Renes, im internationalen für das UNESCO-Welterbe zur Nominierung Augsburg. . Stadt Vergleich Additional bibliography Most of the sites are owned by the city of Augsburg. the city of Augsburg. by owned of the sites are Most Management: Bavarian state conservation law. The Hydraulic Hydraulic The state conservation law. Bavarian regime: Protection and Decorative Water Drinking and Hydropower, Engineering Tentative Heritage World German is on the in Augsburg Fountains of System Management Water The document List. The nomination to UNESCO in 2018. was delivered Augsburg In use use: In Present Present site management system from the early modern period up to the challenge of in- to the challenge up period early modern the from system and the Sanitarydustrialization pre-modern This includes Crisis. - the Renais from water infrastructure buildings and water canals, late 19 periods, Baroque sance and 8.2. Sete Fontes aqueduct, Portugal José Manuel Lopes Cordeiro, Social Sciences Institute, University of Minho, Portugal

Mina do Dr. Alvim (1744) with the nearby Mina Preta. (© Benkeboy, Wikimedia Commons)

78 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 79 m long granite pipes with square m long granite pipes with square Due to the fact that it constitutes it that fact the to Due century by the Archbishop of Braga D. José D. José century of Braga the Archbishop by th The original Sete Fontes water-supply system is Fontes water-supply system Sete The original century to solve the problem of water supply to the city, century of water supply to the city, the problem to solve th The different catchments direct the water to a main conduit – the water to a main conduit catchments direct The different The water was conducted in 1.2 Cultural and symbolic dimension: symbolic and Cultural following rapid population growth and urban development. rapid population growth following has an enormous system hydraulic Fontes a unique case, the Sete cultural value. - water-sup Fountains) (Seven Fontes Sete description: The General - architec hydraulic Portuguese of example unique is a system ply the 18 in ordered ture Presentation and analysis and Presentation Portugal Location: Braga, Brief inventory:Brief de Bragança (1741–56) and was the main source of water supply and was the main source (1741–56) de Bragança until 1913. to Braga is composed and continues in operation. It still largely in existence of fourteen made of worked galleries (water mines), underground tanks junction Baroque and six wells, having ventilation and stone style, with a cylindrical mothers of water), of Baroque or (‘chapels’, Sete arranged 500 m apart. dome present and vaulted At structure 3500 m. extends about Fontes in granite – and con- engraved which bears the arms of its patron, and ‘chapels’, mines tinues, capturing the water of the remaining to the last. Brief history:Brief The system was constructed 1744 and 1752, between one, one of a number built per- existing an already possibly over construction period. Its the beginning of the Roman haps from first decades of the from culminated in a period of intense activity the 18 section prisms drilled through the longitudinal axis. Throughout the longitudinal axis. Throughout section prisms drilled through the water that received boxes’ ‘general several were the time, there important system, the most hydraulics Fontes the Sete by driven inaugurated in 1719. 80 The Water Industry as World Heritage Braga (1913–2013).Braga: AGERE (forthcoming). Cordeiro, José Manuel Lopes.História doabastecimentodeáguaa Additional bibliography of theAGERE Municipal Public Company. Management: system. nicipality ofBraga intends tocreate apark encompassingtheentire threat toitsfuture conservation. To avoid thissituation,themu- city whichhasrecently beenurbanized, whichmayconstitutea Context andenvironment: Thesystemislocatedinanarea ofthe been destroyed, thesystemiswell preserved. State With theexception ofconservation: ofone‘chapel’, whichhas National Monument andaSpecial Protection Zone. whose characteristicsmustbefullypreserved’, wasclassifiedasa Protection regime: Considered tobea‘set ofexceptional value, Present use:Disabled, butstillinworking condition Present sitemanagement comparison. Comparative analysis: The managementofthesystemis responsibility There is no possibility of making any kind of 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 81

Ziemi Tarnogórskiej, Wikimedia Wikimedia Commons) Tarnogórskiej, Ziemi A flooded section of the mine. (© Stowarzyszenie Miłośników Miłośników Stowarzyszenie A flooded section of the mine. (© Tarnowskie Góry was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2017 in 2017 List Heritage World on the Góry was inscribed Tarnowskie - nomination docu the site adapted from has been and this description property in which the survivingevidence first cultural is the ment. It of a modern – in this case one set up to exploit the water-supply system mines – formed part of the dewatering deep ore of water from flow party’s from the state section is taken This for inscription. justification is included here and Value, Universal of Outstanding Statement Draft other historic water industry assessments of sites. to assist comparative 8.3. Tarnowskie Góry mine and water- and mine Góry Tarnowskie 8.3. Poland system, management 82 The Water Industry as World Heritage ply systemsbased onthesteam-powered pumpingofgroundwater, the development of the world’s firstlarge-scale public water sup- It wasmining, too,thatprovided thetechnicalwherewithal for that impacted substantially on global industrialization. industry foundation, inSilesia, oftheGerman steamenginemanufacturing ed British Newcomen engines),aconsequence ofwhichwasthe was followed- by theirpurposefulimitation(andofearlierimport ed formetalminingpurposesontheEuropean continent.This adopted thefirstBoulton& - Watt steampumpingengineexport symbiosis withwatersupplyfrom asearly1797whenthemine countered incentralEuropean mines.Dewateringdeveloped in sually highwaterinflow ofuptothree timesthatcommonlyen- adapted withchangesinscaleandtechnologytocombat anunu- terpiece ofhydraulic engineering,a300-year development that and demonstrateshow minewaterwasmanaged. pan-European development and exchange ofminingtechnology semble ofminedrainageandwatersupplyillustratesthevigorous Interrelated outstandingvalues include:Theingenioustechnicalen - of Tarnowskie Góry’s distinctive miningtopography. recreational sites that are a characteristic ofthe early preservation examples of post-mining community commemorativeportant and andditches,shaftstips),themostim- (such asaditportals elementsthatcompriseessentialmininglandscapefeaturessurface ture (above andbelow ground) togetherwithdirectly connected ed by substantial remains- of the principal water-supply infrastruc ore-extraction chambersandshafts.Thisnetwork iscomplement- and 150 water systemcomprisesover 50 in technicallychallengingterrain,theunderground miningand pioneering andthelargestofitskindinworld.Constructed features auniqueintegratedpublicwatersupplythatwasboth lead-silver-zinc minewithamonumentaldrainagenetwork. This Brief synthesis: Presentation andanalysis The underground water-managementsystem reflects amas- km of secondary drainageandaccesstunnels,numerous km ofsecondary Tarnowskie is the largest historic underground Góry km ofmaindrainagetunnels 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 83 (iii) to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural testimony to a cultural (iii) to bear a unique or at least exceptional has disappeared: which or living which is a civilization to or tradition together with di- mining environment The historic underground (ii) to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span over of human values, (ii) to exhibit an important interchange in on developments of the world, area of time or within a cultural planning or land- arts, monumental town or technology, architecture in- network, scape design: The colossal and accessible underground and extraction network cluding the mine dewatering system, ore at surface,- together with the pioneer its topographical expressions testimony to are facility, ing and integrated public water-supply the very from larger socio-technical world systems beginning. They expertiseand ideas min- in of technology, the interchange exhibit and public water supply being engineering, metallurgical systems Bohemia, in Saxony, leading mining and industrial centres tween and Poland; Britain Hungary, The extensive genius: The extensive of human creative a masterpiece (i) to represent elements and its functional connecting adit network, underground surfaceshafts and of - water pioneering channels, together with the - mine water manage that was integrated with underground works - to late-nineteenth cen a masterpiece of mid-sixteenth ment, are European the peak of turyrepresent engineering. They hydraulic dewateringsuch in skills engi- mining when time a at technology of development the for wherewithal technical the provided neering public water-supply systems based on first large-scale the world’s pumping of groundwater; the steam-powered Justification for criteria Justification for mining engineers inadvertently engineers mining of the foundations to contributing resulted that a palimpsest site is The water industry. the modern in a complementarydrainage of mine relationship and sustainable of later, supply and, local and regional abstraction for with water - exponential popula water to sustain and industrial both potable (German) Prussian of the emergent and development tion growth - In Silesian and the foundation of the Upper industrial revolution that was in its vanguard. dustrial Agglomeration 84 The Water Industry as World Heritage and workmanship manifestedby original and intactphysical of miningfeatures both below andabove ground, theirmaterials site isreliably andcredibly expressed through theform anddesign areas. asdiscretemensions, andhave beendelineatedatsurface character featuresand allsurface are linkeddirectly toitinthethree ditional integrity. isunderground, oftheproperty Asubstantialpart geographical–spatial integrity, andfunc- aswell asthestructural historicaland mine anditswater-managementsystem,supporting a completerepresentation ofallthesignificantattributes tainable watermanagementintheactive miningenvironment. the largestinEurope, providing aunique andearlymodelofsus- most industrialized andurbanized region inPoland, andamongst ultimately drainedthemineby gravityandmettheneedsof and architectural demandsofthetime,andawatersystemthat output ofleadandzincthatsustainedinternationalmetallurgical water management.Theensembleisdistinguished by asignificant are auniqueandenduringtechnicalensembleofmetalmining the additionofdirectly andlandscapefeatures, connectedsurface age andaccesstunnels,shaftsextensive minedchambers,with 50 usually accessibleandmonumentalunderground network ofover tegrated publicwater-supplyinfrastructure, togetherwithanun- Substantialstage(s) inhumanhistory: remains oftheprincipalin- or technologicalensemblelandscapewhichillustrates (a)significant (iv) tobeanoutstandingexampleofatypebuilding,architectural the world’s mostsignificantunderground miningheritage; reflects contributionto afurther Poland’s ofsome conservation old pedigree, andcommitmenttoit,from localtonationallevels, isvividtestimonytoaminingtraditionwith500-yearproperty - andpublicaccess.The long-standing commitmenttoconservation mining topography, are protected by avibrantlivingculture witha lic parks andnature thatreutilize reserves yet distinctive preserve rectly features, connectedsurface includingcommemorative pub- Statement of authenticity:Thecultural value ofthenominated Statement ofintegrity: The overall size provides oftheproperty km ofmaindrainagetunnelsand150 km of secondary drain- km ofsecondary structural remains, their use and function evidenced by archives and detailed archaeological investigation, and its location and setting still pervaded by highly authentic and characteristic mining features in the landscape.

8.4. Águas Livres aqueduct and water- supply system, Portugal

The Alcântara aqueduct bridge crossing central Lisbon. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: Lisbon, Portugal 85 86 The Water Industry as World Heritage 884 m garden withacapacityof isdividedintotwocompartments factories, convents and noblehouses. fountains, gallerieswhichsuppliedaround thirty five 18th-century holds theRegister House, from where thewaterwasdischargedto a cascade,thenflows intoa7.5 the city. Thewater insidespouts from themouthofadolphin onto theterraceoverlookinger thanacistern.Avaulted cupolasupports the 18 General description:Agravity-fedwater-supplysystembuiltduring the late19 building withacapacityof5500 with Baroque details. Bento are characterized by theirneoclassicalcompositionadorned ty-five arches. Both theArco das Amoreiras andthe Arco de São The finalAlcântarabridgeaqueductismore elaborateandhasthir- roof. Vents or skylights illuminate the channelsandprovide access. thewaterconduitswhicharesupport protected by stonewallswith Mãe deÁguaNova inAmadora. reservoir) (new the Mãereservoirs, deÁgua Velha inSintra (oldreservoir) andthe times following contours.At itsoriginare surface twocatchment ly 3 mmeachmetre, insomesectionsunderground andatother sixty sources. Thewatermoved undergravity over afallof rough- sectionsandheadracetunnelscontributedwaterfrom around tary the Mãe de Água das Amoreiras in Lisbon. Severalreservoir tribu- Brief Amain14 inventory: French beamenginespumpedwatertothehigherareas ofthecity. the AlvielaaqueductandBarbadinhos reservoir, from whichfour triarcal reservoir, supplieswere andfurther addedlaterthrough das Amoreiras cistern. Additional storagewas provided by the Pa- tacular Alcântaraaqueductbridgeandfinishesatthe Mãe d’Água west. Once theaqueduct reaches thecityitpassesacross thespec- the pipedistribution network. The octagonal Patriarcal beneaththe Reservoir Príncipe Real Mãe d’Água dasAmoreiras isamonumentalstone reservoir from blocksoflimestonewhich The aqueductisconstructed th 3 . It regulated thepressure between theArco and reservoir century tosupplyLisbonandextendedasthecitygrew in century th century. Water wasdrawnfrom springstothenorth- km sectionoftheaqueductendsat m m deeptank.The western front 3 ofwater, closertoawatertow- 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 87 century prompted th century with steam-powered pumping, pumping, century with steam-powered th century of its secondary with the building branches – subsidi- The Alviela aqueduct conveyed water to the last water deposit water deposit the last water to conveyed aqueduct Alviela The The Patriarcal reservoir 1860 and 1864 as was built between Patriarcal The The Alviela aqueduct was constructed 1871 and 1880 between All the major elements manifest a high quality of engineering in manifest a elements the major All th The growth of Lisbon in the 16 history:Brief The growth built for the system, the Barbadinhos reservoir. Alongside is the Alongside reservoir. the system, the Barbadinhos built for an engine which includes pumping station steam Barbadinhos demolished was chimney deposit; the and coal room boiler house, the by beam engines compound Woolf rotary Four in the 1950s. installed in 1876. were & Fils Windsor E. manufacturer French the Portuguese king to order the construction of the Águas Livres the construction Livres of the Águas king to order the Portuguese the 1731 and 1799, between was built It aqueduct. Waters) (Free aqueduct. Undamaged Roman an old of that with coinciding route into the the Lisbon earthquake well continued by of 1755, work 19 The Aguas Livres aqueduct rep- aqueduct and symbolic dimension: The Aguas Livres Cultural spanning the of water provision the technical development resents a gravi- Roman engineering principles through final application of galler- using management water masonryfed ty Baroque aqueduct, and industrial technology ies, urban cisterns and public fountains, characteristic of the 19 ary con- and head race tunnels – and its aqueducts, water conduits reservoir Água Mãe de in Amoreiras. the and finally duit fountains, the French part to augment the system designed by of the project the Aguas initially supplied by and engineer Louis-Charles Mary, was intended to supply the Lisbon downtown aqueduct. It Livres area. which it col- for water, to help meet continuing rising demand pumping Barbadinhos north114 km The Lisbon. from of lected pumping ceased in 1880; steam in operation into went station for human not been used have 1928. The waters of the aqueduct consumption since the 1960s. iron pipes and water treatment. iron with an urbane vision consistent their conception and execution, An example is the way that the cisterns have of public water supply. 88 The Water Industry as World Heritage sewage pumpingstationinLeicester,sewage UK. inAustraliathe 1883Goulburn waterworks orthe1891 Abbey parable examplesof Woolf compoundpumping enginesinclude ing and architecture, despite the loss of the boiler chimney. Com- classified asa Set of Public Interest (Ordinance no. 117/2010). of 50 mthroughout itslength. Thepumpingstationbuildingwas since 1910.Thisguarantees theaqueducta Special Protection Area Protection regime: Theaqueducthasbeena National Monument oftheMuseopart da Água. ervoir, Patriarcal andBarbadinhos reservoir pumpingstationform Present use:Theaqueductisamonumentandthe Mãe deÁgua res- Present sitemanagement Rome inthe17 elements follows the modeldeveloped forCounter-Reformation Comparative analysis:Theaqueductanditsurbandistribution to 65 m. archespiece ofengineering,thetallestthirty-five reaching from the highest constructed pointed arches ever used for such a role aselegantpublicspaces.Theaqueductbridgeis a secondary much largercovered builtinmany19 reservoirs tine cisterns,althoughsmallerthanthoseinIstanbul, orwiththe iron pipes. waterin built between 1837and1842,bothofwhichtransport most 100 m,andtheHigh Bridge ontheoldCroton aqueduct, is the1846Roquefavour bridgeontheCanaldeMarseille, atal- tradition ofgravityflow bridgeaqueducts.Thehighestsuch Saint-Clément inMarseille (1765),marking theendofRoman Aqueduc duct bridgecanbecompared withthecontemporary projects suchasthe1623Aqueduc Médicis inParis. Theaque- the early20 pumping, thoughsuchtechnologycontinuedtobeinstalledinto Europe andNorth America. The urban reservoirs inLisboncanbecomparedThe urban with reservoirs Byzan- The isalateexampleofbeamengine Barbadinhos waterworks th century. It isnotableforthequalityofengineer- th century, andcompares withroyal water-supply th -century citiesin -century 8.5. Old Croton aqueduct, USA Meisha Hunter, Senior Preservationist, Li/Saltzman Architects, USA

The 1837–48 High Bridge entering Manhattan. Most of the masonry arches were replaced by the 1927 steel arch. (© Jim Henderson, Wikimedia Commons)

89 90 The Water Industry as World Heritage engineering achievements in19 1837 andcompletedin1842,wasoneofthemostsignificantcivil General description:Thefirst Croton aqueduct campaign,begunin NY, USA Location: Presentation andanalysis sub-aqueous tunnelunder the River Thames,builtin1841. civilengineering works suchasthefirst addition tocontemporary applicationsin ueducts, aqueductbridges andhydraulic mortar effort. studied and ledthecomplexconstruction Roman aq- Jervis In 1836,John B.Jervis (1795–1885)completed thefinaldesign and structures andestablished theproject’s hydraulic principles. (1790–1849), theproject’s first chiefengineer, plannedthe route ofthecity.was amilestoneinthehistory Major David B.Douglass water supplyandcontaminatedwells, theaqueduct’s completion peatedly devastated New York Cityowing toitsinadequate inpart BuiltBrief inresponse history: tothefires and epidemicsthat re - 135th and119thStreets inthemiddleof10thAvenue. control and regulate the water supply were at 142nd, constructed lined channelsandiron mains.Gatehouses whosefunctionwasto voir. South oftheHarlem river, Croton waterflowed inbrick- Park; andtheneo-Egyptian style Murray Hill distributingreser- Clendening Valley Crossing; the York Hill inCentral reservoir Highry-arcaded Bridge over theHarlem river; the1900 ft-long Crossing atSing Sing Kill;the1450 ft-long,100ft-highmason - lection anddistribution:themonumentalmasonry-arched Valley topographically challenging locations or at junctures of water col- the safetyandhealthofitsresidents. New York Cityandcriticaltoitslong-termprosperity, aswell as toprovidestructed areliable source ofabundant,potablewaterto in theUnited States. The41-mileaqueductwasdesignedandcon- most ambitiousmunicipalpublicworks projects ever undertaken The Croton aqueduct featured spectacularsuperstructures at Putnam, Westchester, Bronx andNew York counties, th -century Americaandoneofthe -century 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 91 (1842 address by Charles King, president of Columbia Charles King, president by (1842 address The New York City water supply system... was in its time the model City water York New The Among its immediate and palpable benefits are its influences on its benefits are its immediate and palpable Among Croton dam (later submerged inside of the New Croton dam) dam) Croton of the New inside (later submerged dam Croton Comparative analysis: The successful design and construction analysis: of the Comparative but prominence to rise city’s the helped only not aqueduct Croton served as a model for other municipal water-supply systems. United the systems throughout for large-scale municipal water supply internationalan as stood of example resulted that system the States... and formed a cornerstone growth of rapid engineering skills in an era As a costly municipal enterprise, and symbolic dimension: As a costly municipal Cultural that with civic pride and the expectation was imbued the Croton recogni- it would serve was widespread many generations. There by evidenced as achievement, monumental a as Croton the of tion engineering community. the national and international visits from me- other and paintings books, of subject the became Croton The the significance of this civil engineering dia which communicated achievement. and comfort, of sobriety and per- domestic convenience the promotion increase the consequent streets, sonal cleanliness, the purification of our it will extend to mechanical and man- of public health, the facilities be among us to of steam power increase the vast ufacturing industry, in the arts, a necessary the supply to our mariners of employed element and by change of climate, unaffected comparatively which will remain against the dangers of con- the security it will afford pre-eminently flagration. College) consisted of bolder-filled, timber-cribbed aprons, keyed masonry keyed aprons, timber-cribbed of bolder-filled, consisted and earth embank- mortar, hydraulic facing all using and granite Old of the profile design for the S-shaped unique ments. Jervis’s water’ overflowing of force the ‘destructive dam minimized Croton Water an industryand became American dam design. for standard channel. horseshoe-shaped, brick-lined descended in a gravity-fed, every located mile along shafts were spaced ventilating Regularly route. the aqueduct’s 92 The Water Industry as World Heritage Act (1966). Act of of1966(asamended);andtheDepartment Transportation Environmental Policy Act (NEPA); National Historic Preservation New York State Environmental Review Quality Act; theNational state and federal levels: New York City Landmarks Law (1965), the Pumping Station; andthe119thStreet gatehouse. the High Bridge watertower; the135thStreet gatehouse;theHigh sion, includingtheHigh Bridge, aqueductand pedestrianwalk; tection oftheNew York CityLandmarks Preservation Commis- aqueduct are alsodesignatedindividuallandmarks underthepro- Jerome Park reservoir. Several individualstructures oftheCroton ton damsite;135thStreet gatehouse;High Pumping Station; and including the High Bridge, aqueduct, andwatertower; Old Cro- individually on theNew York State Register ofHistoric Places, Manhattan touchdown ofHigh Bridge. Bronx from oftheaqueductrunning portion Westchester tothe ueduct between theOld andNew Croton dams,aswell asthe Bridge inManhattan, oftheaq- includingthesubmergedportion Westchester CountyuntiltheManhattan touchdown oftheHigh ignated aNational Historic Landmark, from theCroton damin segment oftheaqueduct’s above-grade linearcorridorwere des- il Engineering Landmark. In 1992,26milesofthenorthernmost neers designatedtheCroton watersupplysystemasaHistoric Civ- Register ofHistoric Places. TheAmerican Society ofCivil Engi- Protection regime: The Croton aqueduct islistedonthe National City of Yonkers border totheCroton daminCortlandt. fromear park thatruns Van Park Cortlandt attheBronx County/ Present use:The Old Croton Aqueduct State Historic Park isalin- Present sitemanagement Harvard University Graduate SchoolofDesign) in thecreation city. ofthemodern (Professor Daniel L.Schodeck, Heritage management protections are offered at the municipal, Several individualstructures oftheCroton aqueductare listed 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 93 Journal Journal New York’s water supply is sourced from the Croton, Croton, the from is sourced supply water York’s New Landmarks in American civil engineer- in American L. (1987). Landmarks Schodek, Daniel ing. Boston, MA: MIT Press. for the Society for Industrial Archaeology, 4(1). for the Society for Industrial Rappolle, George H. (1978). The Old Croton aqueduct. Croton Old The (1978). H. George Rappolle, Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, Planning Planning of Architecture, School Graduate Columbia University waterworks:Croton A guide to the (2011). The and Preservation. Historic infrastructure. historic of interpretation and preservation II, Spring. Studio Preservation Water-works: The (2006). Water-works: A. F. G., & Appleton, Bone, K., Pollara, York: water supply. New York and engineering of New architecture Press. Monacelli Additional bibliography Context: Context: Delaware and Catskill watersheds, covering a surface area of 2000 of 2000 a surface area watersheds, covering and Catskill Delaware reservoirs contains nineteen system miles. The three and square billion gallons that capacity of 580 with a storage lakes controlled Yorkers. 9 million serveNew cumulatively over 8.6. Kew Bridge and Kempton Park pumping stations, UK

Kempton Park engine house is the grandest expression of the waterworks style of industrial architecture. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: The London Museum of Steam and Water, Green Drag- on Lane, Brentford, and Kempton Steam Museum, Kempton Park Water Treatment Works, Snakey Lane, Hanworth, Greater Lon- don

General description: Two exceptionally complete and historically important conserved steam pumping stations which supplied London with water. 94 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 95 Boulton & Watt engine built in 1820 for the earlier Chelsea engine built Watt Boulton & to restored in 1839–40, and to Kew and moved Works Water operating condition. 1838 and converted engine built in to the Cornish Maudslay in 1848. cycle Carne & Sandys 90-inch engine built by Junction Grand Cornish engines in 1846, one of only four remaining Vivian 80 inches and the only than with a cylinder diameter greater one still operating. the only in 1856, Hayle, Harvey & Co., built by engine Bull pumping engine on its example of this type of direct-acting original site. in 1869, the Hayle, Harvey & Co., 100-inch engine built by of the Cornish engine. ultimate development - horizon verticalrotative, The museum also displays compound tal compound and other steam pumping engines that have been engines that have tal compound and other steam pumping Nearby display. as diesel and electric pumps on as well there moved - Mu Steam the Kempton pumping station (now Park Kempton Triple engine house and the seum) includes the 1897 Lilleshall inverted verti- Simpson Worthington containing two large House the crane, with order, working cal triple expansion engines, one in output. used to monitor each engine’s original tools and controls the tops of to the basement the from 19 m high stands Each engine the ram pumps, each casings, and is 13.7 m long. Including valve — — — — The outstanding pumping engines are: The outstanding — The Kew Bridge pumping station (now the Lon- the (now station pumping Bridge inventory: KewBrief The Engine Main the includes Water) and of Steam don Museum 1845–6 and house of Engine the Great in 1836–8 and house built contemporary containing both 1869–70, engines pumping beam rebuilt was tower standpipe neighbouring The building. the filling the pumping engine against damage to and was a buffer in 1867 in the mains. be abruptly a break lost by should pressure 96 The Water Industry as World Heritage 20 indicating themore scientificapproach towaterprovision inthe earlyexample wasbuiltatKew forwateranalysis,avery oratory 1855, thistimeabove thetidalreach toHampton. In 1903alab - streets andhouses.River extractionwasagainmoved upstream in atCampdenHill reservoir beforeservice gravitatingtoindividual vives. Afterfiltration, thecleanwaterwaspumpeduptoacovered 1838. from Chelseawere moved toKewBridge andbeganpumpingin in 1820.Here, too,thewaterbecamepollutedsotwoengines atChelsea waterworks to beunsuitable the company builta new water from theGrand Junction Canal,butwhenthewaterproved for theGrand Junction Waterworks Companyin1811.It took ofLondonwasbuilt inthispart Thefirstwaterworks Brief history: 1008 water hp. weighs 1000tons(1016tonnes)andwascapableofproducing station inBritain. It historicsiteofthe water isthemostimportant steam pumping engines,andisthemost completeearlypumping intheworld containingitsoriginal station istheoldestwaterworks Cultural andsymbolicdimensionof the sites:Kew Bridge pumping sioned. Apairofsteamturbines were addedin1933. two Worthington-Simpson tripleexpansionengineswere commis- of pumps,inthe Triple House, wascompletedin1928whenthe voirs supplying twelve slow sandfilterbeds. Work onasecond set were installedtoliftwaterfrom theThamestotwoholding reser- River Company. Five Lilleshalltripleexpansionsteamengines London Museum ofSteam and Water. vation. The pumpingstationoperateduntil1985andisnow the 1944, five classicenginesat Kew Bridge were selectedforpreser- in 1944. When theMWBphasedoutitsoldersteamenginesin MWB addeddieselpumpsatKewin1934,andelectric ipal control withintheMetropolitan Water Board in1904.The th Slow sandfilterbeds were built in1845,oneofwhichstillsur- Kempton Park pumpingstationwasbuiltin1897by theNew All London’s private water companies were taken intomunic- century. 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 97 Preserved water-supply pumping engines with which compar- water-supply pumping Preserved The museum is a rare experience wherein five original beam original five experience wherein is a rare The museum engines at triple-expansion steam pumping The two 1000-ton the two sites conserve- outstanding in situ ex together, Taken The combined sites are the most important The combined sites are analysis: Comparative for in the world, sites of historic water pumping infrastructure range, authenticity and their early date and period, technological the which Londoners, to for significance social their and integrity, bear and architecture high quality of the mechanical engineering witness. and engines at Papplewick ison might be made include the beam Lisbon (Portugal); and (Australia) NSW (UK), Goulburn, Ryhope NY Cincinnati, OH, Buffalo, while the triple expansion engines in States can be com- United MA in the engines) and Boston, (five steamed. currently although none are Park with Kempton pared industry (it date for its early world, the and arguably in Britain, startedthe station, in- of and the completeness 1838) pumping in gate- and offices laboratory, tower, standpipe engines, the cluding house. Cornish-cycle of the development progressive the present engines waterworkssteam engine for service 1820 to 1869. During from cylinder diameter increased at the museum, the period represented 65 to 100 inches. from to steam, been preserved and one is restored have Park Kempton technology in the world. example of this the largest working water sup- steam-powered of evolution amples of the technological notable examples of as three as well than a century, more ply over The history of waterworksthe development architecture. of the for domestic water supply of responsibility the transfer sites covers companies to municipal administration. commercial private, from rise in the quality, to the progressive testament they are Finally, of water supplied to a major metropolitan as the quantity, as well of the sites of abstraction further upstream in the relocation centre, later rapid filtering, and of slow on the Thames, the incorporation of chemical and biological analysis. 98 The Water Industry as World Heritage Kempton Great Engines Trust isaregistered National Monument. Museum Limited,aregistered charity, wasformedin1973.The Engines Trust. The Kew Bridge Engines andTrust Water Supply independent Accredited Museum, governed by the Kew Bridge Management: Site. Kempton Park islistedGrade I. in the buffer zone of the Royal Botanical Gardens World Heritage Area and NatureConservation Area; andpartially Conservation including the1867standpipetower. Thesiteisinthe Kew Bridge Grade IandII*buildings;theprincipaloneshave beenrestored Protection regime: The Kew Bridge sitecomprisesamixoflisted Present use:Museums Present sitemanagement The London Museum of Steam and Water isan 8.7. Berlin Radialsystem sewage treatment network, Germany

Radialsystem V, now part of a popular arts space. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: Berlin (various sites)

General description: The Radialsystem waste removal and treatment plan developed for Berlin consisted of twelve steam pumping stations which collected waste and rain water, partially filtered it, and raised it to be piped to peripheral sewage farms where it fertilized fields. This distinctive system continued well into the th20 century. 99 100 The Water Industry as World Heritage after architectural modifications. The building is typical of the 1881; it became the largest pumping station of Berlin in 1905 ation in1878.Radialsystem V wasbuilt onHolzmarktstrasse in a workshop andstoragearea. fortheworkers onduty;and engines inoperation;living quarters boiler room, designedrespectively tohousethepumpsandsteam ofthedistrictwascollected;machinehalland the wastewater residents. Thestationsconsistedofacollectiontankintowhich theneedsofmostBerlin’sthat succeededinserving 1.5million connecting themwere completed by 1909,afeatofengineering Berlin sewer systemofficiallyopenedin1878. forcropsand usedasfertilizer grown onthedrainagefields.The ofthecity. farmsontheoutskirts of sewage was filtered Thesewage stations, andpumpedinpressurized iron pipesto16,000hectares ity through aseriesofunderground sewersbelow thepumping aswelland industrialwastewater asrainwascollectedundergrav- used asasupplyoffresh drinkingwater. Domestic, commercial of each.Hobrecht’s planallowed theSpree river tocontinuebe Radialsystems, settingasteampumpingstationatthelowest part waste-treatment network. city. Incorporated within theHobrecht planwasacomprehensive commissioned todesignanurbandevelopment planforthewhole moval systemandcivilengineerJames Hobrecht (1825–1902)was the citycounciltoseekapracticalandcost-effective sewage re- founded inLondon1856. wasopened Thefirst byacompany Berlinwaterworks Brief history: collected. urbanarea whichwerery usedfordispersingthe wastewhichthey ing stationsandtheassociatedfieldsonedgeof19 Brief inventory: cultural andcommercial uses. Today the pumpingstations have to various been converted new The firstpumpingstation, RadialsystemIII, wentintooper- All twelve pumpingstationsandtheunderground network Hobrecht dividedBerlin intotwelve topographicaldistricts,or The Radialsystemhastwelve formersteampump- In 1866acholeraepidemic forced th -centu- 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 101

th -century sanitary th hp horizontal steam engines working twelve pumps twelve working steam engines hp horizontal - steam pumps un built in 1881–3, had three VII, Radialsystem the periphery sewage farms around The extensive of the city Holbrecht’s Radialsystem was a unique solu- Holbrecht’s analysis: Comparative of the the circumstances by conditioned tion to waste removal, and with the river new plan, its geographical relationship city’s Com- options. technological current the and hinterland, its with system, which used intercept parison can be made with London’s rath- river, waste in its steam pumping stations the dump the city’s but which has also a distinguished er than put it to advantage, heritage of waterworks and steam engines. reformers of using sewage for fertilizer. reformers industrial architectural style in this region at the time, architect architect time, the at region this in style architectural industrial the Märkische of elements decorative using Tettenborn Richard light to windows large with style Gothic) (brick Backsteingothik ideals of Hobrecht’s James followed It hall interior. the machine - and technolo industrial architecture and elegance in cleanliness 220 Six gy. plan is among the Holbrecht and symbolic dimension: The Cultural cities in the 19 numerous reordered influential urban plans which pumped the mechanically pre-cleaned waste over a sand trap by a sand trap by waste over pre-cleaned pumped the mechanically wastewater grating means of verticallyto the sewage. rolls standing added later. were additional 320 hp steam engines Six in VIII was built Pumping station in the 1930s. til electrification and Radialsys- Gotzkowskystraße, of 1889–90 at the confluence on Erich-Weinert-Straße. tem XI in 1907–8 ponds, dairyincluded fruit trees, farms and other secondary op- erations. century to help them cope with rapid population growth and in- and centurygrowth population rapid with cope them help to to the historydustrial expansion, and is fundamental and form of capital. The importancethe German of the Radialsystem in help- to Berlin’s epidemics was critical previous ing the city overcome pumping technology and applied steam effectively It development. domestic and in- the city’s to collect and remove pipe networks successfully and Spree, River the of out it keeping waste, dustrial goal of 19 putting into large-scale practice the 102 The Water Industry as World Heritage which theyhadforcitizens atthattime. a substantiallyintactheritageasevidencefortheimmensevalue resolve Crisis theSanitary ofalargecityforwhichthere remains Abwasserentsorgung 1840–1940.Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner. Mohajeri, S.(2005).100Jahre Berliner Wasserversorgung und Additional bibliography Falkenberg drainagefieldisstill recognizable today. enberg are now anature oftheoriginallayout ofthe part reserve; age fieldsofRadialsystem Vlocatedin Bürcknersfelde and Falk- the Denkmaldatenbank ofLandesdenkmalamtBerlin. Thedrain- Protection regime: Most ofthepumpingstationsare designatedon system V isawell-known musicvenue. tomuseums, offices,culturalcentresverted or restaurants.Radial- Present use:Several oftheformerpumpingstationshave beencon- Present sitemanagement Berlin is one of very few 19 few Berlin is one of very th -century waste systems built to -century 8.8. Boston Metropolitan Waterworks Museum, USA Dennis J. De Witt, Metropolitan Waterworks Museum, Boston, MA, USA

The Metropolitan Waterworks Museum occupies the former Chestnut Hill high service pumping station, Boston. (© D. J. De Witt)

Presentation and analysis Location: 2450 Beacon St., and other sites, Boston, MA, USA

General description: The Metropolitan Waterworks Museum (MWM) is housed in the former Chestnut Hill high service pump- 103 104 The Water Industry as World Heritage tween themid-19 system ofhistoric,standby andactive aqueductsestablishedbe- Chestnut Hill stand at a nexus ofBoston’s reservoir water-supply to thenearbyreservoir Fisher Hill reservoir. The MWMandthe 1898–9, whichpumpedwaterfrom theadjacentChestnutHill in1884–8 andextendedin ing station(CHHSPS),constructed 3. 2. 1. The engine room housesthree majorsteampumpingengines: overlooksglass-walled exhibitsgallery theLeavitt-Reidler engine. cathedral-scaled interior, panelledceiling,andthe hasamarquetry rather thantheoriginalbuilding’s intendedhorizontal engines.The tripleexpansionengine addition wasdesignedtohouseavertical boiler room, The1898–9 engineroom –functionallyarticulated. H. example oftheinfluential Romanesque styleofBostonarchitect ton’sArthur H. officialcity architect, Vinal,isasophisticated Thepumpingstation,originallydesigned Briefby Bos- inventory: to itscustomerswithoutpumping. tunnels thatnow allow of90percent ofthesystem’s delivery water — Adjacent totheMWMare: efficient ‘dutyratings’ ofanyenginetodate. The twotriples,eachastestednew, successively hadthemost H. Richardson, witheachofitsmajorcomponents–coalstore, 1921 Worthington-Snow compoundengine. lated design. 1899 Allistripleexpansionengine,thefirstofitsmuch-emu - ing exampleofhisinnovative work. - 1894 Leavitt-Riedlertripleexpansionengine,theonlysurviv stairs intended forpublicuseintheUSA. The Brookline nearby principalgatehousehastheoldest iron roof andiron pumpingstation. TheCochituateaqueduct’sthe highservice gatehouses associatedwith theChestnutHill and reservoir The 1848Cochituateaqueduct andtwoofitssubsequent th andearly20 th centuriesandofasystemdeep 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 105 The Cochituate aqueduct was Boston’s first public first Boston’s was aqueduct Cochituate The The 1870 Chestnut Hill reservoir, together with its first and together reservoir, Hill Chestnut The 1870 gatehouses. second effluent Sudburyaqueduct. the 1870 gatehouse of The terminus reservoirHill that was sup- Fisher of the The 1888 gatehouse in the pumping the pumping station, was designed plied by style. Richardson station’s serviceHill low pumping Chestnut The 1899 neoclassical station. reservoir, the receiving reservoir aque - 1848 Cochituate of the the receiving reservoir, Landmark. Historic National duct, is a The CHHSPS originally had two Holly Gaskell compound en- Gaskell compound Holly The CHHSPS originally had two in 1921 engines was replaced Gaskell of the original Holly One largest the then reservoir, and dam Wachusett the 1906, In B. Jervis, who built New York’s York’s who built New J. B. Jervis, laid out by was It water supply. designed under the supervision aqueduct, and was Croton of E. S. The Cochituate in Chicago. famous for his later work Chesbrough, and reservoir, the Chestnut Hill supplied aqueducts and Sudbury and quantity to the quality Due gravity. thence most of Boston by beginning in the a series of annexations supply, water of the city’s servicehigh separate a an- higher the for system required 1860s areas. nexed was Leavitt-Riedler The them. between third a for room with gines them in 1894. A seamlessly matching 1898–9 between squeezed Wheelwright, houses the March Edmund addition, designed by winning, neoclassical low Allis engine. The adjacent, competition service pumping station was added in 1898–9. replaced in the engine. The other was Worthington-Snow the by two steam turbines, as the station converted to oil and 1930s by Boston’s Today servicethe adjacent low station ceased operation. 90 (MWRA) delivers Authority Resources Water Metropolitan of its water without pumping. percent Eventually, completed. was reservoirworld, water the drinking in it, almost all from as deep tunnels distributed water under pressure pumping was eliminated. — — — history: Brief — 106 The Water Industry as World Heritage tionally secure locationintheUSAwith19 European citiessuchasHamburg orLondon. filtering from nearby rivers aswas more commonly practisedin ered tometropolitan areas by gravity, asopposedtopumpingand sources ofpurerural water, stored behindmassive dams anddeliv- able historic water-supply systemwhich, alongonlywithNew Age. ca’s City Beautiful Movement andBoston’s post-Civil War Golden pumping stationsembodytheaspirationsofAmeri- low service The architectural characterandproximate locationofthe highand pumping stationwithfive tripleexpansionengines. 1914 vertical cal triple expansion engines, and Buffalo’s Col. Francis G. Ward access totheRiver Station, Cincinnati,withthree- 1000 hpverti pansion steampumpingengines.Federal securityrestrictions limit 19 Comparative analysis:The Boston water system exemplifies the water-supply system. Sudbury aqueductsandtheentire historicmetropolitan Boston adjacent Chestnut Hill reservoir, the abutting Cochituate and ings, islistedontheNational Register ofHistoric Places, asisthe Chestnut Hill site,includingitsthree historicbuild- waterworks quality oftheworkmanship anddesign.Theprominently located structures isnotablefortheconsistenthigh stations andancillary aqueducts,pumping politan Bostonsystemofdams,reservoirs, Cultural and symbolic dimension: The components of the metro- Waterworks Museum, Inc. in2009. Friends ofthe Waterworks, tooktitletothespaceasMetropolitan containing entranceandexhibitgalleries.Astakeholdergroup, ofaglass-walledstructure change intheMWMwasinsertion the siteaswell asoftheMWMspaceandengines.Theprincipal oftheexteriorsallthreeand preservation historicbuildingson stakeholder process thateventually spelledouttheredevelopment th The MWManditssiteistheonlypubliclyaccessible, institu- The MWM is afocusfortheinvestigation ofBoston’s remark- From the mid-1970s the building and site were the focus of a -century policyoflargeAmericancitiesthatexploiteddistant -century th -century tripleex- -century 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 107 Great waters: A history of Boston’s water sup- waters: A history of Boston’s Great L. (1983). F. Nesson, of New Press University by University NH: Brandeis ply. Hanover, England. Arthur H. Vinal / Edmund March March / Edmund Vinal H. J. (2016). Arthur Dennis Witt, De pumping station. Boston, MA: Wheelwright and the Chestnut Hill Museum. Waterworks Metropolitan Additional bibliography of the Cochituate reservoir J. (2014). Brookline Dennis Witt, De . Washington, Nomination Landmark Historic aqueduct, National Service. Park D.C.: National A binding, state promulgated Land Disposition Land Disposition promulgated A binding, state regime: Protection condominium regimes the buildings’ (LDA) underlies Agreement - possibly disadvanta of any changes state oversight and provides also City of Boston are geous to the MWM. The historic buildings engines are and they and the subject to design review, Landmarks, preservationCommission Historical Massachusetts a to subject easement. The MWM site has three historic buildings – the low buildings – the low historic has three use: The MWM site Present service stables, both converted pumping station and to residential building’s the museum building. The museum condominia, and units. house condominium now and boiler room coal store Present site management York’s, is unique in delivering unfiltered, non-chlorinated water of water non-chlorinated unfiltered, delivering in unique is York’s, - Metro the with cooperation in MWRA, The quality. the highest the system’s is developing (MAPC) Council Planning politan Area six surface- main dams and, well with their multiple aqueducts, of a network gatehouses, as architect-designed tained, numerous reservoir. Hill which is the Chestnut a terminus of walking trails, 8.9. Vyrnwy and Elan Valley distant supply schemes, UK Stephen Hughes, TICCIH Secretary and vice-president ICO- MOS-UK, UK

Claerwen Dam was added to the Elan Valley scheme in 1957. Tough built of concrete it wasfaced in masonry to be inkeeing with the older structures nearby. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: Lake Vyrnwy and Elan Valley, Mid Wales, Liverpool and Birmingham, UK 108 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 109 The Elan and Vyrnwy schemes and Elan The century, driven by industrialization and each and industrialization by driven century, th In 1880, the Corporation of Liverpool built the first high ma- built the first of Liverpool 1880, the Corporation In represent the solution for the critical public health problems in problems health critical public for the solution the represent the Industrial from resulting two of the largest urban populations a pictur- consciously creating were Both complexes Revolution. towers esque mountain and water landscape with ornamental valve to rebuilt and chapels and Arts villages, churches Crafts-style and Elan Vyrnwy and reservoirs. the The those submerged by replace Cultural and symbolic dimension: Cultural Vyrnwy was investigated in 1866, designed and au- was investigated history:Vyrnwy Brief Valley Elan The 1881-91. built between and 1880, in thorised in one cam- in 1871 and 1891 and built scheme was investigated 1893 and 1904. paign between The large Vyrnwy Dam and its valve tower, de- tower, valve Dam and its Vyrnwy inventory:Brief The large and 30 m of a Rhenish Castle, the aqueduct signed in the form The in Liverpool. Norton at water tower monumental receiving cast- including an innovatory aqueduct had siphons and tunnels accommodating the aqueduct Mersey tunnel under the river iron - system had four dams and res Valley Elan pipes. Birmingham’s ervoirs two intermediate tunnels, the uppermost being linked by Caban Coch. Ddu and Garreg then Penygarreg, Dam, Goch Craig how such dam clearly exhibit The foundations of an intended fifth bridge aque- Monumental designed. were structures Victorian of the long pipeline. the passage ducts, tunnels and siphons mark - an unprec health crises, prompted public successive by stricken water. of drinking sources large, clean demand for new, edented Wales. of Mid the mountains to looked west Both cities feeding a 105 Vyrnwy, sonry the River on gravity dam in Britain scheme Birmingham The pipeline to the city. km gravity aqueduct so- 1893-1904) and was a more later (first phase began 13 years of four reservoirsphisticated complex tunnels and two connecting at the of a 117 km aqueduct which terminated leading to the head outside the city. works treatment Frankley - Birming and Liverpool of rapid growth The description: General late 19 ham in the 110 The Water Industry as World Heritage 19 and connecting tunnelsplannedinonecampaignthe reservoirs Altona (Denmark) and Vienna aswell asGreat Britain. designed over includingexamplesinStockholm, 150waterworks ICOMOS-UK/Cadw as a Landscape of Historic Interest in Wales. Workers villageislistedGrade II.The Elan Valley is registered by Elan Dams and valve towers are Grade II*.The Elan Maintenance ton Water Tower oftheLiverpool ispart World Heritage Site. The Protection regime: The Vyrnwy Dam islisted Grade Iandthe Nor- (50 km) intheElan Valley. railways pecially alongthecourseofcomplexconstruction Present Use: Still active water-supplyschemeswithtouristuse es- Present sitemanagement ter-supply andsewerageschemeengineersofthe19 ley, wasoneofthemostprolific and influentialinternationalwa- Theprincipalconstructed. Vyrnwy engineer, Thomas Hawkes- Europe. The Vyrnwy Aqueduct wasthelongestinworldwhen system tocombatupliftpressure. It created in thelargestreservoir rate spillway. Thedamwasalsothefirsttoincorporateadrainage gravity damtoactasaweir, dispensingwiththeneedforasepa- Comparative analysis: power. to agrowth inpoliticalactivismandthedevolution ofpolitical of a minority cultureheartlands for urban water supply that led ments. They were thebeginningofalargertrend offloodingthe drownedreservoirs about70housesin Welsh-speaking settle- and healsoworked onschemesinPhiladelphia andAntigua. age Works and Farm inMelbourne, Australia (seetheCaseStudy), ducing more than250reports. Among them isthe Werribee Sew - schemes,prowho actingfor360urbanwater-supplyandsewage - tionally influentialwaterengineer James Mansegh (1834-1905), th The Elan Valley wereReservoirs thelargestcomplexofdams, century. They were considered themasterpieceofinterna- Vyrnwy wasthefirsthigh(44.2m)masonry th century. He

8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 111 http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/ at The Vyrnwy Dam is owned by Severn Trent Water. Water. Trent Severn by owned is Dam Vyrnwy The . Andover: . Andover: Wales Heritage: Engineering Civil Thomas, K. (2010). Phillimore. The Elan Valley Railway: The railway of the Valley Railway: The Elan (2004). The C.W. Judge, UK. Usk, . Oakwood, Birmingham Waterworks Corporation - Engi in (1892)’ Aqueduct ‘Vyrnwy Engineers, Civil of Institution Timelines neering engineeringItem.asp?id=388 dditional bibliography Additional Management: The Elan Dams are owned by Welsh Water and the Aqueduct by Aqueduct the Water and Welsh by owned Dams are Elan The Water. Trent Severn 8.10. Melbourne sewage system and Spotswood pumping station, Australia

Vertical triple expansion engines within the typically clean and ordered interior of a waterworks engine house. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: 2 Booker Street, Spotswood, Victoria 3015

General description: Spotswood pumping station was designed to pump the gravitated sewage collected from Melbourne City and suburbs through a rising main to Brooklyn where it discharged into the main outfall sewer which then conveyed the sewage to the Werribee sewage farm, where it was purified by land treatment. 112 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 113 consists of two mir- of two consists station pumping Spotswood The constructionThe in the main sewers commenced of Spotswood ceased operation in 1965, but sewage still flows un- ceased operation in 1965, but sewage still flows Spotswood The first four engines were non-rotative and manufactured by manufactured and non-rotative were engines first four The ponds sewage farm has ten lagoons used as oxidation Werribee Brief inventory:Brief The sewagedimension: The and symbolic is one of the system Cultural few large turn-of-the-century filtration sewage systems in the world which is still operating, and one of the earliest built in Australia. 1893; Spotswood pumping station was built between 1894 and pumping station was built between 1893; Spotswood in operation. The were 1897; and in 1914 all ten steam engines by 1925 installed in 1921, and were pumps first electric powered by electricity. pumped were most of the daily flows treatment Western and the der the site on its way to Brooklyn the took over Victoria of Museum 1989, the In Werribee. plant at sci- interactive an Scienceworks, develop to site station pumping in 1992. which opened ence and technology centre, Brief history: Brief ror-image pumping houses containing steam pumping machinery steam pumping houses containing pumping ror-image engines driving condensing steam ten triple expansion included associated boiler houses pumps, and acting plunger vertical direct bunker buildings. and coal - rota Two two in each pump house. Thompsons of Castlemaine, on an American design built added, one based engines were tive by the second Company, Engineering Otis the Austral locally by in 1901. & Company Davey Hathorn pump builder the British Hathorn close copies of the were group of four engines The final of steam collection A unique Otis. Austral made by engine Davey control and pumps driven motor electric pumps, driven engine at remain and other objects, as tools, furniture equipment as well the station. of the former grass filtration the sewage, remnants with to treat and earth dis- channel beds still evident, along with the concrete converted is largely The main outfall sewer to tribution network. and main trunkreticulation a is bike trails. The sewage network of brick lined of kilometres hundreds engineering structure, vast a boat through. in, or row tunnels large enough to stand upright 114 The Water Industry as World Heritage parable withsimilarworks inBerlin, BostonorCincinnati. tion Program, prepared by Engineering Heritage Victoria (2014). Nomination for the Engineering Heritage Australia Heritage Recogni- is basedon the muchmore comprehensive summary This short Additional bibliography of Victoria seum Management: on theregister oftheNational Trust ofAustralia. fall sewer are onthe Protection regime: Spotswood pumpingstationandthemainout- Present use:Museum exhibitions Present sitemanagement 19 urban character and qualityoflifeinthecityatend Melbourne, leadingtodramaticimprovements in hygiene,health, It issignificantforitscriticalhistorical role inthedevelopment of expansion pumpingenginesbuiltinthelate19 of the comprehensive drainage and treatment schemes using triple neering excellence incorporated in the scheme. It is representative fully integrated sewerage system in Australia, notable for the engi- Comparative analysis:The systemisthefirst Melbourne sewage engines intheworld. one ofthemostcompletecollectionstripleexpansionpumping work. Thesteampumpingenginesin construction Spotswood are engineeringand was amajorachievement intermsofsurveying, cant singleinfrastructure projects inAustralia ever undertaken and infectious diseases. substantial reduction indeathandillnessfrom typhoidandother th The construction ofthesystemwasonemostsignifi- The construction andthroughout the20 Melbourne WaterCorporation; Victorian Heritage Register, andSpotswood is th centuries.Assuchitleddirectly toa th Scienceworks, Mu - century andcom- century 8.11. Palacio de las Aguas Corrientes service reservoirs, Argentina Dr Jorge Tartarini, Director del Museo del Agua y de la Historia Sanitaria, Argentina

The glazed ceramic exterior of the Palacio de las Aguas Corrientes. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires

General description: Three raised water tanks are examples of the storage and distribution techniques for drinking water and of the significance given to public hygiene in the culture of the time, with the construction in 1894 of the Palacio de las Aguas Corrientes, and continuing with the erection of the two Depósitos de Grav- itación in 1915 and 1917. 115 116 The Water Industry as World Heritage 72,300 m umns onthree floorswithtwelve watertanks,capable ofstoring ton, while the great interior iron structure composed of 180 col- pieces madeby theEnglish terracotta manufacturer Royal Doul - ular exteriorfaçadeiscovered withmore than300,000ceramic style, related tothatoftheFrench Second Empire, thespectac- developed betweenconstruction 1887 and 1894. In an eclectic assembled onsite.Theproject tookdefinitive shapein1886and Guillermo Villanueva, tobe wasconceived asahugekitofparts to Distribuidor, alsoknown officiallyas Gran Depósito Ingeniero Brief inventory: where thetallestbuildings were concentrated. the Palacio deAguasCorrientes, especiallyinthecentre ofthe city, andinfrastructures. Thesecomplemented theworkstructions of gravity depositsofCaballito and Villa Devoto, amongothercon- purificationplantandthelarge ofanew with theconstruction made itobsolete,forcing thenationalwatercompanytoexpand plan waspracticallycompletedin1905,thegrowth ofthecity 1872 by the engineerJohn Fredrick Bateman. When Bateman’s riverbank, andpumpedupwithsteampumps.It wasdesignedin the RíodelaPlata, previously purifiedin establishments nearthe height, sinceitcollectedanddistributedthewaterextracted from supply systemofthecity, essentialinacitywithlittlevariation in yellow fever. The ofthe Palacio delasAguasCorrientesformspart Thecitysuffered epidemicsofcholera,typhoidand Brief history: voirs’ interioriron structures were manufactured inGreat Britain. but covered withpiedra Paris stone),thetwo (anartificial reser- rable architectural composition tothePalacio deAguasCorrientes, 20 great population growth ofBuenos Aires atthebeginning of the oped by Obras Sanitarias delaNación (OSN)inresponse tothe votoof a publichealth plan devel neighbourhoods formed part - and 1978. side, surrounded by gardens, operatedbetween thereservoir 1894 let group ofBelgian iron foundries. With aplanof90 moneach th The two gravity service reservoirs inthe Caballitoand reservoirs The twogravityservice Villa De- century, andinauguratedin19151917.Using acompa- 3 ofwater, wasmanufactured by theMarcinelle etCouil- Palacio delasAguas CorrientesorGran Depósi- 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 117 of drinking water. 3 The two service reservoirs in Caballito and Villa Devoto dis- Devoto Villa The two service reservoirs in Caballito and Present site management - cataloga Bien Nacional, Histórico Monumento regime: Protection - de la Ciudad Autóno por el Gobierno integral do con Protección Aires. ma de Buenos There seem to be no examples constructed There analysis: Comparative - of water comparable to those pre distribution and storage for the Reservorio del with the The closest comparisons are sented here. tank which is a much smaller cast-iron Brazil, in Manaus, Mocó Tallah tank in inaugurated in 1899. The masonrywith a exterior, mild steel sheets; built between is made of riveted Calcutta, India, storage tank largest overhead 1907 and 1911 it is claimed to be the in the world, for some 40,000 m The Palacio de las Aguas Corri- Aguas de las Palacio The symbolic dimension: and Cultural moment the to testimony exceptional an constitutes today entes (steam power) and technology in medical science when advances of epidemics, the scourge to fight against governments allowed unknown previously infrastructure large-scale health developing - the expansion of the produc execution, its In in these latitudes. through fundamental role countries had a tion of industrialized and professionals projects, technology, the transfer of materials, - expres water deposits are The three structures. self-assembled iron industry the iron by achieved of development sions of the degree addition, large water reservoirs. of In applied to the manufacture of its unique work a itself, is, by Corrientes de Aguas the Palacio and for the structure interior monumental iron kind, both for its of the terracotta external coverings by display achieved ornamental envelope. its architectural achieved development tricts denote the technical and professional of accuracy and in- local sanitation agencies, with a high degree by and understanding of their purpose the reading and favour tegrity, of water. within the system of storage and distribution 118 The Water Industry as World Heritage AySA. Gran Depósito aMonumento Histórico Nacional. Buenos Aires: Tartarini, Jorge D.(2012).El Palacio de lasAguas Corrientes.De entos Argentinos(AySA). aguateros, aljibesyaguascorrientes.Buenos Aires: AguaySaneami - Tartarini, Jorge D.(2010).Historias delAgua enBuenos Aires. De museums.N°30,Summer.and waterworks Terrassa: MNACTEC. Tartarini, Jorge D.(2005).For network ofwater aninternational Civil Engineering, 157(2). Chrimes, M.(2004).British civilengineeringbiography, 2parts. Additional bibliography 8.12. Old Wastewater Treatment Plant Prague-Bubeneč, Czech Republic Dr Šárka Jiroušková, Staré čistírny odpadních vod, Czech Republic

The complex of sewage pumping station and treatment plant at Prague- Bubeneč. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: Papirenska 6, Prague 6-Bubeneč, 16000, Czech Republic

General description: The former mechanical gravity wastewater treatment plant illustrates the history of architecture, technology and water management, specifically the treatment of wastewater 119 120 The Water Industry as World Heritage early implementation ofeffective stepstoensure healthy, hygienic Cultural and symbolic dimension: The isanexampleofthe OWTP for employees. trification, mechanicalelectric driven typeofscreens andfacilities well maintainedwe canrecognize modernizationincludingelec- put intooperationin1906.Theplantceased in1967. the wastewater-treatment plantinPrague-Bubenec wasbuiltand discharging itintothe in1899and started Vltava. Construction enough totreat from thequantityofwastewater city, before ter-treatment of Prague facilityontheoutskirts thatwouldbelarge - asuitablylocatedwastewa and transfersystemconstructing of wastewater. collection Thismeantestablishingawastewater Lindley. systemsengineer international waterandsewage William Heerlein The Brief history: Prague sewer systemproject wasdesigned by the engines. boilers andtwoBreitfeld &Danek horizontal compoundsteam remain insideallofthesebuildings, including preserved chinery screensa new room. Wastewater treatment technologyandma- technology process buildingsfrom 1930:achlorinationplantand of narrow-gauge railway, sand washing machinery. There are also derground settlingtanks,sludgewells, remains ofrails,abridge building,un- network,sewage asludgepumpchamberwithentry a group ofbuildingsrelated towatercleaning:anunderground builtin1906:themainoperationbuildingand constructions TheplantconsistsofundergroundBrief andaboveground inventory: overcoming thethreat ofwaterbornediseases. enabled thedevelopment ofthecityPrague by anditsindustry dangerous materialsbefore flowing outintothe Vltava river. It systemunderPraguesewage passedthrough thissitetoremove century. Between collectedby 1906and1967wastewater agravity in connection with the drainage of an urban area in the early 20 Though theoldwastewater-treatment plant(OWTP) hasbeen ofthisproject wasthemechanical treatmentAn essentialpart th

8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 121 century, a century, th - wastewater-treat modern first the is site The - Re the Czech of monument cultural national A This is the only completely preserved facility by the influential the by preserved completely only facility the is This example the only machinery, and powered The steam engines Protection regime: regime: Protection heritage in the Czech of the culture public (the highest valuation became an anchor point of the 2016, the OWTP In Republic). of Industrial Route (European ERIH tourist-information network plants of wastewater-treatment as the only representative Heritage) Europe. the historyshowing of water purification in Present site management OWTP as an educa- is a preserved site developed use: The Present - pro and varied with its administration tional and cultural centre and the history the original use of the site gramme presenting of sewage system. Prague´s living conditions in a developing metropolis and a solution to the a solution and metropolis developing in a conditions living - the ur waste from and eliminating drainage, pollution impact of a modern into Prague to develop allowed This ban environment. metropolis. The preserved Lindley (1808–1900). waste- William civil engineer machinery the only examples water-treatment and equipment are ma- craft of facility is an example of the precise of their kind. The using special bricks for the constructionsons and carpenters, of the construction high-quality plant and sewage system. Exceptionally in areas for this project specifically used, produced materials were by the water. affected in the Czech power of the steam version of the most widespread design in the early 20 illustrate engineering Republic, Comparative analysis: Comparative historically valuable collection documenting the state of the artthe state of documenting collection of valuable historically and electric motors. mechanical piston and paddle machines of its kind in one only the and Republic the Czech in plant ment which has been preserved in its original form (a world- Europe can Comparison preparation.) is under study comparative wide be drawn with the sewage pumping stations in London and Berlin to waste treatment. approach although each had a different 122 The Water Industry as World Heritage of sewerage systemsintheCzech Republic. Prague. – dejiny odvadeni acisteni odpadnich vod v Ceskych /History zemich and Sewerage systeminPrague , Broncova, D.ed.,Historie kanalizaci Jasek, Jaroslav, William Heerlain Lindly aprazská kanalizace/Lindly version, Prague. (2017). Tovarna o.p.s., sprava industrialnichnemovitosti, English The Old Wastewater Treatment Plant Praha-Bubenec 1906. Additional bibliography Institute). its conceptandrenewal plans(validated by theNational Heritage zation Tovarna o.p.s, sprava industrialnich nemovitosti, based on the city, hasbeenleasedandoperatedby thenon-profit organi- Management: in2018. service ment plantinthesamelocality;itwillstart The city is currently wastewater-treat- sewage completing a new in theCentral builtinthesamelocality(Prague-Bubenec).WTP sewers were redirected mechanical–biologicalprocesses tothenew Context andenvironment: WhentheOWTP closedin1967,mains Since of 2010thecomplex, whichistheproperty 8.13. Prague-Podolí water treatment plant, Czech Republic Dr Šárka Jiroušková, with Pražské vodovody a kanalizace a.s. (Prague Water Supply and Sewerage, plc)

The magnificent neoclassical design of the Prague-Podolí treatment plant emphasizes the importance to the city of its water-supply system. (Wikipedia Commons)

Presentation and analysis Location: Podolská 17, Praha 4-Podolí, 140 00, Czech Republic

123 124 The Water Industry as World Heritage Prague water-supplynetwork. pumped outofthetreatment planttowaterstoragefacilities in the basement oftherawwater pumpingstation.Thetreated water is gravity-fed water system of twin reinforced concrete pipes into the on Veslařský Island near the filtration facility) supplies water by a chemical treatment. Theriver waterabstractionfacility(located quality oftheriver water. It isbasedonmulti-stagefiltrationwith capacity was400 l/second. treatment process completed inslow biological filters.Theplant ing treatment, waterwasaerated,pre-filtered three times,andthe was based on the Puech-Chabal multi-stage filtration system. Dur- room and anofficebuilding.Theoriginaltechnological process bolic arches spanning29 m.Theproject alsoincludedamachine of view, aninteresting feature isthefiltrationhall’s 16 mpara- of drinkingwaterwasproduced daily. From point the structural pre-filters, finefiltersandacleanwatertank.Atotalof35,000 m ter tothefiltrationfacility. ings are linkedthrough a1965pipebridgesupplyingclarifiedwa- equipment). The build- chemical treatment facilities and ancillary stations, anunderground waterreservoir, Binar-Bělský clarifiers, equipment(rawandtreatedtal buildingfornew waterpumping water abstraction facility on Veslařský Island and a monumen- facilities from the1965extensionandmodernizationphase:araw building, pumpingstationandofficeacomplexof Thewater-treatmentBrief plantconsistsofafiltration inventory: source ofdrinkingwaterforPrague. asabackup complex hasbeenincontinuousoperation,serving extended inamatchingstylebetween 1954and1965.Thewhole in1929;itwas ter management.Operation oftheplantstarted monument topublicarchitecture, engineeringtechnologyandwa- the River Vltava toprovide Prague withdrinkingwaterandisa General description:The Prague-Podolí plantfiltersrawwater from The current treatment process is complex due to the poor The three-storey buildingaccommodated rough screen filters, 3

8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 125 been a backup -century- devel th century. th The new waterworks was built on the bank of the River Vltava Vltava newThe waterworks River the of bank the on built was drink- more of the operation and the need for The modernization the was water treated Vltava’s the 1972, and 1929 Between opment of natural river water treatment for supplying the growing for supplying the growing water treatment opment of natural river architectural and a magnificent with drinking water, metropolis - Re conception of the waterworks which is unique in the Czech the importancereflects of public. The extraordinary architecture the service example of a distinctive an exceptional and is to the city 1929 the filtra- facilities. In design of community infrastructure to abstract raw water from the river and turn it into drinking wa- and turn it into drinking the river from to abstract raw water and 1929 on the site of one 1924 was built between The plant ter. - The tech Vltava. the pumping water from of the original stations - et Cie. The architec H. Chabal by in Paris nology was designed architect. Czech a prominent Antonín Engel, tural design was by ex- and in renovation resulted metropolis ing water for the growing Prague wa- by the The design was drawn up tension in 1954–65. Antonín but the same architect, design studio, ter-supply company’s of the two a design unifying the technical buildings drew Engel, sym- representative New unit. eras to form a harmonized different constructed around were halls metrical buildings housing operating raw newthe accommodated and involving technology courtyard the rea- in clarifiers with the addition of chemical water pre-treatment located in the significantly are premises gents. Chemical treatment decorated with façade is front higher southern wing, whose main and its tributaries. Vltava the River statues representing eleven drinking 1972, Since of drinking water for Prague. main source water the Želivka another source, water has been supplied from has Podolí plant. The waterworkstreatment in plant in and symbolic dimension: The water-treatment Cultural 20 the of example illustrious an is Prague-Podolí drinking water source since 2003. drinking water source Brief history:Brief history The effort with the is connected of the facility after the Prague for water source a high-quality drinking to find vil- suburbs and surrounding expansion to incorporate 1922 city’s quarter in the first than tripled of population had more lages; its the 20 126 The Water Industry as World Heritage Prague:Atelier. VR Jásek, Jaroslav. (2002).The and Podolí waterworks Antonin Engel. Additional bibliography operated by Prague Water Supply andSewerage. Management: Parliament. city. Tourists tobetheHouses oftenconsiderthewaterworks of ment incorporatedinanurbanarea bordering onthecentre ofthe oped. Currently isasymbolofindustrialdevelop- thewaterworks was gradually surrounded by residential housing as the city devel- er Vltava, inwhatthenwasasuburbofthecity, thewaterworks Context and environment: tained inanexcellent condition. pearance and, due to its continuous operation, has been main- State has - retained itsoriginalap Thewaterworks ofconservation: Protection regime: Cultural monumentoftheCzech Republic plant canalsobearranged. 1929 filtrationbuilding. Sightseeing toursofthewatertreatment exhibition, the PresentA permanent itsoriginalpurpose. use:Thesitestillserves Present sitemanagement analysis hasyet beenmade. R. C. Harris filtrationplantinCanada. No detailedcomparative cance andarchitecture, theonlycomparableproject might bethe of Europe’s modernindustrialarchitecture. In purpose,signifi- Comparative isamongthemajorprojects analysis:Thewaterworks tural perspective. what wasthenCzechoslovakia, quiteexceptional- from thestruc tion buildingwasthelargestreinforced concrete in construction The waterworks is The waterworks owned by thecityof Prague and Prague Waterworks Museum, is Once built on therightbank of the Riv- in a part of the in a part 8.14. R. C. Harris filtration plant, Canada Professor Susan Ross, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

The Art Deco buildings and crafted landscapes are refined examples of when public works were treated as expressions of civic vision and invested with fine materials and monumental public and service spaces. (© Taylor Hazell Architects)

127 128 The Water Industry as World Heritage basins beyond thefilterbuildingbelow thelargelawn. a 1000 mtunnelfrom seawalltopumphouse; andsixsettlement concrete-lined steelintakesthatextendout1300 mintothelake; galleries. Underground structures from thelakeupincludetwo east wing(1956),withacentral connectingrotunda andviewing building, wasbuiltintwostages,awest wing(1935)andmatching tain (1935). The principal structure, the filter and administration the alum tower terrace and foun- at one end, and then a viewing the pumphouse(1935–7),followed buildingwith by theservice and orientedtothelake. Visible structures from thelakeupinclude to post-treatment chlorinationandfluoridation. through graduated gravel, sandandanthraciteorcarbonfiltration series ofchambers.Afterslow settlementinbasins,thewater passes ing uptothefiltrationlevel, where alumisadded,andmixed ina water from thelake,pre-chlorination andscreening, thenpump- TheprocessBrief ofwatertreatment inventory: includesintakeof supply anddistributioncapacityincaseoffailure ofanyelement. filtration capacityandallowed forfull redundancy ofthesystem’s major extensiontotheexistingplant,itbothdoubledcity’s subterranean tunnels,filtrationandsettlementbasins. Built asa ground pumping,treatment andadministrationstructures, with consisting ofanarchitect/engineer plannedlandscapeofabove- the 1950sdesignedcompatiblywith1930sstructures. pumped through thecity’s widersystem,withmajoradditionsin lowed by chemicaltreatment, toproduce potablewaterthatisthen Ontario through agravity-based gravel-sand filtrationprocess, fol- been in continuous use since 1941, taking raw water from Lake water-treatment plantfor Toronto, Canada’s largestcity. It has General description:TheR. Location: 2701Queen Street East, Toronto, Ontario Presentation andanalysis The waterworks ensembleisbuiltontheformerThe waterworks Victoria Park It occupies an 8 hectare site directly overlooking Lake Ontario C. Harris filtrationplantisthemain 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 129 centu- th Buildings are in yellow brick and Queenston limestone, with limestone, Queenston and brick yellow in are Buildings During the early decades of the 20 analysis: During Comparative The relationship of the site to the and symbolic dimension: The Cultural use as a community is unusual, both for its public surrounding management. community in its of the the involvement and park, ar- and the buildings’ vast scale, the engineering innovation, The history Toronto’s in a new threshold chitectural design ‘represented The plant has been used in and design’. of public infrastructure headquar- of films and television series as a prison, clinic or dozens 1987 construction Ondaatje’s parta central is of Michael ters. Its the skin of the lion. In novel Characterized as the ‘Palace of Purification’, the plant of Purification’, history:Brief as the ‘Palace Characterized for and City Engineer Works Commissioner of is named after the planning for it in 1913. Scottish who began Toronto the City of project staff of the a member of the Pomphrey, Thomas C. architect This designed the buildings. & Storrie, Nasmith engineers Gore, in Ottawa, plants water-treatment also planned team integrated plant was Toronto but the and Calgary, Falls Niagara Hamilton, Storrie William and Gore William Engineers their major project. - sewage and supply water in treat work their for renowned were de- for decorated been had Nasmith George bacteriologist ment; British for the CEF and the signing mobile water purification units one When the plant opened in 1941 it was 2010). Army (Reeves, North America, applying in of the largest water filtration plants Water at the American was presented It leading-edge technology. attention in Association and was the subject of significant Works 1999). (Mannell, the trade press copper flashings and roofs, black-painted metalwork and consid- black-painted metalwork roofs, and copper flashings carvings relief provide Decorative work. bronze erable ornamental of frieze’ ‘turbine such as the of water processes, an iconography include marble The interiors 1999). house (Mannell, the pump lakeside up. the from and a grand staircase finishes ry, engineering criteria combined with social priorities made wa- engineering criteria combined ry, and this is plants important projects, public works ter-treatment 130 The Water Industry as World Heritage design from thisera. examples ofintegratedengineering,architectural andlandscape andthisisone of themostoutstanding opment of waterworks, improving access andsecurityisunderway. pleted in 2008. Aproject to rehabilitate the settlementbasinswhile and below ground. residue Anew managementfacilitywascom - andrehabilitation worksplanned conservation onstructures above workingarchitectural withthesuccessorfirm have conservation generally inanexcellent Leadingfirmsin stateofconservation. State Thebuildings,equipmentandlandscapeare ofconservation: architectural value andinterest (Cityof Toronto, 1998). to undertheOntario Heritage Act (Part tobeofhistoricaland IV) setting. In was designated by1998 the property the City of Toron- an National Historic Engineering Site within a unique landscape neering declared theR. Protection regime: In 1992theCanadianSociety forCivilEngi- Open Toronto.Doors open year-round, whiletheinteriorsare usuallyaccessibleduring surized watersupplyforthe Toronto region. Theplantgrounds are Present use:Theplant remains theprincipalsource offiltered pres- Present sitemanagement andenhanceoverallserve character. expansions andrepairs whichhave beencarefully managedtopre- a buildingfrom theperiodstillbeingusedasintended,dueto sand andgravel filtrationsystem.Theplantisarare exampleof to supplypurifiedwater by itsoriginalalum-basedsettlementand unique landscapesettingonLakeOntario, anditsongoinguse clude itsremarkable Deco structures ensembleofArt setina plant were allbuiltasDepression-era ‘make-work’ programmes. Calgary’s Glenmore andMilwaukee’s Linnwoodwater-treatment reflected intheirarchitecture. TheR. The themeofwatertreatment iscentralto20 Outstanding elementsoftheR. C.Harris filtrationplantin- C. Harris water-treatment plantaCanadi- C. Harris filtrationplant, th -century devel- -century 8. Case studies: sites and networks for comparison 131 Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in of Architecture of the Society for the Study Journal - environ total to shell indifferent From (2012). Steven. Mannell, works, water Park Victoria Toronto’s of ment: The design evolution 1913–1936. Toronto’s Christina. (2008). HTO: & Palassio, Wayne Reeves, Toronto: toilets. low-flow to rivers lost to Iroquois Lake from water Coach House. Journal of the purification. Journal (1999). The palace of Steven. Mannell, , 24(3), 18–26. in Canada of Architecture Society for the Study , 37(2), 53–73. Canada Additional bibliography The City of Toronto is responsible for management responsible is Toronto The City of Management: plan, conservationof the site. The master and new construction are - Adviso and Public Toronto the City of by review subject to careful members PAC that includes local residents. ry Committee (PAC) the City with City staff and consultants to advise meet periodically heritage conserva on issues such as perspectives - about residents’ and residue plant improvements future tion, security upgrades, management. The plant is set in a public park land- park public in a set is plant The environment: and Context neigh- residential city limit and the the Eastern beyond scape just Ontario. of Lake shore along the Beaches’ called ‘the bourhoods The waterworks structures a series of longitudinal site comprises slope to Lake Ontario a terraced down set in steps 9. Conclusions

This study has attempted to lay out a historical framework for the infrastructure of the water industry so that the relative significance of its physical heritage might be established with some objectivity. To achieve this it has proposed the major historical theme of the developing urban Sanitary Crisis as a way of considering the contribution of the sector to ‘outstanding universal value’, the measure used by UNESCO for considering World Heritage sites. Evidently the other criteria by which historic industrial sites and landscapes are habitually judged – technological primacy, aes- thetic quality, virtuosity of construction, social and economic con- sequence, association with people and events, etc. – will also apply. But this large theme provides a historical context in which a global evaluation can be made. There are apparently no comparative international studies for the structures, sites and landscapes examined here. This is a significant drawback for the worthwhile consideration of any class of historic resources, and makes it harder to suggest precise proposals for identifying the most significant examples. It is doubly so for the heritage of an industry in which the routes of international technology transfer form a significant part of its interest. Further research will no doubt produce greater certainty in identifying those places whose protection and conservation are most valuable. For example, assessing the historical importance of dams is especially challenging: not only due to their enormous number, technical variety and multiple purposes, but because their impact 132 9. Conclusions 133 ). 3 Steam pumping stations are a valuable heritage resource whose whose resource heritage valuable a are stations pumping Steam Contrary industrial sites, histor- to the situation of many old built by infrastructure of nature or networked the linked Finally, attractive design, in terms of engineering, architecture and land- design, in terms of engineering, architecture attractive the importance to testimony is scaping, the water industrythat survival The extent of the international had for citizens. of this detail. typology should be examined in greater may continue in the ic properties of water supply and treatment the changing upgrading and maintenance centuries, for use same or their purpose. fabric but not necessarily their form the water industry is a special attribute which should be taken into of a site. consideration when assessing the historic cultural value By virtue of the centrality of water to population growth, and human settlement, industrial endeavour, agricultural and each of a significant these 65,000 dams had development. Many impact on local geographic region. impacted a larger A few changed the course of American history, and international technological reverberated through the national and marked significant economy, transitions in American politics and culture. (Billington et al. 2005, 421) In 1975, the United States Army Corps of Corps Army States 1975, the United In 65,000 more than identified Engineers over twenty-five feet tall American dams storage capacity (7.6 m) or with a reservoir of acre-feet (30,000 m at least fifty - to the stand according or detrimental beneficial as be viewed may or down. upstream considered: which they are point from 10. Bibliography

TICCIH Thematic studies: — Bergeron, L. (1995). Les villages ouvriers comme éléments du patrimoine de l’industrie — Coulls, A. (1999). Railways as World Heritage sites — Delony, E. (1996). Context for World Heritage bridges — Gwyn, D. (2016). Stone quarrying landscapes as World Her- itage sites (unpublished) — Hughes, S (1996). The International Canal Monuments List — Hughes, S. (2001). The International Collieries Study

Angelakis, A., & Zheng, X. (2015). Evolution of water supply, sanitation, wastewater, and stormwater technologies globally. Wa- ter, 7(2), 455–63.

Baker, M. N., & Taras, M. J. (1981). The quest for pure water: The history of water purification from the earliest records to the twentieth century. Denver: American Water Works Association.

Barraqué, B. (2003). The three ages of engineering for the water industry. Retrieved from http://stanford.edu/dept/france-stanford/Conferences/Risk/Barraque.pdf.

Barthel, H., & Kley, G. (2003). Geklart! 125 Jahre Berliner Stad- tentwasserung. Berlin: Huss-Medien. 134 10. Bibliography 135 V. (2005). The V. Water-works: The (2006). Water-works: F. C., & Melosi, M. C., & Melosi, P., Jackson, D. Jackson, P., Early Victorian water engineers. London: water Victorian M. (1981). Early - Wa C. (1992). A science of impurity: H., & Hamlin, C. (1988). Coping with crisis? The diffusion of water- Water for the cities: A history for of the urban wa- M. (1995). Water - of Eco Journal in late nineteenth-centuryworks towns. German 48(2), 307–18. nomic History, Brown, J. Brown, Blake, N. Blake, A. G., & Appleton, Bone, K., Pollara, the making of the modern and Water J. (2013). London: Broich, Press. of Pittsburgh University PA: city. Pittsburgh, Binnie, G. Binnie, Telford. Thomas MI: University . Ann Arbor, States in the United ter supply problem international. Microfilm W. Brock, , Culture and ter analysis in nineteenth-century Technology Britain. 33(1), 164. history of large federal dams: Planning, design, and construction design, Planning, dams: in history of large federal US DepartmentCO: Interior, of the dams. Denver, of big era the of Reclamation. Bureau water supply. New City York of the New and engineering architecture Press. Monacelli York: Billington, D. Billington, - Médi & Kruszyk, L. (2013). L’aqueduc P., K., Housieaux, Berthier, Somogy. . Paris: aux fontaines de Paris de Rungis sources cis: Des Environmental problems in European cities in cities European in problems (2004). Environmental C. Bernhardt, Waxmann. centurythe 19th and 20th . Munster: The culture of flushing: A social and legal flushing: A social of J. (2007). The culture Benidickson, UBC Press. historyVancouver: of sewage. . Paris: Éditions Hazan. Éditions Paris. Paris: à L’eau L. (1991). Beaumont-Maillet, 136 The Water Industry as World Heritage urban imagination . Cambridge, MA:MITPress. Gandy, M.(2014).Thefabricofspace: Water, modernity, andthe 23–44. ban space.Transactions oftheInstitute ofBritish Geographers, 24 (1), Gandy, M.(1999).The Paris sewers andtherationalizationofur- tion programme Step 1report (2.3.14).London:English Heritage. Douet, J.(1995).Thewaterandsewageindustry: Monumentprotec - Steam Age. Bristol: University ofthe West ofEngland. Douet, J.(1992).Temples ofsteam: Waterworks architecture inthe Culture, 49(3),675–700. namics ofwatersupplyinIstanbul, 1885–1950.Technology and Dinçkal, N.(2008). Reluctant modernization:Theculturaldy- Cotte, M.(2015).Thecultural heritagesofwater.Paris: ICOMOS. 20(4), 813. lakefront metropolis: The case of Chicago. Condit, C. RY_2009/VOL1/Chrimes-Mike_layouted.pdf. http://www.bma.arch.unige.it/pdf/CONSTRUCTION_HISTO University of Technology Cottbus,pp. 363-375.Retrieved from Third Congress. BrandenburgInternational onConstruction History dams inBritish India inthenineteenthcentury. Proceedings ofthe Masonry Chrimes, M.(2009).Aforgottenchapterindamhistory: ment, management,andpolicy.Chichester:John Wiley. T.Cech, V.(2016). ture, 13(3),353. brough andChicago’s firstsanitationsystem.Technology andCul - Cain, L. P. (1972).Raisingandwateringacity:Ellis Sylvester Ches- W., &Cain,L. Principles of water resources: History, develop- P. (1979).Sanitation strategyfora Technology and Culture,

10. Bibliography 137 Urban machinery: Inside modern machinery: Inside J. (2008). Urban A. (2011). Water, history for our times. Paris: UNES- history for our times. Paris: Water, A. (2011). . Wales history(1998). A J. and Hassan, modernin water of England Press. University Manchester Manchester: Hassan, J. (1985). The growth and impact of the British water in- and impact of the J. (1985). The growth Hassan, 38(4), History Review, Economic dustry in the nineteenth century. 531. CO. F. Hassan, European cities. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. European T. M., & Misa, Hård, - Uni Oxford . Oxford: The biography C. (2009). Cholera: Hamlin, Press. versity Hamlin, C. (1992). Edwin Chadwick and the engineers, 1842- C. (1992). Edwin Hamlin, and anti-systems in the pipe-and-brick sewers war. 1854: Systems 33(4), 680. and Culture, Technology Hamlin, C. (1988). William Dibdin and the idea of biological of and the idea Dibdin William (1988). C. Hamlin, 29(2), 189. and Culture, Technology sewage treatment. The age of water: The urban environment in The urban environment A. (2013). The age of water: Guillerme, A Texas TX: A.D. 300–1800. College Station, the north of France, Press. et M University Grudgings, S., & Tymków, P. (2014). Water-raising technologies technologies Water-raising (2014). P. Tymków, S., & Grudgings, of Company prior to the introduction Works Water of the Chelsea for Journal Watt steam engine. International and their first Boulton 84(1), 88–104. Technology, & the History of Engineering Gierlinger, S., Haidvogl, G., Gingrich, S., & Krausmann, F. F. Krausmann, S., & G., Gingrich, S., Haidvogl, Gierlinger, wa- urban the of role The city: the cleaning and Feeding (2013). the industrial during Vienna and disposal in in provision terscape 5(2), 219–39. History, Water transformation. 138 The Water Industry as World Heritage America’s cities.Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press. Melosi, M. Hopkins University Press. America from colonialtimestothepresent. Baltimore, MD:Johns Melosi, M. 12(4), 21–37. Philadelphia. Environmentaltics in19th-century Review, History McMahon, M.(1988).Makeshift technology: Water andpoli- cisterns: Legaciesandlessons.Water, 5(4),1916–40. Mays, L., Antoniou, G., & Angelakis, A. (2013). History of water Maver, I.(2000).Glasgow . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. sophical Society, 154(2),201–57. Frederick Graff at Fairmount. Proceedings oftheAmerican Philo- Marks, A. the city. Technology andCulture, 31(2),284. Konvitz, J. kraft. Augsburg: Context-Verl. Augsburg: Kanallandschaft, Wassert und Brunnenkunst urme, Wasser- Kluger, M.(2013).Historische Wasserwirtschaftund Wasserkunstin national Journal ofUrban andRegional Research, 24(1),120–38. city: The phantasmagoria of urbantechnologicalnetworks. Kaika, M.,&Swyngedouw, E.(2000). Fetishizing themodern Jackson, D. C.(1998).Dams. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate. ter History, 5(2),121–43. namic Danube riverscape underhumaninfluencein Vienna. Wa (2013). Two Reconstructing stepsback,onestepforward: thedy- Hohensinner, S.,Sonnlechner, C.,Schmid,M.,& Winiwarter, V. S. (2010).Palladianism ontheSchuylkill:Thework of W., Rose, M. V. city: (2008). Thesanitary Urban infrastructure in V. (2012).Precious commodity: Providing waterfor H., & Tarr, J. A. (1990). Technology and Inter- - 10. Bibliography 139 - . Rot J. (1994). A historypyramids of dams: The useful Heritage sites of astronomy sites of astronomy L., & Cotte, M. (2011). Heritage - infrastruc the and Water life: city water, City (2014). S. : A history of hydro-technology. and water: A history N. (1975). Man of hydro-technology. Smith, Davies. London: P. Smith, N. (1972). A history NJ: Citadel Press. of dams. Secaucus, Smith, Smith, C. Smith, and public health engineering. Al- D. (1999). Water-supply Smith, dershot: Variorum. terdam: Balkema. terdam: Boston, and Chicago. Chi- of ideas in urbanizing Philadelphia, ture of Chicago Press. cago, IL: University Schnitter, N. Schnitter, and archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Heritage World in the context of the UNESCO and archaeoastronomy Council International France: A thematic study. Paris, Convention: and Sites. of Monuments Ruggles, C. Ruggles, Ross, S. (2011). Hidden Water in The Landscape: The covered covered in The Landscape: The Water S. (2011). Hidden Ross, ed. S. and M.Dagenais, Castonguay, Royal. reservoirs of Mount - . Pitts of Montreal Histories Environmental Natures, Metropolitan 115-132. Press, of Pittsburgh burgh: University Ross, S. (2003). Steam or water power? Thomas C. Keefer and Thomas C. or water power? S. (2003). Steam Ross, in 1852. Industrial Waterworks the Montreal the engineers discuss Archaeology, 29(1), 49–64. Ritvo, H. (2007). Manchester v. Thirlmere and the construction Thirlmere v. Manchester H. (2007). Ritvo, , 49(3), 457–82. Studies Victorian environment. Victorian of the The waters of Rome: Aqueducts, fountains, and fountains, Aqueducts, Rome: waters of The K. (2011). Rinnie, Press. University Yale CT: Haven, New city. the birth of the Baroque 140 The Water Industry as World Heritage cine innon-western cultures, 320–5.Springer. China. Zheng, X. Britain. London:J.M.Dent. Wohl, A. power. Water History, 8(3),277–99. fall ofMunich’s earlymodernwaternetwork: A taleofprowess and Winiwarter, V., Haidvogl, G., & Bürkner, M. (2016). The rise and stone Press. al, conceptualandspiritualconnections.Leiden,Netherlands: Side- Willems, W. Ballantine Books. Verne, J.(1997).Paris. New inthetwentieth century York: Del Rey/ the World Heritage Convention. Paris: World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. (2016).Operational guidelinesfortheimplementationof roots ofthenetworked city. Technology andCulture, 56 (3), 704–37. Tomory, L.(2015).London’s water supplybefore 1800andthe University Press. networked cityinEurope andAmerica . Philadelphia, PA: Temple Tarr, J. University ofAkron Press. Tarr, J. versity Press. oftheNewhistory York City watersupply.Ithaca, NY: CornellUni- Soll, D.(2013).Empire ofwater:An environmental andpolitical A., &Dupuy, G.(eds)(1988).Technology andtheriseof Encyclopaedia ofscience, technology, ofthehistory andmedi- A. (2011).The search fortheultimatesink.Akron, OH: S. (1983).Endangered lives: Public healthin Victorian Y. of (2016).Ancienturbanwatersystem construction J., &Schaik,H. P. (2015).Water &heritage:Materi-

Overcome the urban sanitary crisis As industrialization drove more and more people to live in cities and work in the industries concentrated there, traditional customs for supplying water and removing waste were overwhelmed, exposing urbanites of all social levels to shameful squalor and deadly disease. Rising mortality rates were reversed during the 19th century by a series of innovations which prevented the breakdown of urban life. Water supply and sewage systems were retro-fitted to cities despite de- bilitating inadequacies in understanding, technology, medical knowledge, financing and administrative capacity. Pride in this immense response meant that the engineering and architecture of the dams and aqueducts, cisterns and water towers, pumping stations and filter houses, highly visible or concealed below ground, sought the utmost imaginative and technical standards. This report will help to conserve this heritage by presenting comparative information and fresh criteria to guide the protection of sites and landscapes, from local inventories to World Heritage. An updated edition, including new case studies and with active links to many of the places discussed here, can be downloaded from the TICCIH website (www.ticcih.org), along with other thematic single-industry studies.

First presented at the TICCIH thematic conference on the international heritage of the water industry held at the Museu Agbar de les Aigües, Barcelona, on 13/14 April, 2018.

Steam generators in the Sala de les Màquines for the electric pumps at the Cornellà pumping station, Barcelona (©Museu Agbar de les Aigues)