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Home , Aupaluk, Baker Lake (Nunavut), Bathurst Inlet, Central Arctic, Okhotsk, Quaqtaq

Arctic Science Day

An Introduction to Arctic Systems Science Research Conducted at the Centre for Earth Observation Science (U of MB)

Produced by: Michelle Watts Schools on Board Program Coordinator

Arctic Geography – a brief introduction

The Arctic Region is the region around the North Pole, usually understood as the area within the Arctic Circle. It includes parts of , Scandinavia, Greenland, , Alaska and the Arctic Ocean.

The Arctic is a single, highly integrated system comprised of a deep, ice covered and nearly isolated ocean surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia and North America. It is made up of a range of land-and seascapes from mountains and glaciers to flat plains, from coastal shallows to deep ocean basins, from polar deserts to sodden wetlands, from large rivers to isolated ponds. Sea ice, permafrost, glaciers, ice sheets, and river and ice are all characteristic parts of the Arctic’s physical geography (see circumpolar map)

Inuit Regions of Canada (www.itk.ca)

Inuit Regions of Canada – See Map Inuit Nuanagat

There are four Inuit regions in Canada, collectively known as . The term “Inuit Nunangat” is a Canadian Inuit term that includes land, water, and ice. Inuit consider the land, water, and ice, of our homeland to be integral to our culture and our way of life.

Inuvialuit (Northwest Territories) The Inuvialuit region comprises the northwestern part of the Northwest Territories. In 1984, the Inuvialuit, federal and territorial governments settled a comprehensive land claims agreement, giving Inuvialuit surface and subsurface (mining) rights to most of the region. The Agreement ensures environmental protection, harvesting rights and Inuvialuit participation and support in many economic development initiatives.

Inuvik is the largest community in the region and is also the regional administrative center.

Ulukhaktok and Sachs Harbour are located on islands and are therefore only accessible by air and sea. The other communities have limited road access. For example, one can drive from Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk and Aklavik on an ice road during winter. The famous Dempster Highway ends just outside the Inuvik town limits.

Economic conditions in the Inuvialuit region focus on oil and gas development, diamond mining and transportation, but the region is also on the verge of significant economic development in the construction of a major natural gas pipeline. Inuvialuit speak Inuvialuktun The Inuit of this region are known as Inuvialuit and their mother tongue is Elevations Glacier elevations Depths metres above sea level Circum-Arctic physiography metres above sea level metres below sea level 5500-6000 800- 900 SCALE 1 : 50 000 000 >3000 0- 200 5000-5500 700- 800 2500-3000 200-1000

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A - d i Cartography: M Elevations from ‘Digital Chart of the World’ Bathymetry from ‘Natural Earth’ Arctic circle Compilation and design: W. K. Dallmann Arctic boundary: AMAP © Norwegian Polar Institute Arctic boundary: AHDR vNbu wkw5 kNoq5 Kanatami Inuit Nunalingit

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x0pos6bs9lt4 cJw WsE8 x7m wmo sNtk4 Bxwf Kwt8S4j5 Qaajui Baron (left) and Emily Unatweenuk in Kangiqsualujjuaq (Photo: Heiko Wittenborn) Qaajui Baron (à gauche) et Emily Unatweenuk à Kangiqsualujjuaq (Nunavik) (Photo : Heiko Wittenborn)

INUIT COMMUNITIES OF CANADA LES COLLECTIVITÉS INUITES AU CANADA qwewrt ©2004 INUIT TAPIRIIT KANATAMI. x6r4bsK5 wvJ6bs9lt4 rNs/4f5 Z?mgc4f8i5 x7m srs6b6gu WD6X9oxt5tpi. Produced with a grant from Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Produit avec l'aide d'une subvention d'Affaires indiennes et du Nord Canada. Inuvialuktun, one of several dialects of the Inuit language.

Nunatsiavut (Labrador) On December 6, 2001, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson proclaimed an amendment to the Canadian Constitution, officially changing Newfoundland’s name to Newfoundland and Labrador. The name change acknowledges the distinction of the Labrador region of the province. The Inuit region of Labrador is called Nunatsiavut.

Approximately 4,500 Inuit live along the Labrador coast, primarily in five communities. Nain is the biggest Inuit community in Labrador, and is also the administrative center, with a population of 900.

Wildlife harvesting continues to dominate the Inuit diet and regional economy. Government and service industries are Nunatsiavut’s biggest employer, but the Voisey’s Bay nickel mine is expected to boost the local economy in years to come by employing Inuit from nearby areas.

The Nunatsiavut Government officially came into being on December 1, 2005. It has responsibility for economic development planning, preserving and implementing social programs. The legislative capital is in Hopedale, while the administrative capital is in Nain.

Nunavik () The area in northern Quebec inhabited by Inuit is known as Nunavik. In 1971, the Quebec government announced its intention to develop a massive hydroelectric project flowing into James Bay. The James Bay Project was developed without consultation or consent of Inuit and Cree who had lived and used the area for thousands of years. The James Bay Project had the potential to irrevocably damage the land and wildlife, resources upon which the people depended. In response to the announcement, the newly formed Northern Quebec Inuit Association and the Grand Council of the Cree of Quebec took the provincial government to court to stop development. In 1973, the Inuit and Cree won an interlocutory injunction, effectively halting construction. Quebec responded by announcing it would negotiate land claims with the Aboriginal groups. A week later, the court ruling was overturned.

The result for the Inuit of Nunavik was the first modern comprehensive land claims agreement in Canada, called the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, signed in Quebec City on November 11, 1975.

Some 9,500 Inuit live in 14 communities along the eastern coast of Hudson’s Bay and Hudson Strait. The largest community in the region is Kuujjuaq, with a population of approximately 1,600.

The Kativik Regional Government is responsible for the delivery of municipal services and infrastructure in the communities. The Kativik School Board is responsible for the administration and delivery of education. Health services to Nunavik residents are managed by the Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services.

Traditional hunting and fishing is a crucial food source for the Inuit of Nunavik. The transportation and service industries, along with tourism and mining are important components of the local economy.

Nunavut On April 1, 1999, Nunavut became Canada’s newest territory. The area, once part of the Northwest Territories, is one-fifth of Canada’s landmass. Some 25,000 Inuit reside in 26 communities, with Iqaluit as its capital. Nunavut is divided into three regions, Qikiqtaaluk in the east, Kivalliq in the central Arctic along the western coast of Hudson’s Bay, and Kitikmeot in the west.

The territorial government of Nunavut incorporates traditional values and beliefs into a contemporary governing system. is an official language of government, along with French, English and Inuinnaqtun. Nunavut’s economy, like that of the other regions, is based on renewable resources, arts and crafts, both on and offshore fisheries and tourism. Government is the largest employer in the territory, followed closely by the private sector and service industries.

Upon its creation, Nunavut inherited legislation from the Northwest Territories government and is now in the process of drafting a slate of new bills. Made-in- Nunavut laws include an Education Act, Official Languages Act and Inuit Language Protection Act.

Arctic systems science

Understanding the workings of the Arctic ecosystem requires an interdisciplinary approach, which includes natural and social sciences as well as community-based monitoring and traditional knowledge.

Arctic Science Day will introduce you to different aspects of Arctic system science research conducted at the Centre for Earth Observation Science (U of MB) through a variety of hands on workshops created by graduate students to explain their projects and the various disciplines in Arctic research.

Climate Change and the Importance of the Arctic

Climate vs. weather Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere, and its short-term variation in minutes to weeks.

Climate is the weather of a place averaged over a period of time, often 30 years. Climate information includes the statistical weather information that tells us about the normal weather, as well as the range of weather extremes for a location.

A BIG IDEA In the Earth system, a change in one part of the system will lead to a change in another part through positive and negative ‘FEEDBACKS’. Feedbacks render some parts of the Earth more sensitive to climate change than others. One important feedback in the climate system is the ice-albedo feedback loop.

Another big idea is that elements in a system such as the Arctic ecosystem are interrelated and connected. Therefore, research conducted in the Arctic is multidisciplinary and scientists will use data collaboratively in order to , gain a

Ice-Albedo gain aFeedback Loop deeper understanding of the system. Albedo is a unitless quantity that indicates how well a surface reflects solar energy. Albedo varies between 0 and 1. Albedo commonly refers to the ‘whiteness’ of a surface, with 0 meaning black and 1 meaning white. A value of 0 means the surface is a ‘perfect absorber’ that absorbs all incoming energy. A value of 1 means the surface is a ‘perfect reflector’ that reflects all incoming energy. For instance, when the white sea ice melts in summer, areas of dark open water are exposed which can absorb more heat from the sun. The extra heat then helps melt even more ice. The ice-albedo feedback is a strong positive feedback in the climate system.

Changes in the Arctic climate are important because the Arctic acts as a refrigerator for the rest of the world. The Arctic region gives off more heat to space than it absorbs from outside, which helps cool the planet. So changes in the Arctic climate affect the climate in the rest of the world. Climate Change in the Arctic The Arctic region is warmer than it used to be and it continues to get warmer. Over the past 30 years, it has warmed more than any other region on earth. Most scientists agree that Arctic weather and climate are changing because of human- caused climate change.

Arctic warming is causing changes to sea ice, snow cover, and the extent of permafrost in the Arctic. These changes have further implications on plants and animals impacting society – especially the people that live in the Arctic. Arctic System Science Themes presented at Arctic Science Day: • Atmosphere • Ice • Snow • Arctic Marine Life • Remote Sensing • Culture and Society • Contaminants

Atmopshere Air consists much more than just nitrogen and oxygen. Other gasses that trap heat in the atmosphere making the Earth warmer are called Greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas emitted by humans, others of include methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases, and even water vapor.

Understanding how the atmosphere works is fundamental to understanding climate change. The atmosphere is composed of layers of air, each with its own temperature patterns. Researchers must determine whether changes in temperature or air circulation are part of complex, longer-term cycles. And the interconnections between air, sea, and land mean that any change could have multiple causes and multiple effects.

Knowledge of ‘local and global atmospheric chemistry and physics’ however, requires understanding how the atmosphere interacts with oceans, land and ice. It also requires knowledge of past emissions from human activities, as well as predictions for the future.

CEOS scientists are looking at a variety atmospheric related studies including the exchange of carbon from the atmosphere to land, water and sea ice. These studies aim to understand how climate change will affect the carbon cycle in the Arctic system. Scientists are also studying weather patterns. Sea Ice

What is sea ice? Sea ice is simply frozen ocean water. It forms, grows, and melts in the ocean. In contrast, icebergs, glaciers, ice sheets and ice shelves all originate on land. Sea ice occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic.

Sea ice grows during the winter months and melts during the summer months, but some sea ice remains all year in certain regions. As a result, areas covered by sea ice don’t absorb much solar energy, so temperatures in the polar regions remain relatively cThis iceool. If gradually warming is refered to as multi- temperatures melt sea ice over time, fewer bright surfaces are available to reflect year sea ice. sunlight back into space, more solar energy is absorbed at the surface, and temperatures rise further ( albedo feedback loop – positive).

Why is it important? Why study it? ice- As mentioned, even though sea ice occurs primarily in the polar regions, it influences our global climate. Sea ice has a bright surface, so much of the sunlight that strikes it is reflected back into spac .

Sea ice also affects the movement of ocean waters. When sea ice forms, most of the e salt is pushed into the ocean water below the ice, although some salt may become trapped in small pockets between ice crystals. Water below sea ice has a higher concentration of salt and is more dense then surrounding ocean water, and so it sinks. In this way, sea ice contributes to the ocean’s global “conveyor-belt” circulation. Cold, dense polar water sinks and moves along the ocean bottom toward the equator, while warm water from mid-depth to the surface travels from the equator toward the poles. Changes in the amount of sea ice can disrupt normal ocean circulation, thereby leading to changes in global climate.

Too much or too little sea ice can be a problem for wildlife and people who hunt and travel in polar regions. In the Arctic, sea ice can be an obstacle to normal shipping routes through the Northern Sea route and the Northwest Passage.

Thermodynamics Processes that affect the growth and melt of sea ice are referred to as thermodynamics. When the temperature of the ocean reaches the freezing point for salt water (-1.8 degress Celcius), ice begins to grow. When the temperature rises above the freezing point, ice begins to melt.

The amount and rates of growth and melt depend on the way heat is exchanged within the sea ice, as well as between the top and bottom of the ice.

Snow cover is one factor that dramatically alters the Snow is an effective insulator, slowing the growth of sea ice. transfer of heat from the ocean, through the ice, and to the atmosphere. Snow slows the growth of ice. How are we investigating ice? Some of the most challenging but useful data comes from the combination of local measurements with satellite observations. Satellite observations include visible images of snow on land and microwave images of sea ice extent.

During Arctic Science Day you will be introduced to how scientists investigate and collect data analyzing ice cores. Snow

Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals. It originates in the clouds when temperatures are below freezing point.

Snow cover refers to the amount of land covered by snow at any given time. Naturally, it is influenced by the amount of precipitation that falls as snow. As temperature and precipitation patterns change, so can overall area covered by snow.

Snowfall refers to the amount of snow that falls in a particular location.

Snowpack efers to the thickness of snow that accumulates on the ground.

Snow cover is an important climate change variable because of its influence on r energy and moisture budgets. Snow cover accounts for the large differences between summer and winter land surface albedo, both annually and inter-annually. Snow may reflect as much as 80 -90 percent of the incoming solar energy. A warming trend results in decreased snow cover. With the resulting decrease in reflected energy, absorption of solar radiation increases adding heat to the system.

In addition to the albedo effect, snow cover represents a significant heat sink during the melt period of the seasonal cycle due to relatively high amount of energy it takes to change water from a solid to a liquid state.

Snow Science Snow has far-reaching affects on regional weather patterns. By studying snow, how it forms, where it falls, and how the snowpack changes over time, scientists can improve storm forecasting and learn more about how snow and weather interact. Scientists also study global snow cover to understand how changes in snow cover affect climate, glaciers, and water supplies around the world.

Insulation and thermal qualities Thermal properties of snow have an important consequence as well. Snow acts like an insulating blanket. Beneath 30 centimeters of snow, the soil and the organisms within it are protected from changes in the air temperature about the snow surface. Snow’s cold, moist surface influences how much heat and moisture circulate between the ground and the atmosphere. Snow helps insulate the ground below, holding in heat and preventing moisture from evaporating into the atmosphere.

Satellite remote sensing has provided valuable information on hemisphere-scale snow extent. Arctic Marine Life http://www.oceansnorth.org/arctic-challenges

Arctic waters are shaped by sea ice. Biologically, Arctic marine life – including human societies – have adapted to sea ice in many ways. Marine mammals and other Arctic life face an uncertain future as Arctic ecosystems adapt to warming waters and receding ice. Iconic species such as the polar bear, walrus, ringed seal and bowhead whale are all highly adapted to an existence with ice. Ice-dependent species use the ice as a platform for giving birth, resting and migrating. The underside of the ice provides habitat for tiny algae that are the base of a productive food web. Other species such as the grey whale and red fox are taking advantage of warming waters and changing habitat by shifting their ranges towards the poles. Indigenous communities depend on many species to sustain their culture. Traditional hunters are encountering new challenges as ice becomes less stable, travel becomes more hazardous and animal’s migratory paths change.

CEOS scientists study a variety of aspects of Arctic marine life from primary production such as ice algae to apex species such as the polar bear. Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is a scientific term used to describe methods of obtaining images or data using instruments and cameras removed from the surface they are studying. Examples include satellite images, infrared images, and ultraviolet images.

The Canadian Ice Service (CIS) using the RADARSAT-1 satellite to gather information about the location, type, and thickness of sea ice. Satellite remote sensing has provided major advances in understanding the climate system and its changes, by quantifying processes and spatio-temporal states of the atmosphere, land and oceans.

Scientists at CEOS use remote sensing to validate models collect data in the field light penetration through ice which has implications on primary productivity and further understa andnding the system to . For example scientsts snow and sea ice properties. Remote sensing done on a are measuring small scale in the field is used to help develop use of more upscale remote They sensing are also collecting datasuch as satellites. on the tecnologies Contaminants Currently, the Arctic is the region where people are affected the most by global pollution. These impacts arise from the efficiency with which Arctic biological systems accumulate and biomagnify contaminants resulting in high levels of dietary exposure for upper trophic level wildlife and the people who rely on the wildlife for subsistence.

Changes in snow, ice and permafrost affect how contaminants enter and leave the Arctic, and how they move around within the Arctic. Contaminants from the major source regions in the northern mid-latitudes are mostly carried into the Arctic by the prevailing winds and ocean currents. Contaminants found in the Arctic include heavy metals, radioactive compounds, black carbon (soot from fires or other industrial activity) and man-made chemicals know as persistent organic pollutants that remain stable in the environment for long periods of time. Most of these result from human activities outside the region. They are carried north by air and ocean currents. Once in the Arctic, many remain locked in surface soils, water, ice and sediments.

Persistent Organic Pollutants bioaccumulate in the food web, with the highest concentration of toxins found in the top predators such as humans, polar bears, toothed whales, and seals. Many toxins accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals. They can be passed from prey to predators and from mothers to their offspring, during pregnancy and through milk.

In the Arctic, a snow and ice barrier exists between the atmosphere and the ocean. Studying the mercury in the snow and ice is important to understand the big picture of ercury in the Arctic. Students will have the opportunity learn sampling procedures and participate in collecting samples. m Culture and Society From Nunavut Climate Change Centre http://www.climatechangenunavut.ca/en/understanding-climate-change/climate- change-impact

Impacts on Culture, Health and Well-being For centuries, Inuit have maintained a close relationship with ice (siku), land (nuna), sky (qilak), and wildlife (uumajut). Inuit rely on innovative survival skills adapted to the unique climate and weather of the Arctic. Rapid environmental changes will continue to affect Inuit culture and the well-being of all Nunavummiut.

Nunavummiut are part of a complex social and environmental system. Climate change in Nunavut cannot be addressed without considering other factors. Communities’ ability to cope and adapt to climate change will be limited by factors such as housing, poverty, food security, language, modernization, and the erosion of traditional land-based skills. All of these factors have direct impacts on the maintenance of Inuit cultural identity, and the well-being of Nunavummiut.

Impacts on Traditional Activities Many Nunavummiut depend on hunting, fishing and gathering to support themselves and the local economy in their communities. Local hunting practices have already changed and new technologies are increasingly relied upon.

Inuit elders, who traditionally used their skills to predict the weather, have observed changing cloud and wind patterns (see Voices From the Land for direct quotes from elders on the changes they have witnessed). Their weather and climate- related knowledge does not fit with today’s weather conditions and patterns. Unpredictable weather and climate has increased the risk of travelling on the land. This has made it very difficult for elders to pass along their weather prediction skills to younger generations.

Some traditional travel routes are now unreachable, preventing the use of traditional campsites. According to many elders and community members, decreasing water levels make travelling by boat more difficult. The early melt of , rivers and sea ice make travel routes unsafe in the spring, and thawing permafrost makes travel by ATV in the summertime more difficult.

Impacts on Food Security Climate change’s projected impacts include less access to wildlife and more safety risks from changes in sea ice thickness and distribution, permafrost conditions and extreme weather events. This means traditional food security may be significantly affected.

The shift from country food to expensive, store-bought, and often unhealthy food items has had negative effects on Inuit health and cultural identity. Climate change can make this problem even worse. Food storage is also affected by warmer temperatures and thawing permafrost. Interviews with elders suggest that outdoor meat caches, which used to remain fresh and preserved in the cold, now spoil.

Country food is still the healthiest food choice for Nunavummiut. However, climate change may increase human exposure to contaminants. A shifting climate can change air and water currents that bring contaminants into the Arctic.Also, changes in ice cover and thawing permafrost appear to have contributed to increased mercury levels in some northern lakes. This results in more contaminants making their way into plants, animals, and ultimately humans.

Impacts on Health and Diseases Diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans (scientists call them “zoonotic diseases”) are expected to rise as temperatures warm. Previously isolated animal species may come in contact with each other when natural barriers like ice or snow decrease from climate change. This can increase the spread of diseases.

Extreme weather and natural hazards are both direct impacts on human health from a changing climate. Unpredictable weather patterns may cause more accidents and emergency situations. Search and rescue missions are affected, as searches are often held back by these unpredictable weather patterns.

Impacts on Heritage and Special Places Heritage and special places in Nunavut are being affected by permafrost degradation and increased coastal erosion caused by the late freezing of sea ice. The cold Arctic climate helps preserve organic material frozen in permafrost. If the permafrost changes, it will ruin cultural remains and archaeological artifacts that were previously preserved. Ongoing freeze-thaw cycles promote the decay of artifacts such as sod houses (many of which hold their form because of permafrost) and other historical resources, such as sites relating to European exploration of the Arctic. Naturally occurring coastal erosion is expected get worse as sea levels rise. This will threaten historic sites on southern Baffin Island, northern Victoria Island and the western high Arctic islands, where little archaeological surveying has been done.

Nunavut has seen more tourists who want to experience our unique Arctic environment and visit heritage sites, parks and special places. Nunavut’s historic and archaeological resources are key attractions for cruise ships and other visitors. Their deterioration can negatively impact tourism.

Impacts on Infrastructure Over the past several decades, we have used the unique properties of frozen ground, or permafrost, to our advantage. We tailored the engineering of buildings around the characteristics of frozen ground. Permafrost presents challenges to the construction, operation and maintenance of buildings, airports, roads and other northern infrastructure. As a result, changes in permafrost, ice conditions, precipitation, drainage patterns, temperatures, and extreme weather events can have negative results for infrastructure designed for permafrost conditions.

Permafrost thaw can cause building foundations to shift and become weak. Frozen ground provides a secure foundation. If it does not stay frozen, its strength and integrity – or ability to support a building, pipeline, road or airstrip – may be affected. Older facilities may be more vulnerable because climate change was not considered when these structures were built.

The impacts of climate change are expected to become a major burden on government resources. Municipal infrastructure impacted by degrading permafrost (for example, sinking/cracking buildings) may divert resources from building new infrastructure. Engineering and construction practices for building on changing permafrost are being developed. However, these changing practices will affect the cost of both construction and maintenance of current and future infrastructure.

Pipelines, roads and airstrips, which also rely on permafrost for structural integrity, are experiencing stresses from shifting and thawing grounds. Eventually, these will need to be repaired due to changing freeze and thaw conditions.

Although new infrastructure is being designed to suit a changing environment, existing water and waste containment facilities may not have been designed for current and future warming trends. These facilities and other naturally-occurring containment structures may fail, with possible impacts on the environment and human health.

Land-use activities contribute to changes in the structure of the ground and permafrost by altering the amount of sunlight absorption, and changing the flow of water. This can cause collapsed roadways, and shifting building foundations. Avoiding this will involve a great deal of planning to make sure that infrastructural integrity is maintained. Environmental changes and effects on permafrost are presently considered in community land-use planning and climate change adaptation plans. Current data and tools being developed will continue to provide information to design appropriate, sustainable infrastructure that works in a changing climate.

Impacts on Transportation Decreasing sea ice thickness and cover will open areas of land and water that have been inaccessible. This will lead to more shipping and industrial activities. While a longer summer shipping season will generate more economic opportunities for Nunavut, it will also increase risks to the environment, most notably through spills and other pollution incidents.

Other transportation-related challenges have been identified. For example, sea ice changes present challenges to traditional snowmobile or dog team transportation routes. New or alternate routes will be needed to continue safe traditional hunting and recreational activities.

Degrading permafrost and changing freeze-thaw cycles have visibly shifted and cracked the surface of airport runways throughout Nunavut. This is a significant transportation challenge because air travel is a main resource for Nunavummiut to receive food and supplies.

In response to these challenges, Nunavut will need improved research, monitoring and response capabilities. This includes new and better infrastructure, mapping, and navigational systems. Improved infrastructure will likely include roads, asphalt paved runways, and fixed marine structures in coastal areas.

Impacts on Resource Development An increase in exploration and industrial activities will likely result from current climate change projections, which include reduced sea ice cover and warmer temperatures. The Canadian Arctic Archipelago has the potential for vast hydrocarbon deposits and other mineral deposits. Oil and mineral resource development are expected to increase.

Renewable resource development, such as fisheries, will also be impacted by climate change. Fishing in Nunavut is an important part of the economy and subsistence living. It is likely that the number of fish species present in the waters off Nunavut will increase as sub-arctic species will move further north with the warming climate. Although this can result in new opportunities for fisheries, it can also bring parasites and new predators. Current and planned fisheries activities and management will need to be continuously monitored and adjusted to address the impacts of climate change.

Impacts on Tourism Longer summers can result in an extended ‘high’ tourism season and increased tourism activity. Decreasing ice cover is likely to result in more shipping traffic, particularly cruise ship activity, into areas that were formerly inaccessible and/or had limited access. While beneficial, more marine tourism brings challenges in the form of impacts on communities, historic resources, and the environment in general. Addressing these challenges will require additional resources.

Impacts on Arts and Crafts An increase in tourism should lead to more sales of arts and crafts, and milder weather will make access to carving stone possible for longer periods during the year. However, sudden and unexpected weather patterns and thawing permafrost can pose a risk to the safety of artists and businesses accessing quarry sites at great distances from the communities. Impacts on Energy The changing climate will potentially have great impacts on our energy sector. Warmer temperatures will affect our heating requirements, making it less expensive to heat buildings.

Existing power plants will be affected by changes in permafrost conditions, which will influence the stability of infrastructure. Settling of foundations in existing power plants has already been noticed. Degrading permafrost is also expected to impact fuel tank farms and transmission lines. For example, permafrost degradation has created conditions where hydro poles are easier to install. At the same time, degradation is also responsible for destabilizing poles, causing them lean precariously because of weaker soil

Changes in water and precipitation patterns along with permafrost degradation may impact hydroelectricity development. Previous studies that estimated hydroelectric potential will no longer be reliable as the flow patterns in our lakes and rivers may change as a consequence of climate change. Some studies have suggested that precipitation will increase, which can have a positive effect on the amount of water available for hydroelectric power production. Possible changes in wind patterns may affect the feasibility of wind generation. Understanding Climate Change Resources used: National Snow & Ice Data Center http://nsidc.org http://oceansnorth.org/life-arctic http://www.pbs.org/teachers/stem/professionaldevelopment/055/ Polar Science and Global Climate. An International Resource for Education and Outreach. http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/science/indicators/snow-ice/ index.html