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1 Flying Fatigue in Twentieth-Century Britain: an Uncertain Zone Submitted by Natasha Feiner To

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1 Flying Fatigue in Twentieth-Century Britain: an Uncertain Zone Submitted by Natasha Feiner To Flying Fatigue in Twentieth-Century Britain: An Uncertain Zone Submitted by Natasha Feiner to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Medical History in September 2017 This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other university. Signature: Natasha Feiner 1 Abstract In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries fatigue was a common workplace complaint. As chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority Lord John Boyd- Carpenter put it in 1974, though, it occupied an ‘uncertain zone’.1 Vague and contestable throughout the century, and linked inextricably to working practices, fatigue proved fertile ground for debate. With a specific focus on civil aviation and aircrew, this thesis traces the shifting explanations of and responses to flying fatigue from the start of the First World War to the formal institution of Crew Resource Management (CRM) training in the mid-1990s. Beginning with a discussion of fatigue as it was constituted and examined in industrial and military settings in the first half of the twentieth century, this thesis then turns to post-war civil aviation. The models of fatigue developed by Flying Personnel Research Committee (FPRC) researchers during wartime framed post-war understandings of fatigue. Conceptualised as performance decrement in some instances, in other contexts fatigue was considered in terms of sleep and wakefulness. Regardless of definition, the apparent dangers of aircrew fatigue were agreed upon. Linked to air accidents throughout the century, the fatigue of aircrew was thought to have implications for flight safety. This thesis examines how these various discourses of fatigue informed – and were informed by – military policies, regulatory frameworks, and airline-union negotiations. Drawing on a rich base of oral history interviews with flight deck and cabin crew, it looks, also, at the ways in which fatigue was experienced and given new meaning in quotidian contexts. Examining flying fatigue in relation to broader post-war concerns about productivity, public safety, and the health and welfare of workers, this thesis offers new perspectives on the complex interplay between science, industry, and society in middle and late twentieth-century Britain. 1 The National Archives BT 248/511: Internal CAA Memo to Mr Vivian from Lord Boyd- Carpenter, 21 May 1974, p. 1. 2 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisory team, Mark Jackson and Alison Haggett, whose intellect, attention to detail, and good humour have made the past three years not only academically rigorous, but also very enjoyable. I am also indebted to the wider ‘Lifestyle, Health, and Disease’ team: Martin Moore, Fred Cooper, Nicos Kefalas, Ayesha Nathoo, Kerry Dungay, and Claire Keyte. The project team have proved a source of consistent encouragement and academic support. I am especially grateful to Martin Moore, who generously reviewed an entire draft of this thesis prior to submission. I would also like to thank my PhD examiners, Vanessa Heggie and Kate Fisher, for their generous comments and penetrating questions during the viva. Of course, this research would not have been possible without the generous financial assistance of the Wellcome Trust, which enabled me to return to research, as well as to travel to archives and conferences. My research has taken me to a number of libraries and archives, and I am grateful to staff at the Wellcome Library, the National Archives, the Modern Records Centre, the BBC Written Archives Centre, and the Royal College of General Practitioners Archive. I would also like to extend my deepest thanks to the former flight deck and cabin crew I interviewed, whose lively testimonies contribute so much to this thesis. A debt of gratitude is also owed to the many staff and students who have commented on and assisted with this project both within and beyond the University of Exeter. Particular thanks go to James Pugh, Rhodri Hayward, and Deborah Palmer. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends, who have supported me unquestioningly throughout this process. Special thanks go to Helena Seale and Anna Maria Murphy, who kindly proofread this thesis prior to submission, and to Penny and Jonathan Harris. Last, but by no means least, I would like to thank my parents Ben and Cathy Feiner, and my partner Chris Mardell. For their love and support, I am infinitely grateful. 3 Many of those named above have been kind enough to read and comment on my work. I extend my warmest thanks to them. Responsibility for remaining errors is, of course, my own. 4 List of Abbreviations AAIB Air Accidents Investigation Branch APU Applied Psychology Unit ASSET Association of Supervisory Staffs and Executive Technicians AT&T Aircraft Transport and Travel BA British Airways BALPA British Airline Pilots Association BARSA British Airways Retired Staff Association BEA British European Airways BMA British Medical Association BOAC British Overseas Airways Corporation CAA Civil Aviation Authority CAP Civil Aviation Publication CHIRP Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme CRM Crew Resource Management ERS Ergonomics Research Society FPRC Flying Personnel Research Committee FTLB Flight Time Limitations Board HMWC Health of Munitions Workers Committee HSWA Health and Safety at Work Act IA Imperial Airways IATA International Air Transport Association ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation 5 IFRB Industrial Fatigue Research Board IHRB Industrial Health Research Board IWS Industrial Welfare Society MRC Medical Research Council NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NHS National Health Service NIIP National Institute of Industrial Psychology OTU Operational Training Unit RAF Royal Air Force RFC Royal Flying Corps TGWU Transport and General Workers’ Union TUC Trades Union Congress WAAF Women’s Auxiliary Air Force 6 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 List of Abbreviations 5 1 Science, Work, and Management in the Twentieth Century 10 Framing Fatigue: Science, Industry, and Society Before 1939 12 Histories of Occupational Fatigue in Post-War Britain 41 The Body in Flight, The Body at Work: Historiographical Contexts 53 Histories of Aviation 54 Histories of Occupational Health and Industrial Accidents 62 Opening the Hangar Door: Reflections, Sources, and Methodology 66 Themes and Chapter Outlines 70 2 Flying Fatigue During and After World War Two 78 Fatigue and Flying Stress in Military Aviation 81 Flying Stress in Interwar Britain 84 Flying Stress and Psychological Disorder 89 Fatigue and Performance Decrement 101 Fighting Fatigue: Wakefulness and Physiology 110 Flying Fatigue After the War 121 Civil Aviation in Post-War Britain 124 7 National Service and the Civil Airlines 129 Models of Civilian Flying Fatigue 133 Conclusion: The Wartime Hangover 138 3 Flight Time Limitations and the Avoidance of Fatigue 141 Dangerous Fatigue: Regulatory Rationale in Post-War Britain 147 Regulatory Review from Bowhill to Bader 152 Cabin Crew, Fatigue, and the Civil Aviation Authority 166 Civil Aviation, Aircrew Fatigue, and the British Regulatory State 175 Reasonable Freedom: CAP 371 and Associated Variations 181 The Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme 187 Conclusion: From the Cockpit to the Operating Theatre 197 4 Fatigue, Trade Unionism, and Public Relations 204 Productivity, Pilot Utilisation, and Trade Unionism in Post-War Britain 211 The British Airline Pilots Association, Pay, and Productivity 217 Transport Unions and Professional Drivers’ Hours 231 Public Relations, Pilot Fatigue, and Industrial Bargaining 234 Sleepiness and Sensationalism 241 The Flight Fatigue Report 257 Conclusion: Not Safe, Not Fair 263 8 5 Fatigue, Emotional Labour, and Interpersonal Relations 267 Historicising Hochschild: Service Work and Emotional Labour 272 Passenger-Crew Relations and Emotional Labour 276 Physical Exhaustion and Circadian Dysrhythmia 289 Crew Relations and Fatigue Management 297 Controlled Rest in the Cabin and the Cockpit 299 Discretion and Crew-Management Relations 303 Conclusion: Closing the Communication Loop 310 6 Conclusion 318 Appendix 326 Bibliography 327 9 1 Science, Work, and Management in the Twentieth Century During the months from August 1917 to November 1918, inclusive, close on 2,000 flying officers passed through [a] special hospital unit; of these over forty per cent were deemed to be suffering from the fatigue inseparable from active service.1 Flying fatigue was first identified as a discrete issue affecting aircrew during the First World War, but was subject to increasing investigation in the post- war period. From 1939, the Flying Personnel Research Committee (FPRC) – a research team composed of clinicians, psychologists, physiologists, and members of the Royal Air Force (RAF) – investigated the causes, signs, and means of preventing fatigue in aircrew. The rationale for this research was simple: to optimise operational efficiency. The research undertaken by the FPRC between 1939 and 1945 produced a complex picture of flying fatigue. While some FPRC researchers argued, in line with interwar theories of flying stress, that flying fatigue was primarily a psychological phenomenon, others looked
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