The Denial of Self-Determination: An Analysis of Expansionist Ideologies Zachary Barber Honors College at Lone Star College

Abstract Carving up the “Chinese Melon” United States’ Protectorate System Internal Conflict During the 1960’s Cuba Philippines This study examines the political and military tactics utilized by the United After participating in numerous wars throughout the nineteenth century, American propaganda during the Spanish- In 1898, the Philippines declared its The United States criticized European imperialists, while they were, States and its European allies to impose political, economic, and social China was left weakened and ripe for foreign imperialism. Through wars, American War created a moral imperative to independence, though technically it ironically, practicing those same methods of control through their oppression hegemony on developing countries during the Expansionist Era. A historical such as the Opium Wars and the Sino-Japanese War, many European nations fight Spain for Cuba’s “freedom.” was still under Spanish control. of colored people within their own borders. analysis of European colonialism – as it relates to the rhetoric of the Berlin gained commercial privileges and territory throughout China by creating Conference and the division of China into European spheres of influence – spheres of influence. In April 1898, America added the Teller Following the conclusion of the Amendment to the declaration of war with Spanish-American War, Spain ceded Following the passing of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, a large influx of reveals the system by which the United States and European countries African Americans began to vote, drastically changing the balance of the Under the guise of the Open-Door Policy, the U.S. attempted to gain access Spain, which stated that the United States the Philippines to the U.S. While the determined whether or not an emerging nation was fit for self-governance. An U.S. political system. Knowing full well that most voting African Americans to China by calling for “free trade.” However, the U.S. was motivated by would not establish permanent control over Filipino people praised the U.S. and examination of U.S. propaganda aligned with expansionist ideologies and Cuba. The United States claimed it was not expected the same treatment as Cuba, were once enslaved and denied rights to education, the predominately white trading with the European footholds throughout China, rather than the historical documents, such as Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech and practicing imperialism, like the Spanish the U.S. effectively denied the political regime countered any threat by including precautionary measures Chinese government itself. the Covenant of the League of Nations, further demonstrates the concurrent before them in Cuba, and would only aid Philippines independence as it was such as poll taxes and literacy tests to limit African Americans from voting. denial of the fundamental human right of self-determination as a result of Cuba until fit for self-governance. still under Spanish rule at the time. United States and European intervention within developing countries. The As a result of growing European influence in China in 1900, a group of study identifies not only the various hegemonic policies and methods of Chinese nationalists, the Righteous and Harmonious Fist Society, fought back However, in 1903, the Platt Amendment Outraged that the U.S. denied their Under Jim Crow Laws, African Americans were condemned to inferior control imposed on foreign countries, but the internal implications of these the foreign influencers. Europeans labeled them rebels because of their was added to the Cuban Constitution. This independence, the Filipino people facilities and endured unequal treatment under the law. During the Civil policies within the United States. By examining the history of the United unwillingness to assimilate to western ideals, but the nationalists felt they amendment gave the U.S. the ability to declared war on America. For three Rights movement, outraged African Americans demanded fair and equal States' imposed denial of self-determination on developing countries, one can were liberating China of the invading Europeans. In this situation, the ruling intervene in Cuban affairs and total control years after their declaration of treatment. Under these circumstances, the U.S. government continuously better understand the underlying contradictions in policy demonstrated by the Chinese government became a subsidiary to the European powers residing in over Cuba’s debt, effectively controlling independence, the Filipino people denied equal rights to their own citizens based solely on ethnicity. Despite Cuba’s foreign and domestic policies; thus, continued to fight for their right to United States' advocacy of democracy and independence around the globe. China. the United States’ continuous advocacy of democracy around the globe, diminishing any true power Cuba had to govern themselves, free from foreign underlying contradictions in policies effectively display the United States’ govern itself. control. hypocritical denial of the same rights it sought to promote. Defining Self-Determination

For the purpose of this project, self-determination will be defined as the process by which a country determines its own form of government. Self- determination can be further broken down into its core function, self- governance, and it can also be applied to cultural and social identity.

Methodology The Annexation of Hawaii This project utilizes causal analysis to identify the concurrent denial of self-determination associated with expansionist ideologies fueled by American missionaries first settled in Hawaii at the start of the nineteenth Conclusion Imperialistic models of control. century and quickly gained influence and wealth. With their increasing Shift in Thinking: Wilson’s Ideals influence and power, American residents forced King Kalākaua to pass the By analyzing historical instances of imperialism, we can better understand Following the end of World War I in 1918, President Woodrow Wilson delivered his Bayonet Constitution in 1887, which served to strip most of the monarchy’s the hegemonic policies imposed on developing countries. While some famous Fourteen Points speech, in which he called for the self-determination of power and imposed income and property requirements for voting, which nations instilled this denial through violent means, others maintained control The Scramble for Africa newly emerged countries following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. President through limiting access to certain goods and services. Nations were not effectively excluded all Asians. With the passing of this American-led Wilson believed that, in order to prevent another global conflict of this magnitude, constitution, Native Hawaiians no longer had any say in their own deemed “unfit” for self-governance, but rather their resources deemed “fit” German Philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, wrote a speech on there needed to be a centralized location where world leaders could gather and voice government. their concerns. Thus the League of Nations was established in 1919. to be utilized by the superpowers of the time for their own benefit. civilizations titled The Philosophy of History. According to Hegel, the Naturally, participating in imperialism or advocating against it leaves native African tribes were “savages” because they did not believe in a King Kalākaua died in 1891, but to keep Hawaiian tradition, his sister The creation of the League of Nations signified the expansion of self-determination countries blind to the inherent denial of this universal right within their own Supreme Being. Hegel’s statement reflects notions of racial superiority Lili‘uokalani took the throne. Her goal was to restore the monarchy’s power rights for years to come. In the Covenant of the League of Nations, Article 22 states borders. that later influenced European imperialism in Africa. and grant native Hawaiians their right to vote. Upon hearing of the establishment of the Mandates system, most likely influenced by the United References Lili‘uokalani’s plan to restore power to the natives, the American residents States protectorate system. Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations is important because it set the precedent for establishing these “tutors” that would aid Following Hegel’s speech in 1884, German Chancellor, Otto von hatched a plan to overthrow the Queen and ready Hawaii to be annexed by Hooker, Richard. “Boxer Rebellion” Imperialism, Accessed April 6, 2014, the country until it was “fit” to rule itself. Likewise, we see this attention to self-rule Bismarck, convened a conference of fourteen member states to discuss the United States. Fearing for her life, Queen Lili‘uokalani reluctantly http://bradleyhardin.com/worldhistory/imperialism/boxer_brief_overview.htm. in the United Nations, the League of Nations’ successor. the political partitioning of the African continent. Without the consent of abdicated her throne and, in 1898, Hawaii was officially annexed by the Jarosz, Lucy. “Constructing the Dark Continent: Metaphor as Geographic Representation of African tribal leaders, these fourteen member states drew up boundaries United States. Limiting the power of the Hawaiian government by excluding Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, drafted in the Charter for Africa” Geografiska Annaler, Series B, Human Geography 74, no. 2 (1992)pp.105-115, Accessed December 1, 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/490566 or borders, regardless of factors, such as tribal affiliations or tensions, natives from all involvement in decision making, American businessmen the United Nations, states that all individuals have the right to a national identity and effectively denying native African tribes the right to determine their own denied the Hawaiian people the right to govern themselves through this white that no one can be denied the right to change their nationality. Article 15 Library of Congress. “Teller and Platt Amendments” The World of 1898: The Spanish- form of government. hegemonic political reorganization – effectively, however, this was a poorly demonstrates the changing paradigm of world leaders and the advocacy of American War, Accessed November 18, 2014, http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/teller.html. disguised coup, backstopped by the United States government. democratic ideals. Ourdocuments. “Joint Resolution to Provide for Annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States (1898)” 100 Milestone Documents, Accessed November 18, 2014. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=54 Ourdocuments. “Platt Amendment (1903)” 100 Milestone Documents, Accessed November 18, 2014, http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=55 United Nations. “Preamble” The Universal Declaration of Human rights, Accessed November 21, 2014, http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/. Wright, Jane. “Minority Groups, Autonomy, and Self-Determination” Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 19, no.4 (1999)pp.605-629, Accessed November 21, 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20468297. Yale Law School. “President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points” The Avalon Project, Accessed November 18, 2014, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/wilson14.asp Yale Law School. “The Covenant of the League of Nations” The Avalon Project, Accessed November 18, 2014, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22 Human Trafficking: Putting a Price Tag on Human Dignity in the Trajectory of the Early 20th Century Jenny Hwang The Honors College at Lone Star College – North Harris

Abstract Europe: Drug Trafficking Africa: Labor Trafficking In the early 21st century, new initiatives have gained traction to alleviate the This research project analyzes the historical rationale behind various forms of In order for Europe’s economy to thrive, illicit drugs played a key component. Africa associated human trafficking with irregular migration, prostitution, or issue of human trafficking. The Victims of Trafficking and Violence human trafficking, such as drug, sex, and labor trafficking, originating in the As the expansion of drug trafficking increased, drug mules became prevalent labor. However, the most common form was trafficking for labor. Specifically, Protection Act recognized trafficking as a federal crime worldwide for the first 20th century, procedures associated with the elimination of these issues, and to the practice of transporting drugs across many countries in Europe. In the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region characterized itself with a variety of time and provided a definition of victims in need of protection and services. contemporary implications of trafficking. The aforementioned methods were many ways, this form had many cost-benefits for the traffickers. Besides migration configurations, cross-border movements, contract workers, labor Despite the political energies expended on human trafficking, little evidence investigated by drawing from three distinct problem areas of the world (i.e. Germany (producer of cannabis), Spain (producer of heroin), and Turkey migrants, refugees, and displaced persons, which led to human trafficking. suggests any significant impact on aggregate levels of trafficking. For Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa) as these regions employed distinct (producer of morphine), other regions within Europe soon joined the chain of Labor Trafficking Forced Upon Men, Women, and Children (Image Below): example, U.S. government figures indicate the presence of some 200,000 trafficking methods. A meta-analysis was contextualized by using: The countries using humans to transport illicit drugs. Networks developed, and • Sweatshops trafficked victims in the United States. But even with a well-trained law Seasoning House (2012), a movie produced by Paul Hyett which describes the European market was enhanced with all forms of illicit drugs for the • Domestic Servitude enforcement and prosecutorial system, less than 500 people have actually been additional methods pertaining to Europe, Jaime L. Small’s Trafficking in countries to consume. As a wider variety of drugs were made available, • Peddling prosecuted. In fact, between 2001 and 2003, only 110 traffickers have been Truth: Media, Sexuality, and Human Rights Evidence detailing labor greater black market practices enriched the drug trafficking industry. • Hotel/Hospital labor prosecuted by the Justice Department. Of these, 77 were convicted or pled trafficking in Asia and Africa, and various United Nations’ laws and Eradicating Drug Trafficking guilty. Given the nature of the trafficking business, token convictions will regulations. Findings illuminate correlations between the evolving definition • The League of Nations attempted to control the illicit traffic of drugs. In this region, the victim’s social class contributed to the utilization of labor have little effect. of human trafficking─the unlawful movement of individuals for The League of Nations’ own assessment of their rules and trafficking. Class elements included poverty, deteriorating living conditions, a exploitation─and the shifting paradigm of how the crime is combated regulations brought to light how inefficient the body would be cycle of unemployment, conflicts, human deprivation, and a sense of Themes Count worldwide. Due to mainstream media coverage, the public possesses a combatting the crime since drug trafficking is pivotal to economic hopelessness becomes engraved in each individual. Each of these aspects baseline understanding of this controversial topic, but solutions to eradicate growth in Europe. fostered the environment for labor trafficking to flourish within the Sub- Enforce existing laws and borders, prosecute, and hold officials 17 trafficking are not emphasized. The research indicates social limitations are • The International Labor Organization was in charge of social justice as it Saharan Africa region. accountable placed on the victims, having been dehumanized, and a societal threshold has concerned labor work but could not focus on drug trafficking even though Create or strengthen bilateral agreements to combat trafficking and 7 desensitized us towards the consequences. At the turn of the century, given the it was a business. Methods to Combat Labor Trafficking risky migration patterns heavy implementation of methods to combat trafficking during the latter part Drug trafficking did not directly correlate into labor work since • The African Government developed a holistic approach to combat labor st Build community management and development strategies 6 of the 21 century, ideally, the number of cases should have significantly this was illegal, and the International Labor Organization was not trafficking in Africa while taking into consideration the following decreased; however, even with the implementation of new laws and able to handle illegal businesses. populations could not participate: Reduce government corruption 5 regulations, trafficking cases have gradually increased. • Great poverty • Vulnerable environment Human Trafficking: 20th and 21st Century • Unsustainable livelihood Empower women and vulnerable groups (instead of welfare) 5 7 1900s 1950s 2000s 2016 • Female gender

) • Low economic class 6 • Specific ethnicity (to be determined by the government)

5 • This holistic approach failed as the attempt was never implemented because officials needed labor trafficking for their economy to thrive.

4

3 Conclusion

2 The corrosive effects of these various forms of human trafficking witnessed throughout the early 20th century have brought both political and social 1 HUMAN TRAFFICKING CASES ( PER 100,000S PER ( CASES TRAFFICKING HUMAN ramifications into the 21st century. Comparative assessment of attempted solutions indicates efforts were ineffectual as they did not adequately address 0 HUMAN TRAFFICKING METHODS the economic force of human trafficking. Governmental agencies misplaced their efforts by combating human trafficking using laws and regulations Drug Trafficking Labor Trafficking Sex Trafficking without appropriate emphasis on combatting this crime on a monetary level, which resulted in legal and policing leniency. Despite increasing awareness Southeast Asia: Sex Trafficking addressing the issue, this awareness has not translated into tackling the root causes, and, as a result, human trafficking has expanded and grown into an In Asia, cultural devaluation on women and children versus able-bodied men even more powerful economic enterprise. Future study is needed to identify led to subjugation into sex trafficking rings. The vending and trading of other potential obstacles on the perception level and combat public women and children accounted for the greatest proportion of human desensitization to human trafficking. trafficking globally—with Southeast Asia acting as the illegal industry’s largest international hub. From the early 20th century, at least 225,000 women Human Trafficking: Definition and Methodology and children trafficked from the southeast region of Asia every single year. This figure accounts for approximately one-third of the entire human For the purposes of this project, human trafficking will be defined, according trafficking trade around the world. to Article 3, paragraph (a) of the “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,” as the “recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring Determinants of Sex Trafficking Impacts of Early 20th Century on Early 21st Buckley, Mary. 2009. "Public Opinion in Russia on the Politics of Human or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of • Social determinant of poverty Trafficking." Europe-Asia Studies 61, no. 2: 213-248. Academic coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a • Corrupt government officials and police shared profits Century Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed May 7, 2016). position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits • Social determinant of gender Feingold, David A. 2005. "Human Trafficking." Foreign Policy, no. 150. to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the • Lack of enforcement of existing laws As human trafficking becomes more widespread, it has also become more Washington Post. Newsweek Interactive, LLC: 26–32. Accessed purpose of exploitation.” sophisticated. As a countermeasure, some governments are implementing new April 7, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30048506. Unsuccessful Attempts to Eliminate Sex Trafficking legislation, hosting international conferences, and signing new and existing Fuller, Tripp. 2012. Interview by author. Tijuana. May 12. • The local police deemed evidence as “weak” when arresting traffickers conventions. The United Nations (UN) and other Inter-Governmental Hua, Julietta. 2014. "Telling Stories of Trafficking: The Politics of th In the early 20 century, human trafficking activity targeted the European, Government officials/police were subjected to bribery– resulting Organizations (IGOs) dedicated substantial resources to developing more Legibility." Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism 12, no. Southeast Asian, and African geographic regions where the three main forms in the weak prosecution of traffickers. effective solutions. Where government initiatives and assistance for trafficking 1: 201, 2016).7. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed of human trafficking—drug, labor, and sex trafficking—were prevalent. Each • The government largely neglected the public outcry and took little victims are not present, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) take up the May 7, 2016). region favored a particular trafficking method, which corresponded with the responsibility in combatting the issue. challenge of organizing locally, nationally, and internationally in order to Lobasz, Jennifer K. 2009. "Beyond Border Security: Feminist Approaches region's unique background. Government officials/police focused more on profit rather than advocate for and meet the needs of victims. to Human Trafficking." Security Studies 18, no. 2: 319- the victims. 344. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost(accessed May 7, 2016). Pragmatics in the News Media Realm: The Truth About Political Bias Jesus Patino The Honors College at Lone Star College – University Park

Abstract Fox News Conversational Structure Emphatic Deixis This independent research seeks to objectively examine the role Since this linguistic analysis seeks to objectively and Conversational Structure, defined universally by social scientist Emphatic Deixis, labeled by The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics news networks partake in partisan media bias and its overarching contemporarily analyze political bias and its overarching impact on Stephen Levinson as “the linguistic concept focusing on how and as the “analysis of encode[d] emotional proximity or distance effect on consumers. To determine the degree of partiality through consumers, Fox News was chosen because it is a widely consumed why speakers order their sentences in a specific structure,” is vital between the speaker and aspects of a speech based on the use of a contemporary lens, the linguistics concept of pragmatics— traditional media source and is perceived to possess strong to analyzing political bias. Empirical research conducted at the deictic expressions,” was applied to several six-minute videos of specifically, the sub-topics of conversational structure, implicature, conservative leanings. As a well-established journalistic network, University of Georgia and Temple University demonstrates how Presidential Primary analysis by Fox News and The Young Turks and emphatic deixis—were applied to the 2016 Presidential preliminary observations would assume Fox News employs the retention of political information is often chosen from the last searching for the amount of times hosts utilized Proximal Deictic Primary coverage by Fox News and The Young Turks. These conventional journalistic practices to remain objective in their knowledge the person reads, observes, or hears. Expressions (this, here now) and Distal Deictic Expressions (that, elements of pragmatics serve as analytical criteria that assist in reporting. This notion is further supported through a study Fox News The Young Turks there, then). conducting an impartial analysis focused on how news networks conducted by East Carolina University revealing how Fox News is “We talked about the Democrats, let's “I just finished my analysis, the present their information rather than concentrating on the specific “the most commonly used primary source of political information proceed and talk about the Republic Democratic results are next” – Cenk Conservative Topics Liberal Topics Race” – Bret Baier, Special Report Uygur, Primary Coverage 25 35 33 topics of discussion. Additionally, Fox News and The Young Turks for television news.” Nevertheless, a Pew Research Center 21 30 29 were chosen because they are widely-consumed media outlets and investigation found how “almost two-thirds of Republicans “We just finished the first segment, this “I left the Democratic results for last 20 19 25 are highly condemned for reporting information favoring certain watched Fox News and reported using the network as their primary next section holds some interesting because the results were quite 15 political ideologies. The application of this linguistic criteria source for political information.” The factors have lead numerous results” – Sean Hannity, America’s astonishing” – Cenk Uygur, Primary 20 Election HQ Coverage 15 reveals how Fox News and The Young Turks engage in biased political pundits and observers to criticize Fox News and their 10 news reporting by presenting their information using rhetorical audience for possessing strong Republican favoritism in its news Fig. 4. Quotes representing how both shows largely organized their 2016 Primary Coverage. Original 10 Creation. 5 2 5 strategies, indirectly influencing their audience towards a certain reporting, providing a strong platform for the basis of this 1 1 0 These statements largely represent how Fox News and The Young 0 0 political ideology without having to resort to obvious partisanship. investigation. Proximal Deictic Expressions Distal Deictic Expressions Proximal Deictic Expressions Distal Deictic Expressions Turks organized their political coverage of the 2016 Presidential Fox News The Young Turks Fox News The Young Turks Primaries. Both networks discussed a certain party’s results in the first part of the show and then analyzed the other partisan The hosts of both shows utilize a similar number of proximal outcomes in the latter half of the program. This rhetorical strategy deictic expressions when discussing the political ideology they are primarily influences viewers of Fox News to more clearly criticized for favoring; while employing almost identical amounts remember and discuss Republican ideals while spectators of The of distal deictic expressions when analyzing the opposing political Young Turks more often recall and spread the results of the party. Despite their claimed objectivity and their contrasting Democratic primaries. Despite their opposing alleged political bias, reporting mediums, Fox News and The Young Turks use a parallel both networks utilized similar linguistic utterances in their news number of deictic expressions, further emphasizing the show’s

Fig. 3. Fox News Logo. Fox News; http://www.foxnews.com. coverage, highlighting the parallels between the platforms. rhetorical similarities. Conclusion The Young Turks Implicature Preliminary observations would conclude Fox News and The Young Due to the liberal bias often attributed to The Young Turks and its Implicature, outlined in the Scientific Journal of Humanistic Turks both employ analogous subjective practices to promote their Fig. 1. Media Bias: Prejudiced Reporting. Storify; 2015, Studies as “the factor analyzing what is suggested in an expression https://storify.com/teamunicorn/media-bias-560 eaf1402b185be6a772a0d. growing popularity in the media realm, this platform was selected respective political bias. By analyzing the rhetorical strategies for its wide consumption and perceived partisan favoritism, and the word associations created even though not directly employed by the news reporting rather than the specific topics of Political Bias serving as an opposing linguistic perspective to Fox News. As an express,” assists in examining beyond the superficial meaning of discussion, this analysis further reveals how Fox News and The emerging internet news source “with more than 1.7 billion the 2016 Presidential Primary coverage of Fox News and The Young Turks utilize parallel linguistic expressions to appeal Young Turks. Political bias fundamentally impacts public perception of news lifetime views,” initial interpretations might suggest The Young rhetorically to their given audiences, despite their claims of networks, both traditional and alternative platforms, alongside their Turks possess a certain level of bias due to the nature of online Complementing the Issue Against the Opposition objectivity and partisan impartiality. The fact two networks active audience. When analyzing alleged partisan favoritism, information and the freedom the network holds from utilizing “Ted Cruz did really well in the debate, “All Hillary is about is money for her deemed polar opposites in perceived bias, contextual audience, and objective journalistic practices. While the founding members of especially his attacks on Donald Trump, foundation and own pocket” – Chris media reporting platform, used similar strategies in their coverage consumer opinions regarding news platforms ranges from people and he truly represents the conservative Wallace, Fox News America’s Election who believe their networks do not favor a certain political The Young Turks label themselves as political analysts “focus[ed] values of the Country” – Chris Wallace, HQ of the 2016 Presidential Primaries further highlights the biased philosophy to those who believe all media platforms hold a certain solely on the facts, always reveal[ing] the truth because of their Fox News America’s Newsroom nature of these news networks and their role in influencing the independence from corporate influence,” the network consistently “Republicans are debasing our culture, opinions of consumers, becoming a political tool capable of partisan agenda. “Sanders did amazing in this debate, he we look like clowns internationally, receives criticism for their alleged political bias. For example, the really proved himself to the American thing about the fact that Trump is impacting the future of the election cycle, rather than objective Washington Post credits The Young Turks for building “a cult people” – Ana Kasperian, The Young dominating” – Cenk Uygur, The Young news coverage of said events. reputation as liberal talkers who [are] as loud and fearless as Turks Primary Coverage Turks Primary Coverage right-wingers.” The Young Turks represents the second component References Fig. 5. Quotes representing the implied message of the news reporting. Original Creation. of this analysis on partisan favoritism because of its increasing Huang, Yan. The Oxford Dictionary of Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2012. Print audience and politically opposing counterpart to Fox News. The application of implicature exemplifies how the speakers of Leah, Claudia. "A Theoretical Approach To Linguistic Implicatures." Scientific Journal Of Fox News and The Young Turks utilize subtle linguistic techniques Humanistic Studies 2.3 (2010): 74-81. Academic Search Complete. Web. 14 Apr. in their reporting, indirectly influencing audiences’ opinions and 2016. Levinson, Stephen. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Print. attitudes regarding presidential nominees. While not directly Mastro, Dana, et al. "News Coverage Of Immigration: The Influence Of Exposure To stated, the various hosts of the news platforms imply certain Linguistic Bias In The News On Consumer's Racial/Ethnic Cognitions." emotions when discussing presidential candidates, leading the Communication Quarterly 62.2 (2014): 135-154. Communication & Mass Media Complete. Web. 16 Apr. 2016. audience to associate certain words with a particular person or Morris, Jonathan S. "Slanted Objectivity? Perceived Media Bias, Cable News Exposure, And Fig. 2. Presidential Primary Minutes. Media Matters; 2012, idea. Even though the language of both networks imply distinct Political Attitudes." Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell) 88.3 (2007): 707-728. http://mediamatters.org/blog/2012/11/03/ fox-news-redefines-unbalanced-by-giving- Academic Search Complete. Web. 14 Apr. 2016. romney/191118. messages pertaining to opposing parties, Fox News and The Young “News Audiences Increasingly Politicized.” People Press. Pew Research Center, 8 June 2004. Fig. 3. Main members of The Young Turks. Tube Filter; 2016, Turks utilize the same linguistic strategy, ultimately influencing Web. 14 April 2016. http://www.tubefilter.com/2016/12/29/the-young-turks-nomiki-konst-shaun- their audiences’ political beliefs. Surlin, Stuart H., and Thomas F. Gordon. Selective Exposure and Retention Of Political king/. Advertising: A Regional Comparison. N.p.: 1974. ERIC. Web. 16 Apr. 2016. Of Course, You Can Repeat the Past, Old Sport: An Application of Jean Baudrillard’s Simulacra and Simulation to Baz Luhrmann’s The Great Gatsby (2013) Lois Ann Suter The Honors College at Lone Star College - Tomball

Abstract Exigence for Novel and 2013 Film Symbolism Conclusion Baz Luhrmann’s 2013 ostentatious adaptation of F. Scott Luhrmann incorporated Fitzgerald’s original symbols into his film, Jean Baudrillard explains the consequences of simulacra's Fitzgerald's great American novel, The Great Gatsby, is often The socioeconomic parallels between the 1920s and 2000s once again separating his film from earlier versions. assessed as a failure along with prior The Great Gatsby films. create similar exigencies for the novel and the 2013 film. In repetition of symbols: the symbols risk losing their original meanings—and thus their identity. Jay Gatsby, for example, However, despite mixed critical and audience reception, some 2008, Luhrmann told Mark Naglazas of The Toronto Star, “The struggles to retain his identity as he repeatedly, and unsuccessfully, identified the film as an artistic feat. This research questions Great Gatsby is the perfect allegory for our own gilded age, a devastating dissection of the materialism, the excess and the attempts to recreate himself throughout his pursuit of Daisy how Luhrmann’s version differs from the previous film versions Buchanan. In creating his new identity, Gatsby’s original persona is spiritual emptiness that lead to the economic apocalypse from of the novel by applying Jean Baudrillard’s Simulacra and lost—creating a simulacrum within the plot of novel. The 2013 which the world is still struggling to recover.” Fitzgerald’s Simulation to the 1974, 2000, and 2013 versions of The Great film does not, however, fall into the same simulacrum pattern as novel served as a socioeconomic commentary when it was Gatsby movies and analyzing that application in relation to the the prior movies because it adheres to the original novel and at the film’s critical backlash. Baudrillard’s theory in Simulacra and published in 1925, right before the Great Depression. The early same time, updates the exigence by paralleling the social and Simulation explains that symbols repeat themselves but do not 2000s were gradually leading to the Great Recession in 2008. economic climates of the 1920s to early 2000s. The 2013 share a common meaning—confusing an individual’s perception Luhrmann recognized the similarities between the Great adaptation suggests we continue reading—and watching—The Fig. 4: The Eyes of Dr. T.J. Eckleberg of reality and fantasy and creating a hyperreal. The simulacra Depression and the Great Recession, and he wanted to use The https://www.thinglink.com/scene/505569456001384450 Great Gatsby because it still applies to us today. The message need trend makes it impossible for humans to distinguish reality from Great Gatsby story as a mirror. However, the previous films not change; the application of the message to the twenty-first fantasy. Does Luhrmann’s film artistically mimic the previous ignored the exigency for the novel, resulting in a shallow • For example, the eyes of Dr. T.J. Eckleberg, a multilayered century needs to be repackaged. Although critics debate the film’s symbol, superficially represents God watching down on films, represent the original novel, or stand alone? The adaptation of the novel. In fact, the 1974 version romanticized ostentatious additions, Luhrmann welcomes the discussion and immoral people. However, the eyes also represent the failures application of the theory suggests that The Great Gatsby (2013) the 1920s, presenting it as a happier decade in American history. considers his film a success because of the ongoing conversation. of capitalism and the death of the American dream. is not a part of simulation; rather, it is a representation that This debate also reveals a transition towards acceptance of celebrates the adaptation process. Applying Simulacra and • In the novel, Myrtle’s death represents the inability to escape contemporary revisions of classics. However, many audiences feel the lower class. Similarly, in the 2013 film when Myrtle is Simulation productively explains varied receptions of The Great they can only trust “traditional” portrayals of the novel—leaving struck by Gatsby’s gold car (which represents wealth), she flies Gatsby movies over time and, ultimately, provides criteria to them more susceptible to falling into the hyperreal. This study in front of the eyes in slow motion to underscore the underlying analyze film adaptations as a whole. suggests The Great Gatsby (2013) is a truer representation of the meaning Fitzgerald’s readers understood. novel that maintains the artificiality of the prior films because of The films prior to the 2013 version interpreted the novel in a the parallel exigencies between the film and the novel enhanced by bubble, ignored Fitzgerald’s socio-economic commentary, lost the the cinematics and symbols. Luhrmann is not trying to repeat the Simulacra Defined multi-layered symbolism that Gatsby is so famous for, and resulted past, old sport…rather, he is celebrating the adaption process. in water-downed versions of the original. Baudrillard’s definition of simulacra helps assess the adaptations of The Great Gatsby. According to his theory, symbols frequently repeat themselves, straying from their original meanings. The result, according to Mark Poster, translating Simulacra and Fig. 2: Political Cartoon Relating the Great Recession to the Great Depression Simulation, is a “world... that has no reference to a ‘reality’ other http://www.keyword-suggestions.com/c3RvY2sgbWFya2V0IGNyYXNoIGNhcnRvb24/ Cinematics and Modern Elements than its own referential signs…, bypassing any distinction Audience Reception of the Films The contemporary elements in the 2013 version prove the film is between ‘real’ and ‘unreal’.” The result is the “hyperreal.” not attempting to be the novel; rather, it is a self-aware product of Symbols today no longer relate to the original source; rather, they Differing receptions of the various films suggest that the twenty-first century, and therefore not a part of simulacra. are reflections of the symbols preceding themselves. The cross is Luhrmann’s film is set apart from its predecessors. The films • Luhrmann created a twenty-first century Gatsby. He did not one example. Baudrillard argues that these individual realities prior to The Great Gatsby (2013) had unanimously negative intend remake the twentieth century Gatsby, but he wanted the exist together. Baudrillard’s four stages of simulacra can be votes, criticized for being dry and for focusing too much on the audience to react and learn from the story just as Fitzgerald’s applied to elucidate audience reactions to The Great Gatsby films. relationships between Jay and Daisy and between Nick and original audience did. The effect of the original novel translated Jordan. In 1974, audiences were excited that Robert Redford over into the modern day through Luhrmann’s film. The Great Gatsby book was risqué and not immediately well-received. Fig. 6: Book Cover Fig. 7: 1974 Film Cover Fig. 8: 2013 Film Cover played Jay Gatsby; however, after viewing the film, audiences https://en.wikipedia.org/ https://vanityvintageallure.wo https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T indicated he did not meet their expectations. The audiences’ • Fishing for a similar reaction to reveal the film’s social and wiki/The_Great_Gatsby rdpress.com/2013/08/17/ he_Great_Gatsby_(2013_film) criticism of the 2013 film, on the other hand, was divided economic message, Luhrmann integrated ostentatious elements equally in favor and in opposition. A debate connected the specific to the twenty-first century, such as music by Jay Z and relationship between modern film and classic literature, Beyoncé, and exaggerated events from the novel, such as References discussing Leonardo DiCaprio’s interpretation of Jay Gatsby. turning a party into a modern-day orgy. • A. O. Scott of The New York Times said "[DiCaprio] is Baudrillard, Jean. Simulations. New York: Semiotext Columbia Greek Cross Latin Cross Crucifix beautiful…and desperate; in exactly the way Gatsby should University, 1983 Fig. 1: Evolution of The Cross be.” Berardinelli, James. "Great Gatsby, The (Australia/United States, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross • Film critic James Berardinelli claimed “DiCaprio's 2013)." Review of The Great Gatsby (2013). ReelViews, May Maintaining Artificiality: performance is…far from the definitive interpretation of Jay 9, 2013. Accessed April 11, 2016. Gatsby.” Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribner, 2013. The Disney Land Park Clearly, DiCaprio’s portrayal of Gatsby sparked a meaningful Naglazas, Mark. “Gatsby’s Great Comeback.” West Australian, May 4, 2013. Maintaining artificiality, a specific concept within Baudrillard’s conversation—which was Luhrmann’s goal. Fig. 5: Females At Jay Gatsby’s Party In 1974 Film (Left) And 2013 Film (Right) Poster, Mark. "Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings." The Journal of theory, is placing an obviously fake representation next to other http://alf-img.com/show/gatsby-1974-party.html https://diversionsjournal.wordpress.com/2013/05/12/ Aesthetics and Art Criticism 47, no. 1 (1989): 102. Accessed symbols to make them look more real. External aspects February 20, 2016. integrated into society maintain the artificiality of other symbols • Recall that the Disneyland Park is a “good appearance” because Scott, A. O. "Shimmying Off the Literary Mantle: 'The Great and plunge the world deeper into the hyperreal. Disneyland Park we don’t confuse it with reality; the park embraces the fact that is an example of maintaining artificiality. In the park, visitors are it is a symbol and a representation. Using contemporary Gatsby,' Interpreted by Baz Luhrmann." Review of The Great well aware they are in a “fantasy world,” so they assume the city cinematics, Luhrmann maintains the artificiality of the Gatsby Gatsby (2013). The New York Times, May 9, 2013. Accessed outside the park’s walls is reality. However, Baudrillard argues, legacy by playing the “Disneyland role.” April 11, 2016. Los Angeles is more fake than Disneyland because it attempts to Viewers are able to easily distinguish the elements of the film that The Great Gatsby. Directed by Jack Clayton. Performed by Robert hide the symbolism that exists, while Disneyland embraces it. are Luhrmann’s and that which belong to the original novel. The Redford and Mia Farrow. Hollywood, CA: Paramount other, less successful, films attempt to hide these differences, Maintaining artificiality, according to Baudrillard, masks Communications, 1974. which Baudrillard argues is more “dangerous” because it skews simulacra but also determines a “proper representation,” The Great Gatsby. Directed by Baz Luhrmann. Performed by their perception of the original artifact. consisting of self-awareness and celebrating that the adaptation is Leonardo DiCaprio, Carey Mulligan, and Tobey Maguire. Fig. 3: Comparison of Actors in the 1974 film (left) and the 2013 film (right) Burbank CA: Warner Bros. Entertainment, 2013. a re-creation—not the original. http://www.whiskeyriff.com/2016/01/20/7/leonardo-dicaprio-the-great-gatsby-movie-wallpapers/

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