Issues in Australian Environments

ISSUES IN AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENTS

Issues relating to human elements of environments:

Depth study:  Urban growth and decline(Note: field study of Pyrmont/Ultimo)

Overview:  Spatial inequality  Waste management

Issues relating to physical elements of environments:

Depth study:  Land and water management

Overview:  Coastal management  Air quality ISSUES IN AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENTS

Focus:

Ways in which geographical understanding contributes to the sustainable management of issues affecting the Australian environment.

GLOSSARY: contemporary geographical issues: problems associated with the physical and the built environments that have become widely discussed and debated in the community. dryland salinity: increasing concentrations of salt in the soil as a consequence of rising water tables after the removal of trees and deep rooted native vegetation. ecological dimension: How humans interact with their environment and impact on it. irrigation salinity: increasing concentrations of salt in water as a consequence of the open application of irrigation water.

Landfill: refuse that is deposited in a specially excavated trench or a natural hollow.

Landcare: a community movement enhancing the long-term productivity of the natural resources of Australia. land degradation: a decline in the condition or quality of the land as a consequence of misuse/abuse.

The Natural Heritage Trust: created by the Federal Government to assist communities to repair and conserve their local environments. salinity: The concentration of salt in soil or water. smog: visible as a bluish purple haze and is produced by the reaction of hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight. spatial: where things are and why they are found there. spatial inequality: the differences that can be observed between those areas of the city where rich and the poor live.

Total Catchment Management: the integrated management of all landuse in a catchment, involving landowners, residents, government departments and private organisations.

Sustainable management: management that improves the total quality of life, both now and in the future by maintaining the ecological processes on which life depends. urban consolidation: policies that encourage higher population densities in established urban areas, usually through planning regulations allowing more dwelling units through subdivision or strata title. urban decay: when urban infrastructure falls into disrepair and buildings such as old factories are empty and become dilapidated and often vandalised. urban renewal: the restoration and modernisation of substandard inner city areas. urban sprawl: the continuous and often unplanned outward growth of the city, where residential/commercial/ industrial landuse activity replaces previously rural land. waste: an unwanted substance that has been generated by human activity, and has no further use. SECTION I: THE NEED TO PROTECT AND MANAGE ENVIRONMENTS

Human needs, immediate and future, are being severely compromised by our lack of understanding of how the physical environment functions and how we fit into it. Australians enjoy a high standard of living and, as most are urban dwellers, they are often oblivious to the problems that are emerging in this country that could affect them in the future.

It is important to recognise just how the physical environment and its associated processes support us:  maintaining air and water quality  regulating air temperatures  protecting and building soil fertility  supplying our food needs and raw materials for industry  providing natural pest and disease control  breaking down our wastes

Australians need to be aware that the sum of their individual actions can have serious consequences. If people are aware of the need to protect and manage the environment, then they can adopt a more responsible lifestyle. Simple actions like washing their car on the lawn rather than the street can reduce the amount of nutrients entering our waterways and improve water quality. Individuals can, and must, make a difference. SECTION II: THE NATURE OF CONTEMPORARY GEOGRAPHICAL ISSUES

A. What is a contemporary geographical issue?

 As more and more people have become aware of some of the problems associated with the physical and the built environments, these problems have become contemporary issues widely discussed and debated in the community.  They attract media coverage in newspapers, magazines and television documentaries and information is also readily on the Internet for those who are concerned.  As attention and concern has mounted there have been responses by individuals, communities and governments to try and tackle the problems. Becoming aware of such issues and acting responsibly is an important part of being a good citizen.

B. The spatial dimension:

Where things are and why they are found there.

 Any geographic issue that is being studied has a spatial perspective. It basically means where it is occurring and what are the reasons for it being an issue there. Example: salinity is a land degradation problem that poses the greatest threat to agricultural production in Australia. The spatial dimension of salinity is the area affected by it and relating this to agricultural practices in these areas that have caused it.

C. The ecological dimension:

How humans interact with their environment and impact on it.

 Issues generally arise because the inappropriate actions of humans have had serious environmental consequences. It is only by understanding how nature works and how humans can best work with nature that practices will be sustainable in the future and the well being of Australia will not be compromised. Example: salinity has become such a serious problem in Australia because farming practises have raised the water table. Where dryland salinity has occurred, too many trees have been cleared and with irrigation salinity, too much water has been applied. SECTION III: THE SPATIAL AND ECOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF A RANGE OF CONTEMPORARY GEOGRAPHICAL ISSUES AFFECTING AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENTS

A. ISSUES RELATING TO HUMAN ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTS:

Issues relating to human elements of environments:

Depth study:  Urban growth and decline(Note: field study of Pyrmont/Ultimo)

Overview:  Spatial inequality  Waste management

URBAN GROWTH AND DECLINE

1. Urban growth:  Australia is one of the most urbanised nations in the world and the large cities continue to get bigger.  The highest rates of growth have continued to be in the capital cities. Australians still desire to own their own home and for many this is only affordable on the outer fringe of the city.  Urban sprawl has resulted where the unchecked growth of the urban area has occurred to accommodate the increasing population. Rural areas disappear under housing estates and their associated infrastructure eg the fringe suburbs of Liverpool and Campbelltown.

2. Urban decline:  Growth in the outer suburbs of cities may also result in other areas going into decline. This is common in the older industrial areas of the inner city. Just as the outer suburbs are favoured for new residential developments they are also attractive as large industrial estates. The older areas suffer.  Urban decay sets in when urban infrastructure falls into disrepair and buildings such as old factories are empty and become dilapidated and often vandalised.

3. Urban renewal:  Some areas that have suffered a decline have been redeveloped in recent years.  Urban renewal is the restoration and modernisation of substandard inner city areas. It usually involves the renovation or demolition of existing structures and their replacement with more modern attractive buildings.  These inner areas have become expensive residential areas for wealthy young couples such as the DINKS (‘double income, no kids’) and SINKS (for those who don’t even want a kitchen sink because they eat out in the many restaurants in the city each evening).  There has been a big shift downtown in Melbourne. With a record number of people being added to the inner suburbs of Melbourne in 2001, 5 000 new apartments were built. SPATIAL INEQUALITY

1. What is spatial inequality?  The differences that can be observed between those areas where rich and the poor live.  This inequality is largely an expression of the uneven distribution of wealth and the social inequality that results. These differences have a spatial aspect . The poor live together in one set of neighbourhoods and the rich in another set.  Access to many aspects of life is largely dependent on wealth: housing; education; career prospects; health care, status. Wealthy people are not limited in their life choices by any financial constraints, but poor people are often excluded from full and equal participation. These differences can be observed between those areas where rich and the poor live.  Spatial inequality is clearly present in all Australian cities. There are whole suburbs that are extravagant expressions of affluence: harbour views, leafy gardens, swimming pools and tennis courts, and huge homes with many garages. Then there are neighbourhoods that reflect the day-to-day struggle of their residents, where deterioration and vandalism are clearly visible.

2. Why has it come about?  Spatial inequality was not found in Australia when only the Aborigines occupied it. An important part of their culture was sharing within the group and their livelihood was determined by nature. In a good season, they all fared well and during drought times they all suffered.  When Australia was colonised its society was founded on inequality. There were the gaolers and the convicts and as the colony grew a wealthy squatter class emerged. Even with the gold rushes in the 1880’s there were extremes: those who found instant wealth and those unlucky not to who were close to starvation.  In the economic development of Australia, capitalism has produced winners and losers. In more recent times, the forces of globalisation have impacted on employment, with many people losing their jobs as production has been moved overseas and technology has displaced them.  There have been similar forces at work that have caused the decline of small rural towns. Many services have been withdrawn from these towns (eg. banks, public transport) and they are left struggling with their residents disadvantaged.

3. What has been the impact?  There has been an increasing gap between the rich and the poor in Australia.  The extraordinarily rich get richer and a there are a growing number of poor people. The most disadvantaged are the unemployed, Aboriginal people, unskilled people, single parent families and migrants from non-English speaking backgrounds.  Communities of all sizes tend to divide into different groups based on income levels.  Those that are most disadvantaged are those people living in the suburbs on the outer fringes of the large cities, in the small rural towns and in Aboriginal communities.

4. What is being done?  Australia is country where social welfare is provided by the government. There are many benefits and services available to provide basic needs and assist people to gain an education and find employment.  There are also many welfare organisations that help the needy such as the Smith Family and the Salvation Army.  Despite such efforts, economic and social inequality is increasing. Spatial inequality will continue to be seen in Australia. WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. What generates waste?  Waste is an unwanted substance that has been generated by human activity, and has no further use.  The types of waste generated in Australia are largely the same for any developed country and thus reflect the relative wealth and consumerist nature of our society. We have a highly disposable culture and this is reflected in the amount of waste generated and hence community pressure to reduce or recycle this waste.  Substantial quantities of waste are generated from human consumption and activities related to the construction, operation, maintenance and renewal of human settlements. The per capita disposal rate for municipal waste in Australia is 620 kg/year, placing it only second to the USA.  Households: nearly everything we do leave behind some kind of waste. Household create ordinary garbage. It disappears down the drain into the sewerage system and is left on the kerbside to be collected by the garbage truck. Businesses similar to households, but in much higher volumes. Industries create waste from a broad range of operations. What they discharge into the atmosphere is clearly visible as air pollution. Less obvious is what is emptied into waterways.  2. Evaluating means of waste management:  Open dumps: the most common form of disposing of solid waste in the past. Little thought was given to where they were placed. Swampy land was often chosen as it was considered undesirable. These dumps were ugly and unsafe and many have been closed.  Landfill: This is now the main form of waste disposal in Australia, accounting for over 95% of solid waste disposal. It involves depositing refuse in a specially excavated trench or a natural hollow. Each day it is covered with a layer of soil to control odour and flies. The impact of landfill disposal includes the loss of increasingly scarce land in cities, the leaching or seepage of toxic substances from the site that can cause contamination of soil and water and the release of methane gas from decomposition. Existing landfill capacity is extremely scarce and proposals for new sites often meet with community opposition (eg in the Hunter Valley when Sydney proposed to shift its waste there). It is estimated that in NSW, the existing landfill capacity will not last beyond 2007.  Incineration: the reduction of waste by burning it at high temperatures. It does reduce the volume of waste to a small quantity of ash. It is useful in disposing of hazardous waste eg. medical waste.  Ocean dumping: there has been a common view in the past that the ocean is so big that it can carry away any waste. Sewage and stormwater is discharged into the ocean and estuaries by settlements along the east coast of Australia. Beaches and harbours suffered and were often unsafe to swim in because of pollution from viruses, bacteria, grease and faeces, especially after heavy rain. Placing outfalls in deep water 3 km offshore has improved the quality on the shoreline, but we have no idea how oceanic ecosystems are being affected.  Export of hazardous wastes: A permit can be obtained from the government to export hazardous wastes to another country. There has been considerable controversy in the past about such wastes being dumped in poor countries. By implementing the permit system it is now only legal to send such waste to a country where it can be shown that wastes will be managed in an environmentally sound manner in the place of import. 3. Decision- making about waste disposal:  Legislation: the NSW Waste Avoidance Recovery Strategy 2003 provides a framework for reducing waste and making better use of our resources. It is a first for Australia, where waste management is managed policies are implemented on a state level. Achieving a reduction in waste generation and turning waste into recoverable initiatives is a priority for NSW.  Local council initiatives: Many have designed bins or provided special crates to separate recyclables from other garbage. Such recycling programs have had some success. From 1994 to 1999, the quantities of waste disposed at landfills in the ACT were reduced by 40% and the amount of wastes that were recycled was doubled.  Community action: In the last 20 years the community has become much more vocal and involved, running community forums that have become part of the decision making process. Increasing concern about the problems of waste has also seen communities support such campaigns such as ‘Clean Up Australia Day’. Recycling has been encouraged and assisted by organisations such as ‘Planet Ark’.  Industries: recognise it is good publicity to be seen as environmentally friendly. Most of the technology for treating waste is funded by businesses.  Individual responsibility to reduce and recycle waste: our first action should be to reduce the amount of waste we generate. Actions include composting food scraps and garden refuse; sorting rubbish and recycle paper, glass, plastic, steel and aluminium cans, being very careful about what goes down the sink (eg. fats, oils), using phosphorus-free detergents and washing cars on the lawn. A. ISSUES RELATING TO PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTS:

Depth study:  Land and water management

Overview:  Coastal management  Air quality

LAND MANAGEMENT

1. Importance of the land:  The land surface, especially the covering of soil, supports life in Australia.  We all rely on soil to grow the crops and pastures for stock that feed us and produce raw material for industry eg. cotton, wool, hides for leather. The land surface also supports the structures of the built environment.  Soils are also vital in catchments where they support a healthy covering of vegetation that protects water quality in reservoirs. Keeping sediment out of waterways is important because it loads the water with nutrients such as phosphorus that causes algal blooms.

2. What is land degradation?  Land degradation is a decline in the condition or quality of the land as a consequence of misuse and abuse. It has been called ‘the aids of the earth’.  Most of the land degradation issues facing Australia today are the result of changes to the land during European settlement, particularly those changes brought about by the extensive clearing of natural vegetation.  Forms of land degradation that have been recorded in Australia are: - sheet and rill erosion - gully erosion - mass movement - wind erosion - dryland salinity - irrigation salinity - soil structure decline - scalding - induced soil acidity - woody shrub infestation  Salinity from rising water tables is believed to be the greatest threat to health and productivity of many catchments, and to the rural and urban communities that live in them. It is affecting rural landholders, urban developments, infrastructure (weakening buildings and bridges), water users and the environment.

3. Where is there the need for land management?  Land degradation can occur wherever the natural balances in the environment are changed to facilitate agricultural and resource development such as mining and timber cutting or for infrastructure such as roads, railways, dams, power stations, transmission lines and pipelines.  Areas west of the Great Dividing Range that have been excessively cleared for cropping and grazing are the most affected by land degradation. The major land-related environmental issues are dryland salinity, soil structure decline, soil erosion by wind and water and management of pests and weeds. Rising water tables and salinity in association with irrigation developments are found in the south. 4. Managing land resources:  In 2000 a National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality received funding of $1.4 billion from the Commonwealth and State Governments. The plan identifies high priority, immediate actions to address salinity, particularly dryland salinity and deteriorating water quality in key catchments and regions  Landcare has been a key response across Australia. It is a community movement enhancing the long-term productivity of the natural resources of Australia. There are now more than 4,000 Landcare groups across Australia with one in three farmers being a member of a Landcare group. It is a way of communities attacking a common problem in partnership with government. It is funded by the Natural Heritage Trust.  Land holders are being encouraged change their management practices and rehabilitate their properties to ensure sustainable production: - conservation farming using minimum tillage, stubble retention or strip farming - revegetation so that slopes are protected and water tables kept in balance (suggested that 20% of the land surface be under tree cover in areas excessively cleared). - soil conservation earthworks such as graded contour banks and grassed waterways.

WATER MANAGEMENT

1. Importance of water:  Water is vital for life.  Water is one of the most important natural resources, for both humans and the environment.  It is critical to the future of Australia that communities, agriculture, industry and the environment continue to receive an adequate supply of high quality water.  Australians enjoy water based amenities, leisure and recreation.

2. Where is there the need for water management?  Australia’s freshwater resources are limited, yet we use more water than people in most developed countries.  The greatest pressure on water resources is in areas where water is in heavy demand for agricultural (especially irrigation), industrial and urban purposes. This corresponds those parts of Australia that have the greatest concentrations of human activity and settlement – the eastern states.  Human activities have had a great impact on the quantity and quality of water. Flows in rivers have been diminished by excessive withdrawals for human use and wastewater is often returned to the river loaded with pollutants.

3. Impact on water quantity:  Building water storages for irrigation and power generation, urban water supplies, flood mitigation and recreation have placed considerable demands on our water.  Regulating rivers by constructing dams, weirs, levee banks, floodgates have all interfered with surface and changed river flow.

4. Impact on water quality:  There is clear evidence of a decline in the quality of water in our rivers: - loss of wetlands - blue green algae blooms - infestation of carp and a decline in native fish populations - increased levels of salt and sediment loads in rivers - high bacterial levels  The concentration of Australia’s population in towns and cities, which require large supplies of potable water, also concentrates impacts from sewage, pollutants and urban runoff.  A decline in water quality not only has associated health risks in drinking water, but can also be a threat to agricultural and industrial production.  Treating contaminated water is expensive eg. activated carbon filters to remove blue green algae.

5. Managing water resources:  It has been necessary for governments to implement reforms aimed at achieving a better balance in sharing the water between all water users and the environment eg in 2002 in NSW a State Water Management Outcomes Plan was established for the development, conservation, management and control of the State’s water resources. Monitoring has also been improved.  Total Catchment Management (TCM) is important in water management: - everyone lives in a catchment and we all impact on catchment health. - TCM is about coordinating community and government efforts. - TCM aims to ensure productive land and clean water as well as protecting the diversity of vegetation and wildlife.  Individual responsibility can also be encouraged by conserving water in the home (eg half flush toilets, fixing leaking taps). Community groups painting sign on gutters also remind residents that litter carelessly discarded can end up in the local river in the next storm COASTAL MANAGEMENT

1. Importance of coastal areas:  As an island nation, Australia is economically dependent on its estuaries for: - fishing - shipping / trade (97% of the volume of trade is carried by ships) - leisure / tourism - offshore oil production - waste disposal  Biodiversity as the Australian waters support one of the world’s richest collections of endemic species (found nowhere else). River estuaries and mangroves serve as important habitats for marine ecosystems.  The coastline of Australia is one of Australia’s greatest natural assets. Beautiful beaches, lagoons, wetlands and cliffs provide recreation for local communities and are major attractions for tourists.

2. Where is there the need for coastal management?  Many marine and estuarine environments are threatened by human activities: - Overfishing has occurred in many species such as the southern bluefin tuna, the tiger prawn and the school shark. - Invasive marine species have occurred via the discharge of ballast water in ports. - Marine pollution when the coast is used as a waste disposal area with sewage from treatment plants and ocean outfalls, industrial waste and stormwater runoff.  Australia’s marine area extends for about 16 million square kilometres. Experts fear that Australia’s oceans are becoming degraded and face a bleak future with problems such as unsustainable fisheries and shrinking coral reefs.  Coastal areas are favoured for settlement and the pressures of development can cause problems eg. where estuaries are drained for canal estates and when sand dunes disappear under resorts on the beach.  Sediments entering coastal waters from creeks and rivers are a major cause of poor water quality. eg. smothering the seagrass habitat of the Dugong.  The greatest need for coastal management is on the eastern seaboard where most of the large international ports are located, and where the bulk of Australian settlement is concentrated,

3. Managing the coastal zone:  All levels of government have some responsibility for coastal management and government programs have been implemented to tackle some of the problems  The federal government established the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in1975 so as to balance the demands of tourism and scientific research with protecting the coral ecosystem.  In 1997, the NSW Government released its Coastal Policy, which focuses on the need to balance population growth and economic development against the conservation of valuable coastal ecosystems. This policy aims to provide a coordinated framework for managing unique physical, ecological, economic and cultural attributes of the coast in an environmentally sustainable way.  Community groups also work in conjunction with governments to protect and manage sand dunes eg stabilising sand dunes by restricting access and allowing the regeneration of vegetation that traps and binds the sand, and eradication of weeds such as Bitou Bush.  Despite these efforts, only 4% of Australia’s oceans have any kind of formal protection. This is inadequate to provide protected habitats for threatened species and ensure that fish stocks recover.

AIR QUALITY

1. Importance of air quality:  The quality of the envelope of air that surrounds the earth impacts significantly on human and natural systems.  Airborne pollutants create considerable risks to human heath by increasing the incidence of death and disease. Studies have shown that air pollution may cause breathing difficulties and aggravate conditions such as asthma, pneumonia and emphysema as well as increase the risk of cancer, heart disease and birth defects.  Anyone who has experienced the smoke filled skies from a bushfire for an extended period of time will be familiar with the discomfort of respiratory difficulties, nausea and irritation of the eyes and throat.

2. Where is there the need to manage air quality?  The concentration of people, consumption, vehicles and industry in cities means that the urban areas of Australia experiences the poorest air quality because of polluting activities and their associated wastes.  All of the air pollutants may be found in various concentrations throughout the settled areas of Australia. The larger cities have the highest emissions of pollutants.  In the lower Hunter and Illawarra regions, the industrial facilities contribute the majority of pollutants, whereas in Sydney, vehicles are the greatest source.

3. What are the sources of emissions that cause pollution in cities?  Motor vehicles: cars, trucks, buses and motorcycles.  Other forms of transport: aircraft, trains and boats.  Waste combustion: household, municipal, commercial and industrial.  Fuel combustion: from power generation, industrial, commercial and domestic heating (eg. wood fires).  Industry: petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants.  Accidents such as gas leakages and fires.

4. What makes urban air quality so poor?  Smog: usually visible as a bluish purple haze and is produced by the reaction of hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight. The gases produced in the smog can seriously affect humans and other animals.  Carbon monoxide: results from the incomplete combustion of carbon- containing fuels. It leads to headaches, drowsiness and slow reactions.  Lead: contributes to health problems in cities. It has many sources, including fuel additives, metal smelting and battery manufacture. The reduction in leaded petrol use has curbed concentrations to some extent.  Suspended particulate matter: includes smoke, soot and dust. Sydney often suffers from a brown haze in winter as a result of this.

5. Managing air quality:  Air monitoring: NSW’s air monitoring program is the largest in Australia. The Environment Protection Authority, producing daily air quality reports, operates a comprehensive network.  Legislation: In NSW the Clean Air Act is an attempt to monitor and limit pollution. It states the legal provisions for the discharge of any pollutant, often requiring the installation of special equipment.  Individual responsibility: it is hoped that an awareness of such problems will lead people to consider their actions more carefully eg. composting garden refuse rather than burning it, taking public transport rather than driving.