Chapter 6 Quick Quiz

1. The first stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development begins with reflex action and ends with mental representations. This first stage is known as the a. sensorimotor stage. c. concrete operational stage. b. preoperational stage. d. formal operations stage.

2. According to Piaget’s theory, children’s understanding grows through two main processes: ______, in which the child places a new stimulus or experience within the context of the way he or she currently thinks; and ______, in which the child changes his or her way of thinking to include the new stimulus or experience. a. accommodation; assimilation c. assimilation; accommodation b. adaptation; organization d. organization; adaptation

3. The information-processing approach to cognitive development examines three processes in terms of children’s ability to process information. Those processes are ______, ______, and ______. a. decay; interference; amnesia c. sensory; short-term memory; long-term memory b. semantic; episodic; procedural memory d. encoding; storage; retrieval

4. For Ashley’s second birthday, her family went on a trip to Disney World, but now, just four years later, Ashley has little or no memory of this family trip. Ashley’s inability to remember this major family excursion is due to a. memory interference. c. infantile amnesia. b. retrograde amnesia. d. proactive amnesia.

5. All of the following are traditional measures of infant intelligence EXCEPT the a. visual-recognition memory measurement. b. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. c. developmental quotient. d. Bayley Scales of Infant Development.

6. Claude gets his mother’s attention by making a kind of grunting noise and then looks at the ball just out of his reach. Claude’s attempt to communicate his desire for the ball is an example of a. semantics. c. language. b. babbling d. prelinguistic communication.

7. Alfie calls for the “book” when he wants the menu in the neighborhood diner. Alfie’s use of the word “book” to include the menu best illustrates which characterization of early speech? a. holophrases c. overextension b. telegraphic d. underextension

8. In the nativist approach to language development, theorist Noam Chomsky suggests that an innate mechanism directs language development. He refers to the neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding of language as a(n) ______. a. language acquisition device c. grammar checker b. universal grammar d. communication device

9. Martha went from person to person asking if they wanted some birthday cake, but when she asked the youngest children at the party her voice pitch rose and she spoke with a type of singing quality. Martha was utilizing ______with the children present. a. attention-getting speech c. holographic speech b. infant-directed speech d. telegraphic speech

106 10. Research on deaf infants reveal the following similarities in language development when compared with non-deaf infants, EXCEPT a. deaf infants appear to babble, as do non-deaf infants. b. mothers of deaf and non-deaf children both employ infant-directed speech. c. deaf infants do not seem to overextend when acquiring language. d. infant-directed speech with deaf infants includes slower tempo in signing and repeated signs.

107 Chapter 6 Quick Quiz Answers

11. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Rationale: Piaget’s first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which consists of six substages. This stage begins at birth with reflexive actions and continues through the achievement of mental representations.

12. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Rationale: In the Piagetian view, children’s understanding grows through assimilation of their experiences into their current way of thinking, or through accommodation of their current way of thinking to their experiences.

13. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Rationale: Information-processing approaches to the study of cognitive development seek to learn how individual receive, organize, store, and retrieve information. These are accomplished through encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.

14. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 159 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Infantile amnesia refers to the lack of memory for experiences occurring prior to 3 years of age.

15. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: The developmental quotient, Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and the visual-recognition memory measurement are all traditional measures used for infant intelligence. The MMPI is not used with infants.

16. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: d Page(s): 165, 166 Type: Applied Rationale: This is an example of prelinguistic communication, communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.

17. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 167–169 Type: Conceptual Rationale: All of these answers represent characterizations of early speech; however, the example best illustrates the use of overextension, or the broad application or overgeneralization of a word. Alfie applies the word “book” too broadly to include the diner’s menu.

18. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 170 Type: Factual Rationale: The nativist approach to language development is a theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development. Linguist Noam Chomsky hypothesized that a language acquisition device or a neural system that permits the understanding of language provides a child with the strategies and techniques for learning the language to which the child is exposed.

19. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 170, 171 Type: Applied Rationale: Martha was using infant-directed speech. Infant-directed speech is a shift in your language to a style of speech that characterizes much of the verbal communication directed toward infants. The term infant- directed speech is a gender-free term used in place of the former motherese.

108 20. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 166, 173 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The process of language acquisition for deaf children through signing has some striking similarities with the process of language acquisition for non-deaf children. Consider the fact that deaf children babble, using signs much as non-deaf children babble. In addition, mothers of deaf children also employ the use of infant- directed speech, in this case using a slower tempo for signing and often repeating signs.

109 Chapter 6 Cognitive Development in Infancy

Multiple Choice Questions

6.1 Piaget’s stage theory is composed of a series of four universal stages that occur in a fixed order from birth through adolescence and are, in chronological order a. formal operational; concrete operational; preoperational; and sensorimotor. b. sensorimotor; preoperational; concrete operational; and formal operational. c. sensorimotor; formal operational; preoperational; and concrete operational. d. sensorimotor; formal operational; concrete operational; and preoperational.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Rationale: Piaget’s theory is a stage-based theory that occurs in a fixed order from birth through adolescence. The four universal stages are, in order, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.

6.2 Piaget’s views of the ways infants learn could be summed in which of the following equations? a. action = knowledge c. perception = knowledge b. facts = knowledge d. experience = perception

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 148, 149 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Piaget’s theory argues against knowledge from facts communicated by others, as well as through sensation or perception. Instead, Piaget espoused that action equals knowledge.

6.3 Piaget believed that the basic building blocks of the way we understand the world are mental structures called ______, organized patterns of functioning that adapt and change with mental development. a. schemes c. accommodation b. assimilation d. concepts

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Rationale: Schemes are mental structures that are organized patterns of functioning; they adapt and change with mental development.

6.4 According to Piaget, ______is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. a. scheme c. accommodation b. assimilation d. concept

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Rationale: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking.

110 2 The first time Aiesha saw a flying squirrel, she called it a bird. Aiesha is ______the squirrel to her existing scheme of bird. a. accommodating c. comparing b. assimilating d. categorizing

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 149 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example, Aiesha is relating the flying squirrel to her current scheme of a flying animal is a bird.

6.2 Twelve-month-old Mitchell loves to play with his kickball. One day his father came home with a new ball for him to enjoy. Mitchell jumped up and down and shouted gleefully, “Kickball!” His father said, “No, Mitchell, this is a soccer ball.” Mitchell is ______the soccer ball to his existing scheme of kickball. a. accommodating c. comparing b. assimilating d. categorizing

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 149 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example, Mitchell is relating the soccer to his current scheme of a ball of a certain size as a kickball.

6.3 The first time Charlie saw a full moon he called it a ball. Charlie is most likely ______the full moon into his ball scheme. a. organizing c. accommodating b. assimilating d. transferring

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 149 Type: Applied Rationale: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example, Charlie is relating the moon to his current scheme of a round object as a ball.

6.4 According to Piaget, ______is the result of making changes in our existing ways of thinking, and it occurs in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. a. scheme c. accommodation b. assimilation d. concept

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.

6.5 The first time 10-month-old Daniel tried to use a cup and a straw, he tipped the whole cup up like a bottle and got very wet. His mother quickly intervened and put the cup in an upright position. Soon, Daniel learned that you may tip up your bottle, but cups and straws must remain in an upright position. Daniel’s modification to his drinking scheme is the result of a(n) a. scheme. c. accommodation. b. assimilation. d. concept.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 149 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. In this example, the new encounter is a cup and straw, as opposed to the familiar bottle. At first, Daniel

111 treats the cup like a bottle, but he changes his way of thinking and therefore uses the cup and straw differently than the bottle. 3 During a visit to the dentist, 2-year-old Arya saw a mural with a mermaid in it. Arya said, “Hey, Mom, why is that fish woman swimming in the water?” Arya is most likely beginning the process of a. schemation. c. accommodation. b. assimilation. d. concept.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 149 Type: Applied Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. In this example, Arya is beginning to question the current way of her thinking and is beginning the process of changing her thinking to fit this new information.

6.2 According to Piaget, the earliest schemes are primarily limited to the ______with which we are all born, such as sucking and rooting. a. reflexes c. ideas b. concepts d. notions

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 149, 150 Type: Factual Rationale: Schemes are, at first, related to sensorimotor activity, and the earliest schemes are primarily limited to reflexes.

6.3 In Piaget’s theory, the ______stage is the initial major stage of cognitive development, which can be broken down into six substages. a. preoperational c. formal operational b. concrete operational d. sensorimotor

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 150 Type: Factual Rationale: The sensorimotor stage is the initial stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

6.4 The first substage of the sensorimotor period is ______, which encompasses the first month of life. a. primary circular reactions c. secondary circular reactions b. simple reflexes d. the sleep-wake cycle

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 150 Type: Factual Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes and these simple reflexes also represent the first substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.

6.5 Three-week-old Alex will suck on anything that touches his lips whether it was his hand, his father’s back, a cloth diaper, or a toy. This indiscriminate sucking is an example of a a. simple reflex. c. primary circular reaction. b. circular reaction. d. secondary circular reaction.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 150 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes, and these simple reflexes also represent the first substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In this example, Alex is displaying the sucking reflex.

112 4 Nicholas was a breast-fed baby. However, when he was 3 weeks old, his mother introduced him to a bottle. Nicholas quickly learned to modify his ______scheme to the different sucking patterns required by the bottle. a. circular reaction c. secondary circular reaction b. primary circular reaction d. reflex

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 150 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes, and these simple reflexes also represent the first substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In this example, Nicholas is modifying his sucking reflex.

6.2 According to Piaget, ______is an activity that permits the constructions of cognitive schemes through the repetition of a changed motor event. a. circular reaction c. secondary reaction b. primary reaction d. tertiary reaction

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 151 Type: Factual Rationale: Circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events that help the baby start building cognitive schemes.

6.3 Three-month-old Lionel loved to suck on his fingers. He was quite fond of putting his fingers into his mouth and then pulling them out only to look them over for a minute or two before putting them back into his mouth. He repeated this behavior over and over. Lionel’s behavior with his fingers illustrates a a. simple reflex. c. secondary circular reaction. b. primary circular reaction. d. tertiary circular reaction.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 151 Type: Applied Rationale: Circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events that help the baby start building cognitive schemes. In this example, Lionel is repeating the event of putting his fingers into his mouth and pulling them out again.

6.4 ______reactions are schemes regarding repeated actions that bring about a desirable consequence. a. Primary circular c. Tertiary circular b. Secondary circular d. Fourth circular

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 151 Type: Factual Rationale: Secondary circular reactions are repeated actions that bring about a desirable consequence.

6.5 Primary circular reactions are activities that focus on ______while secondary circular reactions involve actions relating to ______. a. the infant’s own body; the world outside. b. any infant; the environment. c. the self; nature. d. the concrete; abstract thought.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 151 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Primary circular reactions focus on the infant’s own body, while the secondary circular reactions relate to the world outside.

113 5 Five-month-old Stewart enjoyed repeatedly shaking his rattle in new and innovative ways in order to hear the different sounds each new movement made. According to Piaget, Stewart is demonstrating a a. simple reflex. c. secondary circular reaction. b. primary circular reaction. d. tertiary circular reaction.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 151 Type: Applied Rationale: Secondary circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events in the outside world that help the baby start building cognitive schemes. In this example, it is the initial chance motor event of shaking the rattle that is repeated in new and innovative ways.

6.2 According to Piaget, in the ______substage, infants will push one toy out of the way to reach a partially hidden toy underneath. a. primary circular reaction c. coordination of secondary circular reaction b. secondary circular reaction d. tertiary circular reaction

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 151, 152 Type: Conceptual Rationale: It is in this, the fourth substage, that goal-directed behavior begins. Pushing one toy out of the way to reach a partially hidden toy underneath is an example of goal-directed behavior.

6.3 Behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem is called a. target-directed behavior. c. center-directed behavior. b. goal-directed behavior. d. focused behavior.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 151 Type: Factual Rationale: Goal-directed behavior is behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem.

6.4 When 10-month-old Mary Kate was placed on the floor with a pile of toys, she would actively push toys out of her way in an effort to reach her partially covered favorite toy telephone. According to Piaget, Mary Kate is demonstrating a. target-directed behavior. c. center-directed behavior. b. goal-directed behavior. d. focused behavior.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 151 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Goal-directed behavior is behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem. Mary Kate’s pushing of toys to reach a favorite toy is an example of goal-directed behavior.

6.5 According to Piaget, ______is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. a. object stability c. object permanence b. object mobility d. object constancy

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 152 Type: Factual Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen.

114 6 Before an infant has understood the idea of ______, he will not search for an object that has been hidden right before his eyes. a. object stability c. object permanence b. object mobility d. object constancy

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 152 Type: Factual Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. The absence of object permanence means that the infant is not aware that the hidden object still exists.

6.2 James accidentally got his hands on a knife. When James’s mother took the knife and put it where he could no long reach or see it, James howled and kept trying to reach for the knife that had disappeared. According to Piaget, James’s behavior is an example of a. object stability. c. object permanence. b. object mobility. d. object constancy.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 152 Type: Applied Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. In this example, James demonstrates object permanence by continuing to cry and reach for the knife even though it it hidden.

6.3 Tertiary circular reactions differ from secondary circular reactions by the fact that they a. focus on the infant’s own body awareness. b. only deal with the infant’s immediate environment. c. lead only to chance results. d. focus on experimentation.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 153, 154 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Tertiary circular reactions are the deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. As opposed to just repeating activities, in tertiary circular reactions the baby appears to carry out mini-experiments.

6.4 With the attainment of the cognitive skill of ______, children are able to imitate people and scenes they have witnessed in the past. a. mental symbolics c. deferred imitation b. mind representation d. mind symbolics

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 154 Type: Factual Rationale: Deferred imitation is the ability to present and repeat a scene or action that was witnessed in the past.

6.5 A ______is an internal image of a past event or object. a. mind representation c. mental symbol b. mental image d. mental representation

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 154 Type: Factual Rationale: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object.

115 7 Eighteen-month-old Lawrence’s favorite pastime is to roll balls around the house. He particularly likes to roll balls under the furniture and run to where he thought they might emerge. This is an example of a a. mind representation. c. mental symbol. b. mental image. d. mental representation.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 154 Type: Conceptual Rationale: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object. In this example, Lawrence has an internal mental image of where the balls will roll and emerge.

6.2 According to Piaget, ______is an act in which children imitate a person who is no longer present. a. deferred imitation c. deferred modeling b. delayed imitation d. delayed modeling

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 154 Type: Factual Rationale: Deferred imitation is the ability to present and repeat a scene or action that was witnessed in the past.

6.3 Piaget’s critics cast doubt on Piaget’s view that infants are incapable of mastering the concept of ______until they are close to a year old. a. object stability c. object permanence b. object mobility d. object constancy

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 155 Type: Factual Rationale: One criticism of Piaget’s theory deals with the concept of object permanence. Critics have suggested that the reason Piaget’s research indicated that object permanence was not achieved until the age of 1 had more to do with the way that he determined the presence versus the cognitive functions of the infant.

6.4 Eighteen-month-old Joshua received a train set from his visiting grandmother. Joshua’s grandmother set it up and demonstrated how to drive the train on the track while saying “chugga, chugga, choo, choo.” Later that day, Joshua picked up a train piece and imitated the “chugga, chugga, choo, choo” sounds. Joshua’s behavior places him in the ______substage of the sensorimotor stage. a. primary circular reaction c. tertiary circular reaction b. secondary circular reaction d. beginnings of thought

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 154 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Joshua is demonstrating deferred imitation, which presents in the sixth substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, the beginnings of thought.

6.5 Behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem is called a. target-directed behavior. c. center-directed behavior. b. goal-directed behavior. d. focused behavior.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 151 Type: Factual Rationale: Goal-directed behavior is behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem.

116 8 An approach to cognitive development that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and sort information is called the ______approach. a. data-processing c. cognitive-processing b. information-processing d. mental-processing

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Rationale: The information-processing approach is a model that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and store information.

6.2 According to the information-processing approach, ______refers to the maintenance of material saved in memory. a. encoding c. retrieval b. storage d. automatization

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Rationale: Storage refers to the placement of material into memory.

6.3 Marcus has just moved to a new town and now must learn a new telephone number. He finds that the first three digits are the ages of his sisters and the remaining four numbers coincide with Columbus’s voyage to America. According to the information-processing approach, Marcus is ______his telephone number in a form that can be later remembered. a. encoding c. retrieving b. storing d. automatizing

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 157 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Encoding is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable in memory.

6.4 According to the information-processing approach, ______is the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used. a. encoding c. retrieval b. storage d. automatization

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Rationale: Retrieval is the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used.

6.5 According to the information-processing approach, ______is the degree to which an activity requires attention. a. encoding c. retrieval b. storage d. automatization

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Rationale: Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention.

117 9 Sixteen-year-old Amber has just completed a drivers’ education course. She often comments to friends that that at first driving required her undivided attention, but with a little practice she often finds that she has driven home without being aware of stopping for traffic lights or stop signs. According to the information- processing approach, driving has become ______for Amber. a. automatic c. time consuming b. boring d. trivial

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 157, 158 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention. In this example, Amber requires less attention to the process of driving, causing the activity to become automatic for Amber.

6.2 ______is memory that is conscious and that can be recalled intentionally. In comparison, ______is memory that is recalled unconsciously. a. Implicit memory; explicit memory c. Storage memory; retrieval memory b. Explicit memory; implicit memory d. Retrieval memory; storage memory

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 160 Type: Factual Rationale: Explicit memory is memory that is conscious and that can be recalled intentionally. In comparison, implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor skills, habits, and activities that can be remembered without conscious cognitive effort.

6.3 The memory and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen, as well as the speed with which an infant can retrieve a representation of a stimulus from memory, is the approach to examine intelligence during infancy known as a. a developmental quotient. b. a visual-recognition memory measurement. c. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. d. an intelligence quotient.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: Visual-recognition memory measurement measures the memory of and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen. The more quickly an infant can retrieve a representation of a stimulus from memory, the more efficient the infant’s information processing.

6.4 An overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains—motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social—is called a. a developmental quotient. c. visual-recognition memory measurement. b. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. d. IQ.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: the developmental quotient, formulated by Arnold Gesell, is an overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills (balance and sitting), language use, adaptive behavior (alertness and exploration), and personal-social (feeding and dressing).

6.5 The lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age is known as a. juvenile amnesia. c. immature amnesia. b. child amnesia. d. infantile amnesia.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 159 Type: Factual Rationale: Infantile amnesia is the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age.

118 10 Layla was 3 years old when her brother, Cameron, was born; however, she has no memory of the birth of her brother. This illustrates a. juvenile amnesia. c. immature amnesia. b. child amnesia. d. infantile amnesia.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 159 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Infantile amnesia is the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age.

6.2 Memory that is recalled unconsciously is called ______memory. a. explicit c. exact b. implicit d. approximate

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 160 Type: Factual Rationale: Implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor skills, habits, and activities that can be remembered without conscious cognitive effort.

6.3 Remembering how to ride a bike is an example of ______memory. a. explicit c. exact b. implicit d. approximate

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 160 Type: Applied Rationale: Implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor skills such as riding a bicycle.

6.4 Gesell, a developmental psychologist, developed a ______that is an overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social. a. developmental quotient c. developmental measure b. developmental proportion d. developmental number

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: The developmental quotient, formulated by Arnold Gesell, is an overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills (balance and sitting), language use, adaptive behavior (alertness and exploration), and personal-social (feeding and dressing).

6.5 The ______is a measurement that evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42 months. It focuses on two areas: mental and motor abilities. a. developmental quotient c. visual-recognition memory measure b. Bayley Scales of Infant Development d. Gesell Scales of Child Development

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, developed by Nancy Bayley, focuses on two areas, mental and motor development, and evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42 months.

119 11 The Bailey Scales of Infant Development is composed of two scales. The ______scale focuses on the senses, perception, memory, learning, problem solving, and language, while the ______scale evaluates fine and gross motor skills. a. sensation; perception c. mental; motor b. thinking; movement d. intellectual; spatial

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, developed by Nancy Bayley, focuses on two areas, mental and motor development, and evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42 months.

6.2 Traditional measures of infant intelligence a. do a good job of predicting intelligence scores in adulthood. b. are an integral part of the assessment of newborns. c. can help identify developmental delays or advances. d. are roughly equivalent to adult intelligence tests.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 163 Type: Conceptual Rationale: There is some correlation between efficiency of information processing and later IQ scores, suggesting some consistency of cognitive development across the lifespan. Currently, however, the traditional measures of infant intelligence focus on behavioral attainments, which only help to identify developmental delays or advances, and not adult intelligence.

6.3 Habituation tests are good predictors of later intellectual performance because they seem to measure a. speed of learning. c. sensorimotor skills. b. higher-order thinking skills. d. problem-solving skills.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 161, 162 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The speed with which infants process information may correlate most strongly with later intelligence, as measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.

6.4 To date, in infancy, the best predictor of later intelligence is a. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. b. the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment. c. habituation tests. d. the Apgar test.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 161, 162 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The speed with which infants process information may correlate most strongly with later intelligence, as measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.

6.5 Most measures of behavior during infancy have ______ability to predict later adult intelligence. a. minimal c. considerable b. significant d. noteworthy

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 163 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The traditional measures of infant intelligence focus on behavioral attainments, which only help to identify developmental delays or advances and not adult intelligence.

120 12 The memory and recognition of stimuli that has been previously seen is known as a. sensory-recognition memory. c. visual-recognition memory. b. visual-recall memory. d. sensory-recall memory.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: c Page(s): 161 Type: Factual Rationale: Visual-recognition memory measurement measures the memory and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen.

6.2 The ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced only through one sense by using another sense is referred to as a. bi-modal transference. c. cross-model transference. b. bi-model transference. d. cross-modal transference.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 162 Type: Factual Rationale: Cross-modal transference is the ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced through only one sense by using another sense.

6.3 As a baby, Simone was able to recognize by sight a screwdriver that she had previously only touched but had not seen. This ability is referred to as a. bi-modal transference. c. cross-model transference. b. bi-model transference. d. cross-modal transference.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: d Page(s): 162 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Cross-modal transference is the ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced through only one sense by using another sense. In this example, Simone had previously touched a screwdriver, but could now identify that screwdriver by sight.

6.4 Research has found that the degree of cross-modal transference by an infant at age 1 is ______with intelligence scores several years later. a. associated c. not linked b. not associated d. erroneously connected

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 162 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The degree of cross-modal transference displayed by an infant at age 1 is associated with intelligence scores several years later.

6.5 Information processing looks at ______change. a. qualitative c. erroneous b. quantitative d. quality

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: b Page(s): 163 Type: Factual Rationale: The information-processing model is very different from Piaget’s cognitive development model in that the information-processing model focuses on the quantitative changes that take place.

6.6 The basic sounds of language that are combined to produce words and sentences are referred to as a. phonemes. c. semantics. b. morphemes. d. language.

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Answer: a Page(s): 164 Type: Factual Rationale: Phonemes are the basic sounds of language that are combined to produce sounds and sentences.

121 13 The systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for communication, is known as a. language. c. speech. b. symbolism. d. verbalization.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 164 Type: Factual Rationale: Language is the systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for communication.

6.2 Characterized as the smallest language units that have meaning, some ______are complete words, whereas others add information necessary for interpreting a word, such as the endings “-s” for plural and “-ed” for past tense. a. phonemes c. semantics b. morphemes d. phonology

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 165 Type: Factual Rationale: The morpheme is the smallest language unit that has meaning. Some are complete words, whereas others add information necessary for interpreting a word, such as the ending “-s” for plural and “-ed” for past tense.

6.3 The smallest language unit that has meaning is a a. phoneme. c. semantic. b. morpheme. d. phonology.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 165 Type: Factual Rationale: The morpheme is the smallest language unit that has meaning.

6.4 ______are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences. a. Phonemes c. Semantics b. Morphemes d. Phonology

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 165 Type: Factual Rationale: Semantics are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.

6.5 The understanding of speech is called linguistic ______, whereas the use of language to communicate is referred to as linguistic ______. a. comprehension; production c. fabrication; comprehension b. production; comprehension d. comprehension; fabrication

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 165 Type: Factual Rationale: Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech, while linguistic production is the use of language to communicate.

6.6 Communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means is known as ______communication. a. prelanguage c. baby talk b. prelinguistic d. motherese

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 165, 166 Type: Factual Rationale: Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.

122 14 Prelinguistic communication teaches infants a. the give and take of conversation. b. to hear the sounds of their native language. c. to listen to the noises in their environment. d. to talk to themselves.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 166 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means. This prelinguistic communication teaches infants the give and take of social interactions.

6.2 Making speech-like but meaningless sounds is called a. bubbling. c. babbling. b. gibber. d. prattle.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 166 Type: Factual Rationale: Babbling, making speech-like but meaningless sounds, begins at about the age of 2 or 3 months and continues to about the age of 1.

6.3 All of the following statements about babbling are true EXCEPT a. babbling is a universal phenomenon. b. babbling produces the sounds of every language. c. deaf children babble just as non-deaf children babble. d. deaf children exposed to sign language babble with their hands.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 166 Type: Factual Rationale: All of these statements about babbling are true, except that deaf babies do not babble as non-deaf babies babble. Deaf babies exposed to sign language exhibit babbling through hand motions.

6.4 Deaf infants that are taught sign language babble with their a. voices. c. facial expressions. b. hands. d. feet.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 166 Type: Factual Rationale: Deaf babies exposed to sign language exhibit babbling through hand motions.

6.5 One-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, and whose meanings depend on the particular context in which they are used, are called a. semantics. c. telegraphic speech. b. holophrases. d. animates.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 167 Type: Factual Rationale: Holophrases are one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, and whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used.

123 15 The overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering spoken language, is called a. telegraphic speech. c. overextension. b. underextension. d. holophrases.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 168 Type: Factual Rationale: Underextension is the use of words too restrictively, which is common among children just mastering spoken language.

6.2 Speech that leaves out words that are not critical to the message is known as a. telegraphic speech. c. telephone speech. b. telegram speech. d. telepicture speech.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 167 Type: Factual Rationale: Telegraphic speech is when words that aren’t critical to the message are left out.

6.3 Nineteen-month-old Evan enjoys books, and he often says, “Read book.” This is Evan’s shorthand version of “I would like you to read a book to me.” This is an example of a. telegraphic speech. c. telephone speech. b. telegram speech. d. telepicture speech.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 167 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Telegraphic speech is when words that aren’t critical to the message are left out.

6.4 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects is called a. expressive style. c. learning style. b. referential style. d. reinforcement style.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.

6.5 Thirteen-month-old Clara uses the word “babydoll” to refer to only her doll, and not to other dolls. Clara is making a(n) ______error. a. overextension c. referential style b. underextension d. expressive style

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 167 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Underextension is the use of words too restrictively, which is common among children just mastering spoken language. In this example, Clara is using the word “babydoll” only to refer to her doll and not other dolls.

6.6 The overly broad use of words, where children overgeneralize their meaning, is known as a. overextension. c. referential style. b. underextension. d. expressive style.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 168, 169 Type: Factual Rationale: Overextension is the use of words too broadly, where children overgeneralize their meaning.

124 16 Much to the consternation of 15-month-old Sara’s mom, Sara constantly calls out “Daddy” to any man she sees. Sara is making a(n ) ______error. a. overextension c. referential style b. underextension d. expressive style

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 168, 169 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Overextension is the use of words too broadly, where children overgeneralize their meaning. In this example, Sara uses the term “Daddy” too broadly, using it to refer to all men.

6.2 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects is known as a. overextension. c. referential style. b. underextension. d. expressive style.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.

6.3 As a toddler, Michael had an impressive vocabulary consisting of words like mom, dad, dog, car, bike, chair, table, and so on. Michael’s style of language use is called the ______style. a. overextension c. referential b. underextension d. expressive

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 169 Type: Conceptual Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.

6.4 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others is known as a. overextension. c. referential style. b. underextension. d. expressive style.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: d Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: An expressive style is one in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others.

6.5 The theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning is known as a. learning theory. c. nativist approach. b. interactionist approach. d. humanistic approach.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: The learning theory approach is a theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning.

6.6 The theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language development is known as a. learning theory. c. nativist approach. b. interactionist approach. d. humanistic approach.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: c Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: The nativist approach is a theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language development.

125 17 The idea that language is a consequence of both environmental and innate factors is known as the ______of language development a. learning theory c. nativist approach b. interactionist approach d. humanistic approach

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: b Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: The interactionist approach combines aspects of the nativist and learning theories to language development. This perspective suggests that language is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances.

6.2 A type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences, is called a. infant-directed speech. c. motherese. b. baby-directed speech. d. child-directed speech.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Answer: a Page(s): 169 Type: Factual Rationale: Infant-directed speech is a style of speech that characterizes much of the verbal communication directed toward infants.

Essay Questions

6.3 Define and provide examples of assimilation and accommodation.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Page(s): 149 Type: Applied Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Assimilation is the process in which people understand new stimuli in terms of their current thinking. . Examples are numerous, but they should include the current scheme that is used and the similarity to the new stimuli.  Accommodation is the process in which people change their thinking to include the new information gained from the new experience or stimulus. . Again, examples are numerous, but they should include how the new stimulus/experience does not fit the current scheme and how that scheme has now been changed.

6.4 According to Piaget, the sensorimotor period is composed of six substages. Define and provide an example of each substage.

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Page(s): 150 Type: Applied Answer: A good answer would include the following substages:  One – Simple reflexes – Various reflexes determine the infant’s interactions  Two – Primary circular reaction – Coordination of separate actions into single, integrated activities  Three – Secondary circular reactions – Shift occurs from focus on oneself to the outside world  Four – Coordination of secondary circular reactions – Use more calculated approaches to produce events and coordinate several schemes to generate a single act; goal-directed behaviors; object permanence is achieved  Five – Tertiary circular reactions – Use of deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences  Six – Beginnings of thought – Develops capacity for mental representations

126 18 What are some of the major strengths and criticisms of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Page(s): 154, 155 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Much research has been conducted to demonstrate the basic foundation that children learn much about the world by acting on objects in their environment.  The broad outlines established by Piaget of the cognitive accomplishments that occur during infancy are generally accurate.  There is question about the stage conception, including the suggestion that cognitive development occurs in waves versus stages.  Some researchers suggest that sensation and perception should be considered to play a role in cognitive development, not just motor activities  There is considerable question about Piaget’s assertion that object permanence is achieved about the age of 1. Other age ranges have been proposed.  Piaget’s work describes children of Western countries better than those of non-Western countries.

6.2 Why would the concept of object permanence be important to a caregiver?

Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Page(s): 152, 153 Type: Applied Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Object permanence allows the infant to live in more than the “here and now” as they recognize absent objects as hidden.  The awareness of people who exist when out of sight assist in the formation of social security.

6.3 Why is it so difficult to assess infant intelligence as a predictor of later intelligence?

Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Page(s): 162, 163 Type: Factual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Although there is a correlation between early information-processing capabilities and later measures of IQ, the correlation is only moderate, and it does not imply causation.  Intelligence as measured by traditional IQ tests measure only one kind of intelligence.

6.4 Describe and contrast the major theories of language development.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Page(s): 169, 170 Type: Factual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Social learning theory indicates language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning.  Nativist approach is a theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language development.  Interactionist approach is a combination of the social learning and nativist theories in that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language.

6.5 Define and provide examples of referential style language learners and expressive style language learners.

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Page(s): 169 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  In the referential style, language is used primarily to label objects.

127  In the expressive style, language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others. 19 Why might linguistic comprehension precede linguistic production?

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Page(s): 165 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech.  Linguistic production is the use of language to communicate.  An infant understands complex communication prior to being able to communicate at the same level.  Comprehension outpaces production throughout infancy.

6.2 What are some things that parents can do to promote cognitive development in their children?

Chapter Section: The Roots of Language Page(s): 173 Type: Applied Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Provide infants with the opportunity to explore the world.  Be both verbally and non-verbally responsive to infants.  Read to infants.  Remember that a caregiver does not have to be with the infant 24 hours a day.  Don’t push the infant and don’t expect too much from the infant.