Georgia High School Graduation Test Revew

GEORGIA HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION TEST REVEW Test Taking Skills

READ CAREFULLY! Many of the GHSGT questions involve short articles, tables, charts, and graphs. Carefully read the directions and the question and four answer choices. THERE ARE NO TRICK QUESTIONS! Don’t over think the question! You should not spend too much time trying to figure out what they really mean. Read the entire question (including all accompanying material) and the real meaning should be clear. READ ALL OF THE ANSWERS AND PICK THE BEST ANSWER! You must choose, from the four alternatives, the answer that best addresses the question. Some of the alternatives (distracters) will be attractive because they include an irrelevant detail, a common misconception, or apply the right information in the wrong way. GUESS INTELLIGENTLY! There is no penalty for guessing on this test. If you are not sure of the correct answer you are encouraged to guess. Guessing is easier if you can eliminate one or more distracters as clearly incorrect. Be warned, however, that many of the distracters are very attractive because they are based on common mistakes students make. USE THE PERIODIC TABLE AND FORMULAS THAT ARE PROVIDED! Even if the question doesn’t directly require looking at the formula or periodic table it may help if you do. For example, if the question is about Power it may help you to know that power= work/time.

Formulas and information that is usually provided: Acceleration due to gravity = 9.89m/s2 Acceleration = Change in velocity /time Weight = mass (m) x Acceleration due to gravity Force = mass x acceleration F = ma (g) Actual Mechanical advantage = FR/FE Where FR Density = Mass/Volume is force due to resistance and FE is force due to Volume of a rectangular solid = length x width x effort height Ideal Mechanical advantage = effort length/ 1 newton = 1 kilogram x meter / s2 resistance length 1 Joule = 1 newton x meter Power = work/time 1 watt = 1newton x meter/second or 1 Work= Force x Distance joule/second Voltage = current x Resistance (V=IR)

Scientific Method State the problem Make an educated guess or Hypothesis Experiment Analyze the data State the conclusion

Theory, Law explain scientific phenomena.

Metric System KHDBDCM –be able to move the decimal to convert between units!

Water Displacement as a way to measure volume—A graduated cylinder has 20mL of water, a rock is dropped into the cylinder and the water rises to 25mL. The rock “displaced” the water. 25mL – 20mL = 5mL The rock has a volume of 5mL.

Temperature: Kelvin = Celsius + 273 Absolute zero-temp at which all movement stops, 0 K

Measuring: Balance: measures mass (can be electronic balance or triple beam balance) Caution : Don’t use the term scale when you mean balance!!!!!!!!!!! Spring scale: weight (force) Graduated cylinder: volume

After careful measurements are taken, scientists analyze data looking for trends. Direct proportions: as one thing increases the other also increases Indirect or inverse proportions: as one thing increases the other decreases

Research and experiment design: Select a topic, research the topic and phrase the problem so that only one variable is tested. (Variable: the thing that is to be tested) Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the scientist. Dependent variable: the responding variable (it “depends” on the independent variable) it is the thing that is being tested. Experimental group-subjects being tested Control group-no variable is tested – they stay the same.

Analysis of data: looking at the data and organizing it into tables or graphs and trying to find trends. The conclusion is a summary of the analysis of the data. Data should be accurate (correct) and precise (repeatable)

Analyzing Tables and Charts As much of a crystalline substance as could be dissolved was mixed with a liter of distilled water in a tall graduated cylinder. A seed crystal of that substance was then hung in the solution. Each day the crystal length, strength of solution, temperature and volume of the liquid were measured and the following data were collected: Observations: Length of Concentration ofTemp of Volume of Crystal (cm) solution (%) solution solution (mL) Day 1 1.0 25 21 1000 Day 2 3.2 25 20 900 Day 3 5.4 25 21 800 Day 4 7.6 25 21 700 Day 5 10.0 25 20 600

Which things are RELATED and how are they RELATED? Focus on the labels for the columns and rows, then examine the numbers in the columns and look for a pattern.

Graphs: What does the flat part of the line mean? Independent variable-what we change, graph on X axis Dependant variable-what changes during the lab, the data of the lab, graph on the Y axis Interpolation-finding known numbers on the graph Extrapolation- extending the line beyond what is known

Matter – anything that has mass, volume, and inertia. Exists in three phases: solid, liquid, gas Elements – pure substances that are composed of only one type of atom Compounds – pure substances that are composed of 2 or more elements that are chemically combined

Mixtures – may be composed of elements, compounds, or a combination of both

Heterogeneous – matter that is not the same throughout; mixtures are heterogeneous Homogeneous – matter that is the same throughout; solutions are homogeneous

Solutions are made up of: a) solvents – the material that does the dissolving, usually makes up at least 50% of the solution (water is called the “universal solvent”) b) solutes – the material that is dissolved in the solvent

Alloy – solutions of two or more solids. Ex. – stainless steel, bronze, brass, chrome

Atoms (the smallest particle of an element that can exist alone or in combination with other elements) are made of: a) protons – positively charged particles with a mass of 1 amu, found in the nucleus b) neutrons – neutral particles with a mass of 1 amu, found in the nucleus c) electrons – negatively charged particles having a mass of zero amu, found outside the nucleus in the electron cloud

Atomic # - number of protons Mass Number – the sum of protons + neutrons Atomic Mass – average mass of all isotopes Isotopes – atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of neutrons Example: C-12, C- 13 and C-14; each of these carbon atoms have 6 protons, because ALL carbon atoms have 6 protons, but each has a different number of neutrons as indicated by the mass numbers.

The Periodic Table I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Families or Groups – vertical columns; similar properties Periods – horizontal rows; same number of energy levels

Metals – shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, ductile Nonmetals – poor conductors, brittle Metalloids – have properties similar to metals and nonmetals

Metals to the left of the “stair step”, Nonmetals to the right of the “stair step”, Metalloids along the “stair step”

Group IA – Alkali Metals – highly reactive, never found alone in nature Group IIA – Alkaline Earth Metals – have 2 electrons in their outer shell, less reactive than Group IA Group VIIA – Halogens – most reactive nonmetals, have 7 valence electrons Group VIIIA – Noble Gases – have 8 valence electrons and do not react easily

Transition Metals – the ten columns in the center of the chart

Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanides and Actinides) – some are radioactive and some are man- made or synthetic

*The elements are arranged by increasing atomic # (number of protons) * All elements in the same group or family have the same number of valence electrons (Ex. – all elements in group VIA have 6 valence electrons)

5 Boron

10.81 2,3

Atomic # (# of protons) Name of element

Symbol of element

Atomic Mass of element Electron Configuration (3 valence electrons)

Physical Changes – changes in size, shape or phase of matter. Ex. – melting, freezing, boiling, condensing

Chemical Changes – involve changes in the identity of a substance, a new substance is formed Ex. – burning, rusting, fermenting

Chemical Changes are also called Chemical Reactions Reactants  Products

4 Types of Chemical Reactions: a) synthesis b) decomposition reaction c) single displacement (replacement) d) double displacement (replacement)

2 Types of Chemical Bonds: a) Covalent bonds – form when electrons are shared between 2 atoms; results in the formation of molecules (Ex. – water) b) Ionic bonds – form when one or more electrons are transferred between atoms (Ex. – sodium chloride (table salt))

Ions – positively and negatively charged particles (cations and anions)

Acid – substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) in solution Base – substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution pH scale – describes the concentrations of acids and bases, the scale ranges from 0-14 pH 0-7 is acidic, pH 7-14 is basic, pH of 7 is neutral (pure water)

Alpha particles – helium nuclei, positive charge, can be stopped by paper Beta particles – high speed electrons, negative charge, can penetrate a thin sheet of steel Gamma rays – very high energy electromagnetic radiation, can penetrate several feet of concrete *These types of radiation damage living tissue, causing burns, mutation, cancer and death

Half – life – the amount of time that it takes for half of the nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay.

Example – carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,700 years. If we start off with a 10 gram sample of carbon-14, after 5,700 years only 5 grams would remain. If another 5,700 years passes (now a total of 11,400 years), only 2.5 g of carbon-14 would remain.

Energy: the capacity to do work. Measured in joules. Forms of energy: Mechanical, chemical, nuclear, electromagnetic, thermal. The law of conservation of energy: Energy can never be created or destroyed, but it can be transformed from one form to another. Potential energy; stored energy or energy at rest. Kinetic energy: energy in motion.

Heat flow: Conduction: Heat transfer by the collision of particles (mostly in solids) Convection: Heat is spread by movement of large amounts of fluid particles in convection currents. Radiation: Heat is transferred through matter or space by electromagnetic waves.

Force: a push or pull exerted on matter. Measured in newtons. Newton’s three laws of motion: 1st: Inertia: An object at rest tends to stay at rest until acted upon by an outside force; an object in motion tends to stay in motion until acted upon by an outside force. 2nd: F=ma Force is equal to mass (kilograms) times acceleration (meters/seconds/seconds) 3rd: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Work: is done when a net force causes an object to change its state of motion, causing it to speed up, slow down or change direction. Measured in joules. W=Fd Power: the rate at which work is done. Measured in Watts. P=W/t

Machines: Any device that makes work easier. Simple machines: Inclined plane, lever, pulley, wedge, wheel and axle, screw Mechanical advantage: MA= resistance force/effort force or MA= effort distance/resistance distance Efficiency = work output/work input x 100% Work input is always greater than work output because of friction

weight on left × distance = weight on right × distance

Gravity: force of attraction that exists between all objects. Measured in newtons. Weight: measure of gravitational pull on objects. Weight = mg

Linear motion Speed = distance/time (v=d/t) Accelerated motion: Change of velocity a= change of velocity/change of time (m/s/s) Momentum: mass x velocity

Waves: provide a means of transferring energy from one place to another without transferring matter along with it.

Longitudinal waves: consists of compression and rarefaction segments. Sound is a longitudinal wave.

Transverse waves: consists of crests and troughs. Light is a transverse wave.

Amplitude: The distance a crest or a trough is from the base line. The brightness of light or the loudness of sound.

Wavelength: the distance from one point of a wave to the same point on the next wave. Frequency: the number of waves per second. Wave speed=wavelength x frequency

Properties of waves: Reflection: the bouncing back of a wave when it hits a boundary. The incoming wave (incident wave) angle is equal to the reflected wave angle. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/lightandcolor/images/reflectionsfigure2.jpg

Refraction: the bending of a wave as it changes speed by moving through a different medium. www.owlnet.rice.edu/.../ Interference: When two or more waves pass through each other. www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/. ../waves/u10l3c.html Doppler effect: If the source of a wave is moving toward the observer, the frequency of the wave appears higher. If it is moving away, the frequency appears lower. http://www.btinternet.com/~j.doyle/SR/Sr6/doppler.gif

Electromagnetic Waves Math: speed = frequency x wavelength (v = fλ) Transverse waves that DO NOT require a medium for travel; can travel through a vacuum. Speed of EM waves: 3 x 108 m/s The electromagnetic spectrum type(uses) Low energy Radio waves (communication) Low frequency Microwaves (communication) Large wavelength Infrared (warmers for food, “night vision”) ↓ Visible light—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet Ultraviolet (kill bacteria, cause sunburn) High energy X-rays (medical) High frequency Gamma rays (nuclear reactions, radiation treatment) Small wavelength

Terms to know: reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference (constructive and destructive.) Lenses bend light(refract) Convex lens- converges light rays Concave lens-diverges light rays

Mirrors reflect light Concave- magnifies(make-up/shaving mirror) convex- reduces(anti-theft mirror)

Sound- a longitudinal wave(compressional) that is produced by vibration of matter; must have a medium for travel; speed of sound varies dependent on temperature of substance and type of substance. Sound travels fastest in a solid. Terms to know: decibel, ultrasonic, noise, music, echo, resonate, reverberate, pitch, frequency,compression,rarefaction.

Electricity, Magnetism, and Motors- “like repels, opposite attracts” Electricity- comes from the electrons surrounding atoms; Two types: Static electricity- build-up of electrons on an object; no flow; build up occurs Due to friction, conduction, or induction Current electricity- flow of electrons through a circuit (closed pathway) Terms to know: electron, proton, charge, neutral, grounded, discharge, cell(battery), AC, DC, series, parallel, conductor, insulator, circuit breaker, GFCI, short circuit, closed circuit, resistor,

READING CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS! (symbols for diagrams vary...drawings and schematics are used) Description with Words: Three cells are placed in a battery pack to power a circuit containing three light bulbs.

Description with Words: Three cells are placed in a battery pack to power a circuit containing three light bulbs.

Magnetism is a force produced by the motion of charged particles; two poles on each magnet, North and South; Terms to know: electromagnet, magnetic field, electric motor, watts

Electric motor- a rotating electromagnet inside a stationary magnet creates motion so magnets alternately attract and repel each other; this rotation turns a shaft which does work.

Electric math: Resistance = voltage/ current (R = V/I) Power = voltage x current (P = VI) Energy = Power x time (E = Pt)

Biology Review

Terms to know:

Zoology, Botany, Microbiology, Genetics, Ecology, Cell, Hook, Organelles, Ribosomes, Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Centrioles, Eukaryotic, and Prokaryotic

Cell Theory: Schlieden Schwann 1. Living things composed of cells 2. Cells come from other cells 3. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function of the life process

Homeostasis: maintance of constant internal conditions, a steady state. Eukaryotic: true nucleus, have a nuclear membrane that holds DNA in so it makes the nucleus. Most cells. Prokaryotic: no true nucleus. No organized membrane to keep DNA in. No membrane organelles. Monerans Passive transport: diffusion, osmosis, energy not needed Active transport: facilitated diffusion, energy needed. Endocytosis-process of moving things into a cell broken into Phagocytosis-movement of solids in a cell and Pinocytosis movement of liquids Exocytosis-process of moving things out of a cell

Solutions and Cells: 1. Hypertonic: solution outside cell is concentrate, higher than cell, cell shrinks (plasmolysis) 2. hypotonic: solution outside cell is less concentrate than cell, cell swells (cytolysis). 3. Isotonic: solution concentration = cell concentration.

Respiration: breaking down glucose to get energy (ATP) Photosynthesis: changing light energy from the sun to chemical energy of glucose.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA DNA: caries the genetic code double stranded, deoxyribonucleic acid. (A,G,T,C) RNA: helps make proteins; single stranded, ribonucleic acid (uracil replace thymine)

To make a protein: 1. Transcription: the process of making mRNA by copying the DNA 2. Translation: the mRNA goes to the ribosomes. The rRNA reads the mRNA the tRNA bring amino acids in the order. A string of amino acids = protein.

Mitosis: somatic (body) cell division. Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. One duplication and one division. 1. Interphase: no division, cell growth 2. Prophase: Nuclear material (DNA) organizes into chromosomes. 3. Metaphase: chromosomes meet in the middle. 4. Anaphase: chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of cell 5. Telophase: cell membrane form between and 2 new daughter cells are made. 6. Cytokenesis: division of cytoplasm. Meiosis: gamete (sex cell) cell formation. Gametes have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. One duplication; two divisions.

Genetics Gene: a segment on the DNA; trait/characteristic Dominant/recessive Genotype: what genes do you have? Phenotype: physical expression of gene Homozygous: same gene – BB,bb heterozygous: different Bb

Allele – genes Bb Multiple alleles: blood type – A, B, O, AB Sex linked traits: recessive. Boys get because y chromosomes is missing the gene. Girls are usually carriers.

Amniocentesis: removing amniotic fluid to test for genetic diseases.

Asexual reproduction: only 1 parent. Offspring usually like parent. Types: spores (mushrooms, moss, fungi) Budding: growth of new organism off the parent (hydra, yeast) Vegetative propagation: growth from plant cuttings. Binary fission: 1 cell divides in ½ (amoeba, paramecium)

Sexual reproduction: 2 parents. Each donates ½ of the chromosomes needed. Sex cells (gametes) undergo special type of division to reduce the chromosome number – meiosis. Meiosis: sex cells are haploid (1/2 the chromosome number). Human: sex cell has 23 chromosomes. Body cells have 46 chromosomes (2 pairs) – diploid.

Fertilization: egg (ovum) and sperm (spermatozoon) (gametes) unite. Zygote: fertilized egg.

Taxonomy: classifying Dichotomous key: used to identify, classify. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genius, species.

Producers: make own food. Plants, algae Consumers: eat other organisms. Animals Decomposers: break down dead, decaying organisms. Fungi, bacteria

Kingdom Monera – Prokaryotic –no nucleus, DNA is just floating free in cell Bacteria, Decomposers. Helpful: nitrogen fixing, digestion, yogurt, cheese Harmful: spoil food, cause diseases, Respond to antibiotics – hopefully. Aerobes: use oxygen for respiration. Anaerobes: do not use oxygen for respiration.

Viruses: all harmful. Said to be nonliving. Must use a host cell’s DNA to replicate. Cold pneumonia, polio, rabies, chicken pox, flu, measles, HIV Vaccine: contains weakened or dead virus. Put into body so we can build antibodies to fight disease.

Kingdom Protista: Eukaryotic Algae, Euglena, paramecium, amoeba, plankton, diatoms One celled. Reproduce asexually or sexually Some have chlorophyll. Kingdom Fungi: Eukaryotic Mushrooms, mold Some feed on dead thing – saprophytes. Kingdom Plantae: Gymnosperms and Angiosperm Plants: Angiosperm: flowering plants Flower: reproductive part of plant. Male- stamen. Parts: anther ( pollen) and filament (stem) Female - pistil . Parts: stigma, style, ovary (has egg). Fruit: ripened ovary Seed: in ovary, embryo Self pollination: plants pollinate themselves. Cross pollination: pollinate from other plants. Insects, wind, water aid in pollination.

Deciduous – lose leaves in winter.

Monocots: one seed leaf (cotyledon), parallel veins, fibrous roots. Dicots: 2 seed leaves (cotyledons), branched or net veins, tap roots Xylem: moves material up and Phloem: moves material down. Gymnosperm: cone bearing plants. Have needles. Pine trees, fir, spruce

Kingdom Anamilia: Invertebrates: without a backbone. Porifera: sponges, asymmetrical Coelenterates (cnidarians): hydra, jellyfish Radial symmetry – no right or left Digestive cavity – one opening, nematocyst – stinging cells Platyhelminthesis: flat worms. Planaria, tapeworms, liver flukes. 3 cell layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm. Hermaphroditic ( both sexes). Most are parasites – live off a living host Nemotoda: round worms. Ascaris, hookworms 2 openings to digestive cavity. Some have muscle system. Annelida: segmented worms. Earthworm, leech. Coelom body cavity. Digestive system of earthworm complex: pharynx, esophagus, crop (storage), gizzard (grinding), Intestine, anus. Circulatory: 5 aortic arches, dorsal and ventral blood vessels Setae – hairs on outside for movement Hermaphroditic. Clitellum for reproduction ( cocoon). Mollusca: mussels, clams, Oysters, sails Soft body. Most have shell 3 body regions: head, visceral mass, foot Mantle: covers visceral mass Radula- tongue like, scrapes food, Open circulatory system Gills Echinoderms: spiny skin. Starfish, sea urchins Radial symmetry, endoskeleton, eyespots, use tube feet to move, can regenerate. Water vascular system – ring canal, radial canal – helps starfish walk.

Arthropoda: jointed feet; All have exoskeleton made of chitin. They must molt. Dorsal heart, ventral nervous system, Class: crustcean. Crayfish, lobster, crabs Have cephalothorax- fused head and thorax. Carapace covers this part. Have gills, open circulatory system, green glands for excretion Class: Insecta. Grasshopper 3 body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. They undergo metamorphosis, trachea for respiration, compound eyes. Complete metamorphosis: egg, larva (does not look like adult), pupa (chrysalis, cocoon, pupa), adult. Incomplete metamorphosis: egg, nymph (looks like adult), adult Insects have compound eyes Grasshoppers have specialized structures for chewing—labrum, upper lip— mandibles, chewing food—labium, lower lip Malpighian tubules, for excretion Tympanum, ear drum Ovipositors on female for laying eggs Some insects are social insects, have division of labor—queen, worker, drone— each has specific job to do for the hive Bees do “waggle dance” that tells other bees where the food is—method of nonverbal communication. Pheromone—chemical given off to attract other insects

Vertebrates—Phylum Chordata—all embryo’s have notochord All have endoskeleton of bone or cartilage, some endothermic or can control own body temp, some ectothermic or can’t control temp Class: Pisces—Fish 3 types 1. Jawless—hagfish (parasitic) 2. Cartilaginous-skeleton made of cartilage-sharks, skates, sting rays 3. Boney fish—all others All fish have 2 chambered hearts, have fins, and a swim bladder, they have 2 part brain cerebellum and medulla oblongata, have good sense of smell, the digestive system has esophagus, stomach and intestines, excretory system—kidney, reproductive system— external fertilization Class Amphibia—Frogs, newts, salamanders—lungs present in adults, moist skin and gills in larva, eggs externally fertilized and laid in water. Bony skeleton, have pelvic girdle—legs attached here. Have 3 chambered heart, excretory system kidney and bladder, respiratory system nares, glottis. Digestive system mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine cloacae (same hole for liquid and solid waste) Class Reptilia—snakes, lizards—dry scaly skin, internal fertilization, amniotic egg (oviparous)with leathery shell, have lungs, are ectothermic, some are ovoviviparous—they lay eggs in a pouch and carry eggs around then give birth to live young. Class Aves—lungs, 4 chambered heart, hollow bones, adapted to environment i.e. bills, feet, water birds, flightless birds Class Mammals—produce milk for young, give birth to live young (viviparous) 1. Monotremes—lay eggs 2. Marsupials-carry young in a pouch 3. Placental—have placenta that enables young to develop inside mother, most provide parental care, brain—cerebrum for memory and intelligence, cerebellum controls involuntary activities like breathing and digestion, 4 chambered heart with arteries and veins Embryo implants in uterus and has certain gestation period i.e. human 40 weeks, elephant 2 years, dogs and cats 60 days. Behavior of living things—they respond to stimuli i.e. light, sound, gravity. Plants move toward light called phototropism Tropism-movement toward a stimulus Innate behavior= instinct i.e. blink when something is near your eye Some behaviors are learned i.e. Pavlov trained dogs to salivate when a bell rang by ringing bell and feeding dogs lots of times then he rang the bell and didn’t feed them but they still salivated. Ecology: study of ecosystems—food web, food chain, population (same species), habitat (where they live), biosphere (here things are) Environment made of biotic (living) factors like plants and animals and abiotic (not living) factors such as soil rain rocks. Community-all species that live together such as all animals in the forest Populations- 1species Herbivores-plants, Carnivores-meat, omnivores-both Symbiotic relationships 1. Commensalism- host does not benefit nor is harmed, example barnacles on whales 2. Mutualsism-both organism and host benefit example protozoa living in intestines of termite 3. Parasitism-the organism benefits and the host is harmed, example fleas on a dog Ecosystems go through a series of changes called succession, starts as a pioneer community; a succession continues until it reaches a climax community-a stable community with no major changes, a few animals establish themselves as dominant Major Biomes 1. Tundra-North and South Poles 2. Tiaga-coniferous forest above 600N Latitude ex, Canada and Alaska, short summers 3. Decidous forest-middle latitudes, summer and winter same length 4. Grassland-middle latitudes mid continent, low rainfall 5. Desert-near equator and mountain ranges VERY LOW rainfall 6. Rain forest-on either side of equator HEAVY rainfall Green house effect—too much CO2 traps sunlight on earth and heats up earth