STANDARDS FOR MANAGEMENT OF THE RECENT
MAMMAL AND BIRD COLLECTIONS
AT TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
by
AMY S. HALTER, B.S.
A THESIS
IN
MUSEUM SCIENCE
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
August, 2001 © 2001 Amy S. Halter ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the members of my graduate committee.
Dr. Robert J. Baker, chair, Dr. R. Richard Monk, co-chair, and Dr. Clyde Jones, for their support and guidance throughout my graduate career. Without their encouragement and enthusiasm, I would never have been able to complete this master's thesis. I thank Dr.
Baker for his ideas and review of this thesis and for funding trips to museums similar to the NSRL to survey their collection management practices in preparation for writing this
thesis. I especially thank Dr. Richard Monk for sharing with me his knowledge of
collection management and museums, for his constant encouragement, and for his
reviews of various drafts of this thesis. I thank Dr. Clyde Jones for sharing with me his
extensive knowledge of museums and the natural sciences.
I also wish to acknowledge the Curators and Collection Managers at the
collections I visited who took the time to meet with me, answer my questions, and allow
me to tour their collections. They are: Steve Cardiff, Donna Cardiff, and Mark Hafner of
Louisiana State University; Thorvald Holmes, Jr. of the University of Kansas; Bill
Gannon and Terry Yates of the University of New Mexico; Janet Braun of the University
of Oklahoma; Robert Dowler and Marcia Revelez of Angelo State University; Fred
Stangl of Midwestem State University; and George Baumgardner of Texas A&M
University. Many of these collections had written procedural manuals that were
invaluable in the design of this thesis.
I appreciate the support and advice I have received from my colleagues and
friends in the Museum and the Department of Biological Sciences. I especially wish to
11 thank Britney Hager, April Bates, Jessica Carrillo, Jacqueline Chavez, Marcia Revelez,
Raegan King, Darin Carroll, and Melinda Clary.
I thank my parents. Jack and Anne Halter, for their encouragement and endless patience. This truly would not have been possible without their support.
ill TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS n
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vn
CHAPTER
L INTRODUCTION 1
IL PROCESSING NEW ACQUISITIONS 3
IIL SPECIMEN PREPARATION 12
IV. ACCESSIONING 17
V. CATALOGING 21
VL OSTEOLOGICAL PREPARATION 29
VIL FINAL PROCESSING AND INSTALLATION 38
VIIL FLUID-PRESERVED COLLECTIONS 45
IX. DATA VERIFICATION AND DATA STANDARDS 55
X. CURATION 58
XL LOAN POLICY AND PROCEDURES 63
XII. TISSUE SAMPLES FROM A COLLECTION'S PERSPECTIVE 74
Xm. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 78
XIV. COLLECTION MANAGEMENT 90
XV. CONCLUSION 100
LITERATURE CITED 103
IV APPENDIX
A. GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING TISSUES 108
B. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING TK SHEETS 110
C. SOURCES 113 LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Types of Preparation for Mammal and Bird Specimens 15
C.l Storage 113
C.2 Chemicals 115
C.3 Preparation and Loan Supplies 116
C.4 Documentation Media 117
VI LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 TKPage 4
2.2 Field Trip Summary 5
2.3 Incoming Specimens Pinned to Boards in a Drying Box 7
2.4 Incoming Skins in Drying Hood 7
3.1 Correct Placement of Skin Tags For Bird Specimens 16
4.1 Accession Card 19
5.1 Bar Code Voucher Tag 23
5.2 Handwritten Skin Tag and Computer-Generated Skin Tag Label 26
6.1 Layering of Containers, Cardboard, and Cotton in the Dermestid Colony 32
6.2 Aspirator 36
7.1 Arrangement of Specimens in Drawers 40
7.2 Large Skeletal Material on Open Shelving 43
8.1 Standard Sizes of Glass Jars and Stainless Steel Tank For
Fluid-Preserved Collections 47
8.2 Storage of Jars of Fluid-Preserved Specimens 50
11.1 Outgoing Loan Contract 66
13.1 Specimen Cases Placed on Metal Risers 83
14.1 Diagram Illustrating the Interaction of Biological, Chemical, and Mechanical Damage 91
VII CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Museums serve an important function in society. They have existed in one form or another since the Classical Age. In the modem sense a museum's primary function is
education. This is accomplished through collection-based research and public
exhibitions. A society that does not support museums finds itself with weakened historic,
artistic, and scientific foundations.
Biological, or systematics, collections serve as the foundation for much scientific
research (Baker, 1994; Baker et al, 1998; Parker et al., 1998; WUson, 1992; Yates,
1987). Examples of research areas that rely on systematics collections include
biodiversity, taxonomy, systematics, phylogenetics, morphometries, and ecology. Other
disciplines that benefit from collections of specimens include genetic and molecular
research, toxicology, biological informatics, epidemiology, and resource conservation.
Systematics collections can be considered in the same light as research libraries. The
specimens contain a wealth of information that is available to users of the collection.
Scientists, using a variety of methods, can "read" this information from the specimens.
Systematics collections include both geographic and temporal components. They
document the Earth's biodiversity not only geographically, but also over the period of
time that the collection has existed. In other words, a scientist can use the collection to
determine not only where species exist today (and their characteristics) but also the same
kinds of information firom the past. Because of the scientific value and applicability of systematics collections it is crucial that they receive the best possible care. In order to be effective, collection management procedures must be consistent and materials used in the collection must be of archival quality and approved for such use. The best way to ensure this is to have a written collection management policy that describes the institution's overall responsibility to its collections and written collection management procedures for each individual collection (Recent vertebrates. Recent invertebrates, paleontology, etc.).
Based on personal visits to several systematic mammal collections, experience in the Recent mammal collection at the Natural Science Research Laboratory of the
Museum of Texas Tech University, and review of the written procedures manuals of similar collections, written collection management procedures have been developed.
These include detailed descriptions of nearly all activities associated with the collection as well as indicating materials approved for use within the collection. Recommendations also have been made conceming methods of improving collection care such as integrated pest management. The remainder of this thesis contains these procedures. Other topics
(such as disaster response) were not included because they are better dealt with on an institutional basis.
While the details of collection management may differ between institutions, the overall concems remain constant. Every institution should develop its own collection management policy and procedures statements. However, the ability of institutions to examine the policy and procedures statements from other museums will ultimately result in better long-term collection care. CHAPTER II
PROCESSESTG NEW ACQUISITIONS
As stated in its Acquisition Policy, the Museum of Texas Tech University reserves the right to refuse acceptance of any materials that do not meet the requirements set forth by the museum. These reasons include, but are not limited to: substandard quality of specimens or data; specimens acquired through illegal means; or specimens that are not relevant to the mission statement or scope of the museum's collections.
The NSRL acquires specimens through several sources. The majority of specimens are collected through active field work done by biologists associated with
Texas Tech University. Specimens may be transferred to the NSRL from other collections or donated by private collectors. In addition, specimens may be held in trust for federal and state agencies.
Incoming material is accompanied by the collectors' field notes, completed TK pages (Figure 2.1), and other related materials (images, permits, etc.). It is the responsibility of the trip leader to collect all field notes, etc. and to provide these to the collection manager, who then completes the Field Trip Summary. The Field Trip
Summary includes the name, date, and collecting localities of the trip, as well as the number of specimens collected, range of TK numbers used, and names of the collectors
(Figure 2.2). Blank Field Trip Summary sheets are available at the NSRL. The specimens are not processed until all of the associated data is given to the museum.
Original joumals, field catalogs, and the Field Trip Summary are kept in the NSRL as TK . ^ "-^ _"_ "v^' '•«' SPECIES Uptortycteris CAKr&SOCLC
Country MEK\CO State _OA>CACA_ County. Specific Locality Us Mmas (Locality same as: TK UTM or Lat/Long \ei-wiius-ie24qg,i^ Elevation Collector Rradlt-y tk. oS. Collection Date w .tvtty 2000 Preparator \Ko.xtXo. e^vetcz No. v\'\ Preparation Date i5Jui>) 2.000
VOUCHER: ^ .SkiSkin --' .SkulSkull y Post-cranial Skeleton Alcoholic Other
Museum Collection Catalog Number,
Measurements &o JL 15 fb - 7 = total tall hind foot aar tngut vmght .Male •* Female Reproductive Condition
TISSUE: Heart/Kidney »^ Lung _Reproductive Organs [Heart ^ Spleen _Entire Specimen .Kidney Brain .Lysis Buffer •• Liver v/^ Blood Alcohol ^ Muscle Embryo 'other
OTHER PREPARATIONS: Mitotic Meiotic Tissue Culture .Sperm .Karyotype "other
MISCELLANEOUS: Age: Juvenile Subadult Adult Molting: Yes No Broken Tail: Yes No
Special Numbers ACUC Number
Comments P'td whm comina ouJ" of -H^g. KCP i Kgpt on '\UJ
^<-^^<;rg• fi-f^i
Please fill out form completely. Items in bold are mandatory fields.
Figure 2.1. TK Page. Original size of page was 158 by 241 millimeters. Mandatory data fields are labeled with bold type. Accession No: Date Assigned: FIELD TRIP SUMMARY
Name of Trip
Dates: Beginning Ending
Collecting Localities (country, state, county, and UTM coordinates):
Namber of Specimens Collected Skins, skslls and skeletons: Skins and sknlls: Skall and skeleton only: Fluid-preserved: Chben Tissues (How many? What were the standard tissues taken?)
Range of TK Numbers Used
Field Crew (First name, M.L, Last name) Personal Catalog Numbers Used (Indicate leader of trip) (Give range)
TK Books Received Ready To Process (Collector's Initials) . Field Notes Received Entered In Wildcat (By whom? Date?) All Specimens Received. CaUh>ged (By whom? Date?)
Figure 2.2. Field Trip Summary. Original size of page was 215 by 290 millimeters. permanent documentation of collected specimens. The collector is given a copy of the field notes. Deed of gift forms are completed for specimens that are donated to the collection from outside sources.
Incoming Study Skins from the Field
Specimens coming from the field are a prime source of potential insect infestation in the collection and are immediately processed upon arrival at the museum to prevent infesting the collection.
1. Incoming skins from the field usually arrive at the museum in large wooden boxes specially designed and built to protect skins while they dry (Figure 2.3). The skins are pinned to drying boards stacked inside each box. The pinning boards of skins are removed from the boxes. Every layer of drying boards in the boxes is checked to ensure that no specimens are overlooked. The skins are inspected for evidence of insect infestation. Live insects, such as maggots, larvae, pupae, or beetles, are removed from the specimens. Infested skins are sealed in a plastic bag and immediately placed in the collection's quarantine freezer (-20°C) for two weeks.
2. If the incoming skins are not dry, the pinning boards are placed in the drying hoods in the prep room (Figure 2.4). While in the drying hoods, the specimens are inspected on a daily basis for signs of infestation. Live insects are removed and the effected skin(s) are frozen (as above).
3. Once dry, the skins are careftiUy unpinned from the drying boards. Skins can easily be damaged during this process so each foot is firmly held against the board as the pins are removed from them to prevent legs from being damaged or tom off Unpinned
6 Figure 2.3. Incoming Specimens Pinned to Boards in a Drying Box.
Figure 2.4. Incoming Skins in Drying Hood skins are placed in pasteboard specimen trays. Skins are arranged sequentially by TK number within taxa if possible. If room is available in the freezer, it is preferable that the skins be fi-ozen for two weeks in the quarantine freezer to ensure that no insects are present.
4. The trays of skins are placed into a specimen case reserved for incoming material. Each drawer and the outer door of the case are labeled with the name and date of the collecting trip and collector's name, faciUtating access to the specimens.
Incoming Skeletal Material from the Field
Incoming skeletal material from the field often arrives at the museum infested with insects. Therefore, the NSRL's pohcy is for all skeletal material to be immediately firozen to prevent infestation of the collection.
1. Incoming skeletal material is sealed in a plastic bag and frozen for two weeks in the quarantine freezer.
2. After the material has been removed from the freezer, it is placed in a drying hood in the prep room to dry. The skeletal material is placed in the wire baskets in the drying hood. Skeletal material from each collecting trip is kept separate from that of other trips. A label identifying the name of the collecting trip is maintained with each group.
3. Once it has dried, the skeletal material is placed in the wooden holding cases outside the dermestid colony room. Trays and drawers are labeled with the name of the collecting trip.
8 Incoming Fluid-Preserved Specimens
Fluid-preserved specimens may arrive at the museum in various stages of preparation. Processing of incoming specimens follows the outline below, according to the stage of preparation of the specimens.
1. Incoming specimens are removed from their plastic bags and cheesecloth wrapping. Specimens are placed into an appropriate sized glass jar. Specimens are grouped in jars by taxon, if desired. Specimens that have been fixed in 10% formalin are immersed in distilled water for 24-48 hours. Rinsing is necessary to wash out the formalin and to prevent the formation of a precipitate when the specimens are placed in alcohol. A label is taped to the outside of the jar indicating the name of the trip and the taxa contained in the jar.
2. Once the specimens have been "washed," they are soaked in increasing percentages of ethanol (i.e., 35%, 50%, and 70%). This removes any remaining formalin from the specimens and also protects the structure of the tissue for future studies by gradually introducing the specimens to the storage strength alcohol solution. Stock solutions of alcohol may be reused, but are tested frequently to assure purity and concentration. "Washed" specimens are placed in 35% ethanol for one week.
3. Specimens are removed from the 35% ethanol and placed into 50% ethanol for one week.
4. Specimens are removed from the 50% ethanol and are placed into 70% ethanol for one week. Specimens are placed in fresh 70%> ethanol after this step to ensure proper concentration for storage. 5. Jars of incoming fluid-preserved specimens are stored in the metal cabinets in the preparation room until they are cataloged and installed.
Frozen Specimens
Occasionally, the museum will receive frozen specimens to be prepared at a later
date. These are sealed in a clear, plastic bag along with a completed freezer slip. The
bag is placed in one of the freezers designated for incoming specimens according to
taxon, i.e., at present, two freezers contain mammals and one freezer contains birds. The
freezers are used for temporary storage. Research quality specimens are to be prepared
within a reasonable period of time, and no specimen should remain fi'ozen for more than
three months in order to prevent freezer bum and tissue degradation.
Transferred Material and Other Incoming Material
This category refers to incoming materials that have already been processed, i.e.,
skins dried, skeletal material cleaned, skins and skeletal material matched up, etc. Upon
arrival at the museum these specimens are unpacked. If applicable, the inventory is
checked and the sender is notified of the state of arrival of the material. The specimens
are sealed in a plastic bag and frozen for two weeks to ensure that no insect pests are
present. The specimens are then placed in one of the incoming specimen cases. The
drawer(s) and outer door of the case are labeled in a manner that allows the specimens to
be easily located. Accompanying paperwork, such as copies of collecting pemiits, import
permits, field notes, etc., is placed in the appropriate file.
10 Resources for Molecular Analysis
The value of scientific specimens is increased tremendously by archiving resources that can be used for molecular analysis. Originally, these collections consisted primarily of frozen tissues (heart, liver, and kidney) samples. Today, these tissues are considered minimal and often other samples such as spleen, brain, skeletal muscle, bone, lung, etc. are also preserved. Additionally, the means of preservation has also expanded to include ethanol and lysis buffer preserved materials and freeze dried samples. The availabihty of these types of materials enhances the value of a specimen and the types of studies that can be done. The NSRL, in addition to the Department of Biological
Sciences at Texas Tech University, maintains a collection of frozen tissues, as well as material in lysis buffer (Longmire et al., 1997), cell buttons, and DNA and dry skin samples. Incoming material for the Molecular Resources Collection, formerly the Frozen or Vital Tissues Collection, are processed in a different manner than that of voucher specimens. Those procedures are beyond the scope of this thesis. It is planned that standards for the management of the Molecular Resources Collection will be written at a later date.
11 CHAPTER III
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Specimens are brought into the museum in various stages of preparation.
Incoming specimens usually have been prepared as study skins and are pinned to drying boards and the associated skeletal material is unprocessed. Fluid-preserved specimens commonly arrive in 10% formalin. Occasionally, unprepared specimens are given to the museum. These may consist of live, freshly killed, or frozen animals. It is important that museum personnel be familiar with preparation techniques of vertebrate specimens so that these unprepared specimens can be properly processed.
Specimens are prepared according to the procedures outlined by Hall (1962).
Tissue samples are collected from all animals following "Guidelines for Collecting
Tissues" (Appendix A). A TK sheet must be completely filled out for each specimen following "Instructions for Completing TK Sheets" (Appendix B). Each specimen is accompanied by complete field notes, including a field journal and a preparator's catalog, prepared according to Hall (1962). Specimen tags are securely tied to all parts of the specimen. In our museum, bar coded specimen tags are used for mammal specimens.
Bar coded tags eventually will be used for bird specimens as well, but traditional skin and skull tags currently are used. The skin tag of mammals and birds includes basic information about the specimen such as collector, preparator's name and field number,
TK number, sex of the specimen, exact locality data, date of collection, date of preparation (if different), as well as biological data (measurements, weight, reproductive condition, etc.). The TK page may serve as the primary data source for mammal
12 specimens. In this case, it is unnecessary to write the data on the skin tag. It is important that the TK page be completely filled out with the required information (bold fields on
TK sheet, see Figure 2.1, p. 4). Once the specimens have been cataloged, a label in the
format of a traditional, handwritten skin tag will be generated from the database and
adhered to the bar code skin tag of each specimen (Monk, 1998). The value of a
specimen depends greatly on the completeness and accuracy of the data on the label. A
skull tag is securely tied to skeletal material. The skull tag includes the initials and prep
number of the preparator, the sex of the specimen, and TK number, all written on one
side of the tag. When a bar code tag is used, these data are written on the back of the tag.
Several departures from Hall (1962) should be noted. To ensure the long-term
stability of specimens, a polyester blend is used in the place of cotton for preparing study
skins. The acidic nature of cotton may lead to the deterioration of skins. Similarly,
commeal is used in the place of sawdust to absorb body fluids during the preparation of
specimens. Sawdust is a wood product. Wood is known to exude volatile acids, which
can damage specimens (Hawks, 1990). Hall (1962) recommends soaking skulls in water
to loosen brain matter. However, the brain does not need to be removed from small
skulls. Furthermore, soaking skulls in water may affect the long-term stability of bone
and teeth due to the hygroscopic and anisotropic nature of bone (Lafontaine and Wood,
1982; WiUiams, 1991 and 1992; Williams and Hawks, 1992; WiUiams et al., 1993).
Williams et al. (1993) show that changes in relative humidity do result in dimensional
changes of skulls. However, these changes were found not to be significant and should
not affect univariate analyses. Further studies were recommended by the authors to
determine if these dimensional changes may affect multivariate analyses. Finally,
13 locality descriptions are written beginning with the most general location and ending with the most specific locality: country, state, county, and specific locality. Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates also are recorded for each collecting locality.
Latitude and longitude coordinates are acceptable.
Preparation of Mammal Specimens
Mammal specimens may be prepared as skin, skull, and skeleton; skin and skull;
skull only; skull and skeleton only; post-cranial skeleton only; fluid-preserved; or tanned
skin (Table 3.1). The most preferred preparation is skin, skull, and skeleton or fluid-
preserved. All mammal specimens are labeled with bar code tags. For mammals, the
reproductive condition of the specimen, such as number and size of embryos or testes, are
recorded on the skin label and TK page. In addition, standard external measurements
(total length, tail length, hind foot length, ear length, and weight in grams) are recorded.
The tag is tied to the right hind leg above the heel of the specimen. The skin tag of bat
specimens is tied at the right knee to avoid damaging the calcar of delicate specimens.
14 Table 3.1 Types of Preparation for Mammal and Bird Specimens (Monk, 1998).
CODE PREPARATION SKIN SKULL SKELETON ALCOHOL
SO SKIN ONLY X
SK SKULL ONLY X
BS BODY SKELETON X
SN COMPLETE SKELETON X X
ss SKIN AND SKULL X X
SB SKIN, COMPLETE SKELETON X X X
KB SKIN AND BODY SKELETON X X
AL ALCOHOL PRESERVED X
SA ALCOHOLIC AND SKULL X X
Preparation of Bird Specimens
Bird specimens can be prepared as skin only; skin and post-cranial skeleton; skull
only; skull and skeleton only; or fluid-preserved specimens. The most preferred
preparations are skin and post-cranial skeleton (KB) or skin only (SO). All bird
specimens are labeled with traditional, non-bar code skin and skull tags. For birds, the
skin tag includes color of soft parts, degree of skull ossification, reproductive condition
(gonad measurements and other information), and the amount of body fat. Specimen legs
are usually crossed and tied. The most stable position for the skin tag to be tied is around
both legs at the point where the legs cross (Cato, 1986) (see Figure 3.1).
15 Figure 3.1. Correct Placement of Skin Tags For Bird Specimens.
16 CHAPTER IV
ACCESSIONING
Accessioning is the process, initiated after transfer of clear title, that officially incorporates objects into the permanent collections of the Museum of Texas Tech
University, or the registration of objects held-in-trust for federal and state agencies
(Museum of TTU Collection Management Policy). Accessioning provides an inventory of objects owned or held-in-trust by the Museum. Accession numbers denote Museum ownership and are an inventory control device for the Registrar. This process references records, permits, legal documents, and all other scientific materials associated with the specimens.
Unlike cataloging, which is object/specimen oriented, accessioning is collection oriented. For the NSRL, an accession consists of specimens of all vertebrate groups collected by a single field party or each donation by an individual or institution.
Therefore, an accession may represent a single specimen or a group of specimens acquired from a single source and may include specimens destined for different collections (mammals and molecular resources; mammals and invertebrate parasites).
Incoming groups of specimens should be assigned an accession number as soon as possible after they arrive at the museum.
Museum policy states that specimens are accessioned as a prerequisite to the cataloging process. The NSRL follows this poHcy. When a group of specimens comes into the museum, it should immediately be assigned an accession number. This creates a problem when a collection that will eventually be divided between the NSRL and another
17 institution is deposited at the museum. Because the accessioning process results in legal ownership, specimens destined for another institution should not be accessioned by the
NSRL. In this case, an accession number is assigned to the group, but the actual accession is not finalized until the collection has been divided. Only the specimens kept
at the NSRL are accessioned. A reference indicating that specimens of the group were
sent to another institution is included in the accession record.
The accession process begins when the NSRL requests that the Registrar assigns
an accession number to a group of specimens. This request is made when the Field Trip
Summary has been completed (see Figure 2.2, p. 5). Once an accession number has been
assigned, the specimens from the accession are cataloged into the main database (using
Wildcat III and/or WildCat I). When the specimens are cataloged, the accession number
is included with each record. A summary of the accession is printed from the database.
This is used to fill out an accession card worksheet that is sent to the Registrar. The
Registrar uses the detailed information from the accession worksheet to complete the
accession record and then generates three copies of the accession card (see Figure 4.1).
One copy is filed in the Registrar's main Accession File, one is filed in the NSRL's
Accession File, and the third is filed in the Museum vault. The Registrar keeps copies of
the collecting permits, import permits, and all correspondence conceming the accession
in the main Accession File.
The following are guidelines for filling out the accession card worksheet. Under
"Description of Objects/Specimens" the number of specimens, a general identification of
the specimens (mammals, birds, rodents, bats, Peromyscus, etc.), and types of
preparations (skins, skulls, skeletons, fluid-preserved specimens, frozen tissues) are
18 -o 5 a O c « c u o o (0 « U U <
(0 o ^ o > ^ -= a. O CO J- CO o « tl H c OB *^ a < «: 5 E
3
3 3 2 X u a o o oI o 111 CO o (U O M O I E 3 o
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19 listed. The name and address of the donor of the acquisition is included. This may or may not be the same person as the collector. All correspondence and documentation associated with the acquisition is listed, such as field notes and collecting permits. A general locality for the acquisition is recorded, such as "TEXAS: Kerr, Kimble, Mason,
Menard, and Real Counties," or "MEXICO: DURANGO AND JALISCO." All collections that will house the specimens, such as Mammals, Birds, or Molecular
Resources, are recorded under "Permanent Location."
20 CHAPTER V
CATALOGING
Each collection in the NSRL (mammals and birds) has its own set of catalogs and numbering system. To distinguish between each catalog series, each collection has an
identifier included in the catalog number. The collection acronym (TTU) and the
identifier should precede the actual number itself, i.e., "TTU-M-" for mammals and
"TTU-0-" for birds (Museum of TTU Collection Management Pohcy). The format of
the catalogs is numerical. Traditionally, handwritten ledgers have been used to record the
catalog data for each collection. However, beginning in 1997 (Feb 14), the mammal
collection has been cataloged electronically instead of using the hand-written ledgers.
One main difference between the two procedures is that in the hand-written ledger, the
catalog number is assigned immediately and should be written on the skin and skull tag,
whereas when specimens are electronically cataloged, the catalog number is assigned at a
later time when all the data have been entered and verified (Monk, 1996, 1997). Another
difference is that the computer data entry phase of specimen processing has been moved
from the final step of the cataloging procedure to the beginning (Monk, 1997). An
advantage of electronic cataloging is that the number of errors is reduced because the data
are transcribed fewer times (Monk, 1997).
21 Cataloging Mammal Specimens
Mammal specimens are electronically cataloged via a two-step process. First, a temporary data file is created in WildCat III, a relational database management system
specifically designed in Visual FoxPro® for the NSRL. Catalog data are entered from
the primary data source. The primary data source may be the skin tag or the TK page.
Catalog data can be entered in the field as specimens are prepared (King et al., 2000) or
in-house at the museum (Monk, 1997). The second step is merging the temporary file
with the main database and assigning catalog numbers. Permanent catalog (TTU)
numbers are not assigned until all the specimens have been received at the museum and
the data have been verified.
All mammal specimens are assigned an individual TK, or field, number. This is
necessary because a new record cannot be created in the database for a specimen without
an unique field number. The field number is always written with "TK" preceding the
number to designate it as a TK number. A preprinted bar code voucher tag containing the
specimen's field number is tied to the specimen. The voucher tag is divided into four
parts that include skin, skull, post-cranial skeleton, and alcohol tags (Figure 5.1). The
appropriate portions of the tag are tied to the specimen depending on the specimen
preparation type. The field number is coded into the bar code for each specimen and is
the "permanent" number (primary key value) used to access records in the database. In
addition to the TK number, the bar code has a hidden portion that codes for the
preparation type (i.e., skin, skull, post-cranial skeleton, and alcohol) (Monk, 1998). This
portion of the code is useful for inventory control.
22 Figure 5.1. Bar Code Voucher Tag. Original size of tag was 27 by 184 millimeters.
Source: Monk, R. R. 1998. Bar code use in the mammal collection at the Museum of Texas Tech University. Muscology, Texas Tech University, 8:1-8.
23 Specimens should be arranged in some meaningful order to be entered into the database. In the field, it might be useful to enter the specimens numerically by TK number. If catalog data are entered in-house at the museum, it would be useful to arrange the specimens phylogenetically and enter the data following the order given in the
NSRL's Installation Guidelines manual, then alphabetically by locality to county, and numerically by TK number within a county. This facilitates installation into the main collection.
One advantage of electronic cataloging is the volume of data that can be recorded for each specimen. For example, the written ledger catalog contains 17 data fields, whereas the electronic catalog contains 32 data fields plus 18 fields pertaining to molecular resources inventory, as well as a table to capture data in field notes. Some fields in WildCat III that are not included in the traditional written ledgers are UTM or latitude and longitude coordinates, reproductive condition, measurements, and tissue inventory. Although most of these data were available on the skin tags or TK books, they were not accessible in the searchable format of a database; thus, the specimen had to be physically accessed whenever these data were needed. It is important that all the data that exist for each specimen are entered into the database. Data on the specimen tags, as well as in the TK book and field notes are utihzed. Because of the nature of a relational database, it is also important to follow standardized guidelines when entering the data, particularly for specific locality data. To ensure unifomiity of the data, the Data
Standards Guide for WildCat (DSG) (Monk, 1997) are to be followed. The DSG is based on the American Society of Mammalogists' data standards (McLaren et al., 1996).
24 Once the catalog data have been entered and verified, the catalog numbers are assigned by importing the temporary file created in WildCat III to the main database. A printout of the catalog is then made. The format of the printout is similar to that of the traditional written ledgers. The printed data are verified against the data on the skin tag or the TK book, whichever is the primary data source. The catalog number preceded by
"TTU" is written in indelible black ink on the skull tag and on both sides of the skin tag.
If the specimen has more than one skull or skin tag, the catalog number is written on these as well. One application of WildCat allows specimen data, in a fonnat similar to standard museum tags, to be printed on self-adhesive labels from data in the electronic database (Monk, 1998). These stickers are then placed on the reverse side of the bar coded skin tags. Examples of a handwritten skin tag and a computer generated skin tag label are shown in Figure 5.2. A round skull tag bearing the catalog number is tied to fluid-preserved specimens. Bar code tags cannot be used for fluid-preserved specimens because the combination of the alcohol and normal museum use causes the toner to flake off of the tag, rendering the bar code unreadable. The bar codes for fluid-preserved specimens are printed on the jar label.
Once the catalog numbers have been written on the skull tags, the skeletal material is moved to the dermestid colony for cleaning (see Chapter VI). Corrections to the database are made as necessary before the computer-generated skeletal labels, skin tag stickers, and alcohol labels are printed for the newly cataloged specimens. Labels for the fluid-preserved specimens are placed in the jars. Once labeled, the fluid-preserved specimens are installed into the collection. Study skins are held in the incoming specimen cases until the skeletal material has been cleaned, numbered, labeled, and
25 TTU 77023 TK 77544 SIGMODON HISPDUS
ROBERTS. K J 165 (XH.LECTOR1 ROBERTS. K J 2&July1«d7
UNITED STATES: TEXAS: BRISCOE CO. CAPROOK CANYONS SP 297-114-32-188135 MatetE&=BX7
&:': A^na y.W WHgegWjWTTHTi^ ' "^. Figure 5.2. Handwritten Skin Tag and Computer-Generated Skin Tag Label. Original size of handwritten skin tag was 90 by 19 millimeters. Original size of computer generated skin tag was 87 by 27 millimeters. 26 matched with the skins. At that time, the specimens are installed in the collection (see Chapter VIII). Cataloging Bird Specimens The bird collection is cataloged in the traditional, written, ledger catalogs. In the near future, the bird collection will also be cataloged electronically. Birds are cataloged in the Omithology catalog. The same general procedures used for cataloging mammals above are followed. Catalog numbers are assigned to individual specimens, not lots. Bar code tags are not used for bird specimens at present. Instead, the traditional skin tags and round skull tags are used. Eventually bar code tags will be used for bird specimens. A TK, or field, number is assigned to all specimens even if tissue samples are not taken. The specimens to be cataloged are arranged phylogenetically, then alphabetically by locality to county, and numerically by TK number within a county. The data on the skin tag are verified with the data in the TK book and field notes. Any discrepancies are resolved before the specimen is cataloged. For the bird collection, catalog data are entered into the ledger using indelible black ink. Catalog numbers are written, preceded by "TTU-0-" for bird specimens, on the back of the skull tag and on both sides of the skin tag using permanent waterproof black ink. The binomial or trinomial identification is written in pencil on the skin tag. A new skull tag with the catalog number is tied to fluid-preserved specimens. The skeletal material is placed in the dermestid colony for cleaning. 27 Until the other NSRL collections are electronically cataloged, jar labels for fluid- preserved specimens, as well as labels for vials and boxes for skeletal material are created manually. Jar labels are usually typed; skeletal labels generally are hand-written. Catalog data are entered into the electronic database for the omithology collection from the written ledgers. This database is separate from the mammal database. Data entry is a prime source for potential discrepancies between the database and the written catalog, so it is important that the data are entered accurately using accepted data standards. Cataloging Type Specimens A type specimen is the "name-bearer" that represents a designated taxon and as such, requires special attention. Type specimens are cataloged in much the same maimer as other specimens, however types receive special designations in all records. In the written ledger catalogs, holotypes are entered into the ledger in red ink. In the electronic catalog, the type status is recorded in the Comments field. The record can be highlighted when the catalog pages are printed out to designate it as a type specimen. A red skin tag is tied to the skin to indicate the type specimen's status. Type specimens are also identified as such on the accession card. Type specimens are stored in a dedicated case, separate from the main collection. 28 CHAPTER VI OSTEOLOGICAL PREPARATION After cataloging, the skeletal material is cleaned before it is installed into the collection. This involves several different stages of processing. The first stage uses dermestid beetles to remove the dried tissue from the bones. Next, the skeletal material is hand-cleaned and numbered with the appropriate catalog number. Finally, the skeletal material is matched with the appropriate skin. This entire process is done with great care to avoid introducing any errors into the collection. Common problems to avoid are unidentifiable specimens due to lost or damaged tags, missing or misplaced bones, and insect infestations due to inadequately cleaned specimens. The skeletal material from a collecting trip is always labeled and grouped together during each stage of processing. This facilitates correcting any errors that may occur, such as matching a detached skull tag with the appropriate specimen. This also makes it easier to locate a particular specimen if needed. The Dermestid Colony Dermestid beetles are used to clean skulls and skeletons because under controlled conditions they efficiently remove dried flesh from delicate skeletal material without damaging the bone. The dermestid colony is contained in glass aquaria with tight fitting lids and a large, closed wooden box for larger specimens. A high level of maintenance is required in the management of the dermestid colony to prevent infestations of the 29 collection due to escaped colony insects. Dermestid beetles will eat and rapidly destroy study skins in the collection. The life cycle in an active dermestid colony is as follows: females lay four to five eggs per day for about 100 days; eggs hatch in three to seven days; larvae pass through eight instars in about 30 days; the dormant period is seven days; and adults start to lay eggs five days after emerging (Schmidly et al., 1985). Larvae feed more than adults. New dermestids are periodically added to the colony to ensure high heterozygosity and active reproduction. Dermestid beetles are easily collected from road kills and other carcasses found in the open. Dermestids also may be collected in active bat caves and purchased from biological supply houses. The optimum temperature level for the room housing the dermestid colony is between 27° and 29° C (80°- 85° F). A heater in the bug room helps maintain the temperature in the appropriate range. The relative humidity level in the room is kept as high as possible. Bi-weekly spraying of the aquariums with water from a spray bottle helps maintain a higher relative humidity. The lights in the bug room are tumed off while the room is not in use by collection personnel. A heated metal panel around the irmer doorframe of the bug room helps to contain any crawling dermestids in the room (Williams, 1995). Dermestids loose in the bug room are swept up and retumed to the aquaria. Cataloged skeletal material is placed by collecting trip into the bug room. Skeletal material is dried before being placed in the bug colony. Moist specimens will grow mold and mildew which are toxic to the dermestid colony. These moldy specimens will require special treatment to remove the mold growth. Individual specimens are 30 placed in separate containers or compartments to prevent mixing of specimens. Small specimens are placed in egg cartons. Shallow paper cups, trays, and styrofoam "burger" containers are also useful for this purpose. Parts of specimens or skull tags should not overlap other containers or compartments. A single layer of these containers is placed in each aquarium, followed by a sheet of cardboard and a layer of cotton. The dermestid beetles use the cardboard and cotton for breeding, egg-laying, and molting. It is important that the cotton not touch the skeletal material because small bones can become attached to the cotton. Each layer is repeated until the aquarium is full (Figure 6.1). The highest point of the top layer should be about two inches lower than the lid of the aquarium. This will make it more unlikely for any dermestids to escape from the aquarium. Also, a one-inch wide strip of Vaseline® around the inner rim of the aquarium will help keep the dermestids from escaping the aquarium. The arrangement of skeletal material in the wooden bug box is not as stmctured as that in the smaller aquariums. The bug box is primarily used for larger specimens that do not fit in the aquariums. However, the same general procedures are used in the large box. Individual specimens are placed in some kind of tray or container that will isolate them from neighboring specimens. These trays can be stacked on one another, but care is taken to ensure that the stacks are balanced and stable. The specimens are labeled with the name of their collecting trip. The colony is checked several times a week to ensure that skull tags are not being eaten or specimens damaged. It is important to keep the dermestid colony well-fed to reduce the frequency of bugs escaping fi'om the aquariums. The time required for an active dermestid colony to clean skeletal material varies. Small skeletons can be cleaned 31 Figure 6.1. Layering of Containers, Cardboard, and Cotton in the Dermestid Colony. 32 in as little as 24 hours. However, one week to a month is more common. Larger material may take longer to clean. Cleaned specimens are removed from the colony and placed in a glass jar or sealed in a small plastic bag. Baby food jars are used for smaller specimens. Care is taken to collect all loose bones that might be hidden in the bug frass, as well as to ensure that the skull tag is with the specimen. Throughout this stage, specimens remain grouped and labeled by collecting trip. The skeletal material is frozen to kill any remaining dermestids before the next stage of processing. The jars of skeletal material are placed in a plastic bag and frozen for two weeks. The cotton and cardboard in the aquariums can be re-used, if desired. These often contain dermestids and should be shaken out into an aquarium before they are discarded. Similarly, the containers used to isolate specimens in the bug colony also can be re-used. A layer of bug frass should remain on the bottom of the aquarium. Troubleshooting Dermestids will eat blood-soaked or greasy skull tags. To prevent the dermestids from eating soiled or blood- and tissue-soaked tags, these tags are dipped in 10% formalin. Care is taken to prevent formalin from getting on the specimen. The dermestids will not eat tissue that has been in formalin (see below). The formalin treated tag is allowed to dry for several days before the specimen is placed in the bug colony. Altematively, the skull tag can be inserted into a plastic, screwtop, cryotube. The lid of the tube can be screwed down over the string connecting the tag to the specimen. The skull tag is not removed from the specimen. 33 Dermestids will not eat moldy or mildewed specimens. In fact, a severe mold infestation can kill the colony. Mold can be stopped by applying a small amount of 70% ethanol directly on the moldy tissue. In severe cases, moldy specimens should immediately be removed from the bug colony and frozen for two weeks. Then they are soaked in water, cleaned, and scraped. The skeletons are dried before they are retumed to the colony. Extremely old skeletons may be ignored by the dermestids. To counteract this, the skeletons can be soaked in a beef bouillon solution or melted grease and allowed to dry thoroughly before they are retumed to the colony. Specimens that have been preserved in alcohol or formalin are soaked in distilled water for 24 hours, soaked in a beef bouillon solution or grease, dried, and then placed in the bug colony. Dried, fatty ground beef or a whole, roasted chicken can be placed in the bug colony to increase the activity in a slow colony. This will promote egg laying and will vitalize the colony. This procedure also can be used to maintain the colony when no new specimens are available. Dry dog or cat food can also be used for this purpose. Hand-Cleaning of Osteological Material After skeletal material has been cleaned by the dermestid colony and frozen to kill any remaining insects, it is hand-cleaned to remove bug frass, dead insects, larval skins, and dried tissue. Each specimen is cleaned individually to avoid mismatching bones among specimens. The skull and/or skeleton tag is removed from the specimen by cutting away the string; the tag is kept with the specimen. The string used to wrap the 34 specimen also is removed. Scalpels, scissors, picks, forceps, and dental tools, etc. may be used to remove all remaining flesh from the bones. Special care is taken to prevent damage of the zygomatic arches, scapulae, and other fragile bones during this process. Small skulls and skeletons, such as shrews and bats, are very fragile and susceptible to damage. The skull is removed from the spinal column and any bug frass is removed from the brain cavity. The auditory bullae of larger specimens may need to be cleaned. An aspirator is used to vacuum any foreign material from the specimen (Williams, 1992) (see Figure 6.2). A toothbrush is a useful tool to remove frass from the surface of the bones. Hyoid bones, as well as the atlas and axis, remain with the skull. Greasy or hard-to-clean specimens may be soaked in a 25% ammonia solution for 12 hours, followed by 24 hours of soaking in water (Williams et al., 1977). The length of soaking time depends on the condition and size of the specimen. Each skull tag must remain with the appropriate specimen at all times. Specimens soaking in ammonia are watched carefully. Small bones left too long in ammonia will disintegrate and prolonged exposure of bone to ammonia will weaken bones and loosen teeth. The ammonia solution can be reused two or three times. When a specimen is removed from the liquid, the contents of the jar are poured through a screen to save any loose bones or teeth. Skeletal material is hand-cleaned, as needed. The wet bones are carefully placed on paper towels to dry. Individual specimens are kept separate. Cleaned specimens and associated tag(s) are placed in appropriately sized vials and boxes using the smallest container possible. The container should not be so small that it damages the specimen. When possible, glass vials are preferred over boxes. Larger storage containers require more space in the specimen cases limiting the number 35 3 cm FORCED-AIR SUPPLY Figure 6.2. Aspirator. Debris is filtered out of the air-flow by a fme-mesh screen (A) and accumulated within the aspirator chamber (B). The debris is cleaned out by removing the stopper (C) that supports the suction-tube (D). Source: WiUiams, S. L. 1992. Methods of processing osteological material for research value and long-term stability. Collection Fomm, 8(1): 15-21. 36 of specimens a case can hold. The catalog number is written in pencil on the upper left comer of each box lid to assist in identification until the box label can be generated from the electronic database. Numbering Osteological Material Cleaned skeletal material is numbered with the appropriate catalog number. Osteoscribing is a tedious process that requires the utmost concentration to avoid misnumbering specimens. Indelible black ink is used for this purpose. Rapidograph pens with black India ink are most commonly used. Staedtler marsmagno 2 technical pens also are used for this purpose. The catalog number is written in small numbers on every disarticulated bone or bone that might become disarticulated. The catalog number preceded by "TTU" is written on the cranium, preferably on the parietal bone, when possible. In addition, the sex of the specimen is written on the cranium. The catalog number preceded by "TTU" is written on each half of the mandible. The catalog number is written on all other bones large enough to be numbered. Illegible or incorrect numbers are carefully scraped off with a scalpel and rewritten. While a skeleton is being numbered, any additional tissue and debris that might have been missed during cleaning is removed. Skeletal labels and bar code tags are placed in the vials and on the boxes of numbered specimens. Skeletal labels for mammal specimens are printed from the database. Labels for bird specimens presently are hand-written. The skeletal material is matched with the skins and the complete specimens are installed into the main collection. 37 CHAPTER VII FINAL PROCESSING AND INSTALLATION This step involves incorporating incoming specimens into the NSRL's collections. Misplaced specimens effectively are lost, therefore it is vital that specimens be installed correctly. This section describes the installation procedures for dry skins and skeletal material. The installation of fluid-preserved specimens is discussed in Chapter VIIL Installation of Mammal Specimens Mammal specimens are stored in metal museum cases to protect them from damage caused by environmental agents, such as light, insects, and dust. Wooden cases or cases constructed with wooden components are avoided because wood continuously gives off acidic organic gases (Herholdt, 1990). These gases include formaldehyde, methanol, methyl acetate, peroxides, acetic acid, and formic acid, all of which can cause irreparable chemical damage to specimens (Williams and Hawks, 1992). Specimens are arranged phylogenetically to family following Wilson and Reeder (1993). Within each family, genera are ordered alphabetically, as are species within genera. The arrangement used by the NSRL is listed in the Installation Guidelines manual. Within species, specimens are arranged alphabetically by locality: alphabetically by country of origin, alphabetically by state (or department/province in foreign country) within each country, and alphabetically by county or parish within each U.S. state. Within each county, specimens are arranged numerically by catalog number. Subfamilies and subspecies are 38 not used to determine arrangement within the collection although such information is stored in the electronic database. Specimens are arranged from the top to the bottom of the metal specimen cases. Drawers are lined with ethafoam to protect the specimens from wooden drawers and to reduce vibration and shifting that could damage specimens. Within drawers, specimens are placed in pasteboard trays to protect the specimens. Specimens too large to fit in the pasteboard trays are placed directly on the ethafoam drawer liner. Two sizes of pasteboard trays are used (17 1/8 x 7 3/8 x 11/16 inches and 17 1/8x111/8x11/16 inches). A drawer will hold six of the smaller trays and four of the larger trays. Within a drawer, trays are arranged starting at the left front comer. The second tray is directly behind the first tray. The next row of trays will continue front to back, etc. Arrangement of specimens within trays is dependent upon the size of the specimens. Shorter specimens are placed lengthwise across the width of the tray. Longer specimens may have to be slightly angled towards the rear of the tray. Specimens are placed in a single row along the left side of the tray with noses pointing left so that the skin tags easily can be read from the front of the case (Figure 7.1). Longer specimens are placed lengthwise in the trays with noses pointing towards the front of the case. The identification side of the skin tag is placed face up on the first specimen of each row and on the first specimen of each taxon. Otherwise, the data side of the tag is faced up. Small pasteboard trays holding the vials and boxes of skeletal material are placed in the larger trays with the skins. These keep the vials in place and protect the skins and skeletal material from being damaged by rolling vials. The trays are placed so that they 39 Figure 7.1. Arrangement of Specimens in Drawers. 40 do not damage the specimens. Tails and other weak appendages are properiy supported and not propped on nearby specimens, vials, or boxes. Specimens that have not been identified to species are placed at the end of the genus. All skeletal material is integrated with the skins. Skeletal only material is not placed at the end of each species but is also integrated with the skins. It is important that there is sufficient space between drawers to avoid damaging specimens. Particular attention is paid to ears, tall specimens, and boxes. To avoid damage to specimens when a drawer is opened or closed, no part of a specimen or skeletal box should contact the bottom of the drawer above it. It is easiest to install new specimens into the collection once they have been arranged in the correct order within species following the arrangement given in the Installation Guidelines manual. This facilitates adding the new specimens to the existing collection. A report listing the correct arrangement of each specimen in the collection can be generated from the electronic database and printed to ensure that each specimen is installed in the correct location of the collection. This hst not only facilitates incorporation of new specimens, but also permits verification of presence and order of the other specimens in the collection. Installation of specimens may require a shift of specimens within a tray and possibly surrounding trays to make room for the new specimen(s). It is often necessary to rearrange several drawers of specimens or even several cases to install specimens in the proper order. It is important that the labels on the drawers and cases be updated as their contents change. If a new taxon has been added to the collection, it also is noted on drawer and case labels. 41 Wherever possible, localities are grouped by drawers or trays, depending on the size of the group. For example, one drawer or tray might be reserved for all the specimens of a taxon collected in Mexico. Similarly, all the specimens of a taxon collected in Lubbock County might be held in one drawer or one tray. The grouping of localities is dependent upon the number of specimens in the collection of a particular taxon and the number of specimens of that taxon from a particular country, state, or county. Expansion space for future growth of the collection is left at the end of each county. Space also is left in areas where there is ongoing field work. Additional expansion space is left at the end of each species. Tanned skins are stored in metal fur vault units. The skins are carefully draped over the rods in the cabinets. If space permits, the skin is draped over more than one rod to increase the support given to the skin (Hawks et al., 1984). The arrangement of skins within the fur vaults is a less rigid ordering than that used in the main collection. Taxa are arranged following the order given in the Installation Guidelines manual to species and then arranged numerically by catalog number within species. The skeletal material associated with the tanned skins is stored within the main mammal range or on the shelves in the collection of large skeletal material (see below), as size permits. Skeletal material too large to fit in the mammal range is stored on open shelving (Figure 7.2). One row of shelves is reserved for boxed skeletal material and one row of shelves is reserved for large, unboxed skulls. These are arranged following the order given in the Installation Guidelines to species and then numerically by catalog number within species. In this way, new specimens easily can be added to the end of each taxon. 42 Figure 7.2. Large Skeletal Material on Open Shelving. 43 The shelves housing the skulls are lined with ethafoam to protect specimens from abrasion and slippage. Installation of Bird Specimens Bird specimens are installed in much the same way as mammals. The NSRL uses the arrangement given in Morony et al. (1975). Within species, birds are arranged alphabetically by country, state, and county as in the mammal collection. Within a coimty, bird specimens are arranged numerically by catalog number. Large avian skeletal material is stored in a dedicated specimen case rather than with the skins. Several other specimen cases have been used to house taxidermy mounted birds. As soon as space is available, these will be stored separately from the research collection. Eggs and nests are very fragile and are handled very carefully. Cato (1986) describes the storage requirements of these delicate specimens. Each nest and clutch of eggs should be stored in a box in a cabinet drawer. Egg boxes are lined with cotton so that the eggs do not roll into each other leading to damage of the specimens. Fuller et al. (1995) describe a support system for the storage of nests and Kishinami (1995) describes a padded storage system for eggs. Each box containing eggs or nests is labeled with the catalog number and species name to facilitate location of specimens. Individual eggs are labeled with the permanent catalog number in indelible black ink. 44 CHAPTER VIII FLUID-PRESERVED COLLECTIONS The NSRL has two collections of fluid-preserved specimens: mammalogy and omithology. The collections of herptiles and fishes were transferred to the Memorial Museum at the University of Tex as-Austin in 2001. The NSRL has an extensive mammalogy collection, whereas the omithology collection is much smaller because bird specimens are rarely preserved in alcohol due to the detrimental effect alcohol has on the colors of feathers. The majority of these collections are stored in 70% ethanol or 50% isopropanol. Several small collections of cleared and stained specimens are stored in glycerin. Fluid-preserved collections are a fire hazard. For this reason it is important that the proper authorities be consulted regarding safety standards that apply to the collection. The Fire Marshall and the University's Department of Environmental Health and Safety were involved in the renovations of the NSRL including the room housing the fluid collections and the room in which the bulk alcohol is stored. Fluid-preserved specimens are highly sensitive to surrounding environmental conditions, particularly exposure to light, and require specific storage, installation, and maintenance procedures, including closed storage, to prevent deterioration of the collections. Storage The way in which fluid-preserved collections are prepared and stored has a direct and often permanent impact on the stability of the specimens within the collections. Chemicals and treatments used during preparation can alter the chemical and physical 45 nature of specimens. Formalin, the most common fixative used in the preparation of fluid-preserved specimens, can cause britfleness, decalcification, or clearing of specimens (Simmons, 1995). This is due to the highly acidic nature of formalin. In addition, the type of media in which specimens are stored must preserve specimens with as little change as possible to their physical and chemical nature over an extended period of time. It is also important to note that the type of storage media used can limit the types of analyses that can be performed on specimens. Tap water is never used to dilute fixatives and storage solutions or to rinse specimens. Minerals in tap water will precipitate in the solutions leading to contamination and possible reaction with specimens (Simmons, 1995). In addition, formalin and the chlorine in tap water react to form bis(chloromethyl) ether, a carcinogen dangerous enough to be regulated by the United States Occupational Safety and Health Organization (Herholdt, 1990). Only distilled, purified, or deionized water are used. Storage containers must be able to withstand long-term exposure to preservative fluids without loss of stmctural integrity while maintaining an airtight seal. The manner in which the containers themselves are stored can influence the shelf-life of the containers as well as the specimens within them. The container is the first line of defense against evaporation of preservative fluid. In the NSRL, fluid-preserved specimens are stored in glass jars. Glass is the most stable and long-lived material for the storage of fluid-preserved collections. Standard sizes of jars are used to ensure uniformity within the collection. These are pint (500 ml), quart (1 L), half-gallon (2 L), and gallon (4 L) sized jars (Figure 8.1). Polypropylene lids are used because these do not mst and seem to be resistant to cracking and backing-off In addition, polypropylene lids do not become rigid. This maintains the seal while allowmg 46 Figure 8.1. Standard Sizes of GKass Jars and Stainless Steel Tank For Fluid-Preserved Collections. 47 caps to be removed easily. However, de Moor (1990) recommends that polypropylene and other thermoplastics not be used as seals for jars containing alcohol for long-term storage in museums because they are not totally impervious to organic solvents. The sizes of lid used are: 63mm, 83mm, 89mm, and 110mm. Larger specimens are stored in stainless steel tubs on wooden roUing dollies. It is important to store fluid-preserved specimens in containers that are not compromised by reaction with the preservative fluids. These types of reactions can damage the containers as well as the specimens within them. The fluid-preserved collections at the NSRL are first fixed in a 10% formalin solution. The 10%) formalin solution is made by diluting one part commercial formaldehyde solution (37%) with nine parts water. Formaldehyde easily oxidizes to formic acid, which can destroy specimens. To avoid this, formalin solutions can be buffered or neutralized. Simmons (1995) recommends a mixture of four grams monobasic sodium phosphate monohydrate (NaH2 P04«H20) and six grams of dibasic sodium phosphate anhydrate (Na2HP04) per liter of 10% formalin as the best buffer for formalin solutions. However, Jones and Owen (1987) note that the pH of formalin solutions buffered in this way dropped substantially in a short period of time. Instead, they prefer hexamine (Hexamethylene tetramine) as a neutralizer for formalin solutions. Specimens are placed in the buffered 10% formalin solution for fixation (See Chapter II: Processing New Acquisitions). Traditionally, after fixation specimens are soaked in distilled or deionized water for 24 hours to remove the formalin from the specimens. Specimens are then placed in successive strengths of preservative until the full storage strength is reached, i.e., 35%, 50%, 70% ethanol. However, washing 48 specimens in water might allow enzymatic activity to reoccur. Therefore, a better method might be to place the specimens into increasing concentrations of alcohol to remove formalin from the tissues instead of washing the specimens in water (Jones and Owen, 1987; Simmons, 1991). The fluid-preserved collections at the NSRL are stored in 50% isopropanol or 70% ethanol. It is widely accepted that ethanol is the least hazardous and most suitable preservative for natural history specimens. Therefore, all incoming specimens are stored in ethanol. It has been shown that 40-50% isopropanol has detrimental effects on specimens, de Moor (1990) states that specimens stored in this media become soft, while Jones and Owen (1987) state that similar concentrations of isopropanol tend to make specimens hard and brittle. Regardless of which of these conflicting reports is tme, both conditions are undesirable. Isopropanol has been shown to cause shrinkage of specimens (Simmons, 1995). In addition, specimens stored in isopropanol are not suitable for histological studies, while those stored in ethanol remain useful. Formalin is not recommended for long-term storage of specimens because the acidic nature of formalin can rapidly decalcify bone and other hard tissue (Simmons, 1995). No specimen should be left in formalin for a period longer than 14 days. A small percentage of the NSRL's fluid-preserved collection is stored in fuU- strength glycerin. Glycerin is a common storage medium for cleared and stained specimens. A few crystals of thymol (CIQHMO) added to glycerin prevent mold growth. Because of the dramatically conflicting reports regarding the effects of various preservatives, it is recommended that additional research be done to determine the best method for preserving museum specimens. 49 Figure 8.2. Storage of Jars of Fluid-Preserved Specimens. 50 Jars containing specimens are stored in closed metal cabinets with metal shelves (Figure 8.2). The shelves are lined with ethafoam to cushion any vibrations and to provide a better grip to reduce the risk of jars sliding on the smooth metal surface of the shelves. Fluid-preserved collections are stored in dark conditions to prevent fading of specimens from exposure to ultraviolet light (Jones and Owen, 1987). As in the dry collections, the doors of the cabinets are labeled with a list of the contents of each cabinet. These labels are updated whenever the contents of the cabinets change. Installation The installation procedures used for fluid-preserved collections are similar to those used in the dry collections, with a few necessary differences. Jars in fluid- preserved collections are analogous to trays in dry collections. Specimens of the same taxon and from the same locality are stored in the same jar. New specimens may be added to existing jars in the collection as necessary. The jar label is dried and the new data are added to the label or a new label may be created. Jar labels with bar codes for the mammal collection can be created from the electronic database. These computer- generated labels are placed on the outsides of the jars. Arrangement within the fluid-preserved collection follows the arrangement used for the dry collections. The phylogenetic arrangements used for each vertebrate group are taken from the recent literature as approved by the curators. The arrangement for the mammal collection is listed in the Installation Guidelines manual. Within species, each collection is arranged by locality. Specimens are ordered alphabetically by country, then alphabetically by state within country, and alphabetically by county within state. Jars are 51 arranged numerically by catalog number within a county. Because jars contain more than one specimen, this ordering is not as precise as that followed in the dry collections. Jars sometimes contain specimens collected in more than one country, state, or county. Similarly, it is not always possible to arrange catalog numbers sequentially within a county. However, every effort is made to retain the overall arrangement of the collection. Accessibility and retrievability are the goal. Expansion space for future growth of the collection is left at the end of each species and county. Maintenance It is important for the long-term stability of the specimens that the environment within each jar be stable. This involves careful and routine monitoring of the level and concentration of alcohol and the pH within each jar. Alcohol, a volatile chemical, is highly evaporative; over time, the alcohol in the jars will evaporate. This will lead to a lower volume of the alcohol solution in the jar as well as a lower concentration of alcohol in the alcohol solution. Low volume of alcohol solution can lead to desiccation of the specimens. A weak alcohol solution will create an environment within the jar that is ideal for bacterial and fungal growth that will lead to the decomposition of the specimens. Another factor that must be carefully monitored to prevent irreversible damage of specimens is pH. Specimens are best stored in a neutral pH (7.00) (Jones and Owen, 1987). An acidic pH will decalcify bone and teeth. A basic pH will cause clearing of specimens. Alcohol solutions may become acidified due to breakdown of lipids to fatty acids, from oxidation of trace amounts of formaldehyde to formic acid, or from other contaminants in the alcohol (Simmons, 1995). 52 The fluid-preserved collections are routinely checked for alcohol level and concentration and pH every one to two years to ensure that the specimens are properly preserved. It is important to note that specimens stored in fluid-preservatives are in a dynamic state. Fluid-preservatives act as solvents, leaching lipids and some proteins from the specimens. Eventually, the specimens and preservative in a container reach some kind of equilibrium so that the rate of extraction of components from specimens slows (Simmons, 1995). Placing specimens in fresh preservative or topping off the fluid in a container may dismpt this equilibrium, resulting in further damage to the specimens as more material is extracted from the specimens by the preservative. Consequently, good judgement should be used when the fluid in jars is topped off or replaced. Discoloration of the preservative alone does not warrant a change in fluid. The preservative is replaced if the pH is too high or low, or if the concentration of the preservative is too weak. Any problems found between annual checks of the collection are corrected immediately. If the preservative in a container is low, the type of alcohol used is first determined, i.e., ethanol or isopropanol. Next, an alcohol hydrometer is used to check the concentration of the alcohol solution. If the concentration is found to be low, 95% alcohol is added until the alcohol hydrometer shows the concentration to be within 2% of the desired concentration. To help reduce evaporation of alcohol, jars are filled to the brim to reduce the surface area at which evaporation can take place. The lid and lip of jars are dried before the jars are closed to prevent the creation of a siphon area through which evaporation can occur (de Moor, 1990). It has also been shown that too many specimens in ajar can 53 drastically reduce the concentration of the alcohol solution. To avoid this, a ratio of one part specimen to two or three parts alcohol solution by volume is recommended (Jones and Owen, 1987). The ratio of two to three parts alcohol to one part specimen should not be exceeded. The pH of every jar is measured using pH (litmus) paper. Simmons (1995) recommends that a dispensing electrode be used to test pH. The pH of the alcohol solution should remain between 5.00 and 8.00. Preferably, the pH should be above 6.50. If the pH is found to be at an unacceptable level, the solution is replaced, and the jar labeled and carefully monitored. A badly discolored solution or msting metal lid can be indicative of an acidic solution (Jones and Owen, 1987). However, it is important to note that dangerously acidic conditions can exist in jars that show no visible signs of a problem. The procedures used in the preparation, preservation, and maintenance of the fluid-preserved collections at the NSRL are currently being reviewed in order to provide the best care to the collections. There is much disagreement in the museum community over the best techniques for management of fluid-preserved collections. For example, some publications suggest that fixation of specimens in formalin is unnecessary and may even be harmful to specimens (Simmons, 1991), while others insist that fixation in formalin is imperative to the life and research potential of specimens. The procedures outlined in this chapter may be revised based on the review process. 54 CHAPTER IX DATA VERIFICATION AND DATA STANDARDS The foundation of any systematics collection is the data associated with the specimens. In fact, the scientific value of specimens without complete and accurate data is greatly diminished, if not completely destroyed. Therefore, it is important that the data be fully and correctly recorded for each specimen. Moreover, incorrect data can be more damaging than no data at all. As specimens are collected and prepared, it is the responsibility of collectors to record complete and accurate data for specimens. Collection personnel must maintain the accuracy and completeness of the data. It is the responsibility of the curators to train both collectors and collection personnel to record and maintain data in the proper way. With the advances in database technology and the growing demand and practicality of data sharing among museum collections, data standardization has become increasingly important. Data standardization is important for inter-museum communication as well as for intra-museum activities. It is useful for individual collections to adopt data standards to facilitate communication and networking between collections. Data standardization is equally as useful for internal operations within each individual collection. For example, a standard fomiat for recording collecting locality data reduces redundancy in relational databases and allows for more inclusive and accurate searches of the database. In response to the growing need for data standardization, the American Society of Mammalogists published "Documentation Standards For Automatic Data Processing in 55 Mammalogy" in which a set of standards for database design and content is recommended (McLaren et al., 1996). This publication is to be used as a set of guidelines rather than a rigid formula that all mammal collections must follow. The NSRL's automated data management system, WildCat, was designed, in part, by adapting ASM's standards to the specific needs of the NSRL. The "Mammal Collection Data Standards Guide" (DSG) outlines the standards adopted for WildCat (Monk, 1997). The guide gives a description, proper format, accepted variations, omit conditions, contingency requirements, valid examples, and comments for each data field used in the database. The descriptions of standards for data field content are of particular importance for maintaining data uniformity. The DSG is also available through a help menu in WildCat III to facilitate data entry in the field by ensuring that data are entered following the accepted standards (King et al., 2000). Accuracy of the database is ensured through data verification. Data verification is the procedure of identifying any discrepancies between the data sources, i.e., written data, such as skin tags, TK books, and field notes, and the computer database. Following cataloging, printouts of the computer database are made and checked against the primary data source(s). The database is then corrected as necessary and printouts of the catalog, skull labels, skin labels, TK sheets, and field notes, if present in electronic format, are made from the corrected database. Skull labels are placed in vials or on box lids containing skeletal material. Skin label stickers are placed on the skin tags. The data on the labels are used to install the specimens into the collection. Therefore, it is important that the database be accurate so that the specimens are installed correctly into the collection. 56 Another factor important to maintaining the accuracy and integrity of the database is data protection. The database must be backed up on a routine basis to prevent loss of data due to equipment failure or natural disaster. The backup policy of the NSRL is as follows. The Curator of Collections copies the entire database to CD on the fourth Thursday of every month and gives the CD to the Associate Director for Operations and Programs. The CD is archived off-site in a bank safety deposit box designed for protection of electronic media for one month. The following month, a new backup CD is placed in the safety deposit box and the previous CD is moved to the Museum's vault. The third month, the first CD is retumed to the collection. Data sharing and collection networking raise concems about access to the data. Many collections have made or intend to make collection data publicly available on the Intemet. The NSRL plans to do this as well. The main concern about having collection data on the web is security. Control of the data at the NSRL will be maintained by allowing various levels of access to the data by password (Monk, 1997). A low level of access will be given to those viewing the database without a password. This level might prohibit access to specific locality data. Researchers with approval of the collection's curators will be given a password and allowed greater access to the database (similar to a loan of specimens). In addition to this, data will not be made publicly available tmtil the curators have approved the data from each accession for release. This will protect the interests of those with current research projects. Any data that are made available on-line will be copied to a separate computer with a web server (mirrored). Original data files will not be available on-line. 57 CHAPTER X CURATION The Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections (SPNHC) defines curation as "the process whereby specimens or artifacts are identified and organized according to discipline-specific recommendations using the most recently available scientific literature and expertise; a primary objective of this process is to verify or add to the existing documentation for these objects, and to add to knowledge" (Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, 1994). Because of the organizational regime followed in Recent natural history collections (i.e., taxonomic arrangement), and because of active collection use, maintenance of the collection is an ongoing process. New material regularly is added to the collection and must be processed and installed. This often requires that the collection be shifted to make room for incoming specimens. Over time, as the collection grows and as specimens are accessed, errors are inevitably introduced into the collection. Common problems include misplaced specimens, disassociated skins and skeletal material, and lost specimens. Other problems may include data errors or discrepancies between the data sources, i.e., skin and skull tag, written catalog, and electronic database (Allen et al., submitted). In addition, changes in taxonomy require updating of the arrangement of the collection, as well as updating of specimen tags, collection catalogs, and the electronic database. Curation is the procedure used to identify and correct such problems. The process of curation provides inventory and collection control. Some collections use the term "inventory" when referring to these types of procedures. The term "inventory" imphes that the coUection holdings are only 58 checked for presence or absence. However, much niore is involved in curating a collection than simply taking an inventory. The accuracy of the collection data must be verified. Problems must be identified and resolved. The primary objective of curation is to confirm specimen data, recognize new classification systems by the arrangement of specimens, and assess the status of specimens. Museums are legally responsible for the collections entmsted to their care. For example, the collections of the NSRL are the property of Texas Tech University and are thereby the property of the State of Texas. Therefore, all activities conceming the collection, such as curation, loans, etc., must conform to the responsibilities of legal ownership. The Museum is accountable for the location and condition of each specimen. The data associated with each object or specimen should be complete and accurate. In addition, specimens should be properly housed and readily accessible. To meet these needs, the collection or parts of the collection are curated periodically to find and correct any problems. As mentioned above, curation is useful both for inventory and collection control. Inventory- control is maintained by comparing what should be in the collection to what actually is in the collection, as well as identifying outstanding loans. Curation aids collection control by ensuring that data are correct, by identifying housing problems, and by locating and eliminating insect infestations. Natural history collections require periodic curation of the collection to maintain the integrity of the collection. When changes to scientific names are accepted by the scientific community and by the curators of an institution, rearrangement of specimens in the collection and updating of scientific names in the catalog, computer database, and on specimen tags are necessary. Additionally, visiting researchers who are authorities of a particular taxon may be asked 59 to review the NSRL's current arrangement or classification of that group. That portion of the collection may be curated based on the recommendations of the visiting authority. Also, removal of specimens for examination and movement of drawers can displace specimens, requiring reorganization of the collection. These problems are resolved during the curation process. Curation also is useful for monitoring the status of the specimens within the collection. Each specimen should have an unique catalog number written on the front and back of the skin tag and on one side of the skull tag. Skins and skeletal material should be matched up. Skeletal material should be properly cleaned and numbered and accompanied by a complete skull label. In addition, skeletal material should be stored in standardized containers. Cork stoppers or any other inappropriate material should be replaced. Adequate space should exist between specimens, as well as between drawers. Specimens and skeletal boxes should not mb the drawer above them. Each storage case should contain sufficient space for expansion. Specimens should be in good condition with no evidence of infestation. Data on specimen tags and labels should match that in the written catalog and the database. Changes to the inventory for each specimen are made to the skin tag, written catalog, and database, as necessary. Drawer and case labels are updated to accurately reflect their contents. Storage cases should be in good condition with tight seals around the doors. Curation of a collection is a time-consuming process. The entire collection does not have to be curated at one time. Curation can involve one taxon, such as an order or family, one storage case, or even one drawer. It is important that each instance of curation have a definite objective or purpose. For example, the decision to curate the 60 Chiropterans might be made because that order has not been curated in several years or because of a taxonomic revision. Regardless of the reason for curating a group, each curation project should be well-defined and have an identifiable end-point. Furthermore, an evaluation and report of the project should be made when the project has been completed. The use of bar coded specimen tags can be used to enhance curatorial procedures. Bar codes can be scanned to facilitate taking inventories of the coUection (Monk, 1998). Another application of bar codes that is useful for curating is keeping track of problems within the collection (Fishman-Armstrong, 2000). When a problem is found during curation, the bar code of the specimen can be scanned and the report saved so that the problem can be resolved at a later date. Bar codes also can be scanned to produce drawer and case labels. Previously, these labels were typed by hand. The use of bar codes and a report-writing program allows the computer to generate the tags. All of these bar code applications reduce the time required for the maintenance of a collection. Williams et al. (1996) describe a collection assessment model that allows the condition of Recent vertebrate collections to be quantified so that task management of collection activities can be best assigned. This management tool is designed to assess, describe, and address collection needs. This model was based on work by McGinley (1989). Data conceming seven collection management categories including acquisition, stabilization, registration, processing, curation, storage, and maintenance are collected and entered into a computer spreadsheet. The resulting quantified assessment of the condition of the collection provides a powerful tool for analyzing the condition of the collection, making administrative decisions, and effectively utilizing available resources. 61 This can be used as a tool to indicate what areas of the collection are in most need of curatorial attention, as well as to monitor the condition of previously curated specimens. Curation is an effective method of maintaining (and augmenting) the quality of the collection as a whole. The processes described above focus on individual specimens, but the result is a more valuable collection. 62 CHAPTER XI LOAN POLICY AND PROCEDURES Loans represent an important method of access to the collection by researchers. Loans do not involve transfer of title but are the temporary reassignment of objects from the Museum to another institution (outgoing) or to the Museum (incoming). All loans are for a defined period of time and for a stated purpose. A written loan agreement must accompany every loan with specifications of rights and responsibilities of each party. The NSRL has the right to deny loan requests from individuals or representatives of organizations who propose to use collections in ways that are contrary to the objectives of the NSRL or the Museum of Texas Tech University. Other reasons for denial may include: excessive costs to the NSRL in terms of staff effort, compromised security of the NSRL collections, unauthorized consumptive use of specimens, a history of misuse and mishandling of museum materials at the NSRL or other institutions, or misrepresentation of credentials and affiliations (see Museum and NSRL loan policy). Requests for loans that may negatively affect the research efforts of the Museum faculty or staff may be denied. Loan requests may also be denied or limited due to the size or number of specimens requested, or because of the fragility, rarity, protected status, or uniqueness of the specimen(s). Type specimens are never loaned. In general, loans are limited to fewer than 100 specimens for small specimens, and less for larger specimens. No more than half of the NSRL holdings of a particular taxon are loaned at any one time. When requests are sent in multiple shipments, the second (and subsequent) shipments are sent upon return of the preceding shipment. 63 Researchers wishing to examine a large number of specimens, rare or fragile specimens, or type specimens are encouraged to visit the collection. Loans of protected taxa are governed by the specific regulations of transportation for that particular species and by the regulations in the NSRL's deposition permit regarding that individual specimen. Moreover, the borrower must have a valid permit, when necessary, to receive the specimen on loan. Usually, loans are for a six-month period with an option to renew for a second six-months without having to return the specimens for inventory and evaluation. Longer extensions may be allowed upon the recommendation of the Director of the NSRL. "Third-party loans are prohibited. Any third-party wishing to borrow the objects/specimens on loan must contact the NSRL so that a separate loan contract can be prepared," (Museum of TTU Outgoing Loan Contract). Because loans are made to institutions, not individuals, loaned material is retumed to the NSRL to be reprocessed when a researcher moves to a new institution and wishes to transfer loaned specimens to that institution. Loans must be retumed promptly when the loan period expires. The sender usually pays shipping costs, i.e., the NSRL pays for shipping costs plus insurance to send a loan out. The borrowing institution (in the case of outgoing loans) or the lending institution (in the case of incoming loans) usually pays shipping and insurance costs to ship loans to the NSRL. For international loans, an insurance and commercial value of $0 is declared or the receiver will be taxed for the declared value of the loan as per local import regulations. Other import regulations also may apply. Objects on loan cannot be altered in any way including cleaning, repair, or dissection unless permission to do so is given in writing by the Director of the NSRL. 64 The NSRL must be credited in all publications and exhibitions associated with the loaned specimen(s), including photographs and digital images. The NSRL should receive two copies of any publication in which collection data or specimens are used. The specimen(s) are identified by catalog number. The proper name of the Museum to be used in all acknowledgments is, "Museum of Texas Tech University." The proper Museum acronym to precede the catalog number is "TTU." Outgoing Loans Specimens are loaned to researchers at established, scientifically recognized institutions. Loan requests are made in writing and should include the nature of the research and must be approved by the Director of the NSRL. Loans to students are made in care of their supporting faculty member. Loans for research purposes are made to the institution with which the individual is affiliated and that institution assumes responsibility for the proper administration of the loan and the care and security of the specimen(s). 1. Once the Director of the NSRL has approved and signed the loan request, the appropriate specimen(s) is taken from its place in the collection. A blue removal slip including the genus, species, catalog number, inventory of parts removed, date of removal, and borrower is left in the place of the specimen(s). If a continuous series of specimens is removed, one removal slip may be used for all providing that all the required information for each specimen will fit on the slip. In the case of fluid-preserved specimens, a removal slip is taped to the jar and the jar is retumed to its appropriate location in the collection. 65 MUSEUM OF TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY Page Box 43191 of 4th and Indiana Avenue Lubbock, Texas 79409-3191 (806)742-2442 OUTGOING LOAN CONTRACT Borxowing Institntion OUTGOING LOAN # Duration of loan From To Purpose of loan I Approved by Contact Division .Date_ Telephone .DateL. ShJppiug I Total # of objects/s^iecinieiis Total insurance value $ Description of loan Check fiw A*»««-l.«.*ri^ D r'^'^]"g//Vrr'Ti f TTianrpr||<;;e Value Borrower, pJettae read outgoing loan conditions on the reoet-se of this contrac± and sign to agree to the conditions. Retumed signed Rmglatrar copy in the enoe1ap«provided and Joeep theBortouter copy Jbr your records. Borrotoer signature:. Title:. Date: OI»iects/specintens retxaned to tfie Musaan of Texas Tech University: Signature; . ^Title: .DKXte:, LJ RtffistTTtT ^Borrower DDxznsxon Figure 11.1. Outgoing Loan Contract. Original size of page was 215 by 290 millimeters. 66 2. An outgoing loan form is completed (Figure 11.1). a. Borrower—The institution to which the loan is being sent. The address must be a street address, not a P. O. Box. b. Contact-Name ofthe person requesting the loan. If the contact is a student, the name ofthe faculty advisor ofthe student is listed first. c. Phone—Phone number of contact person. d. Purpose-A specific description ofthe purpose ofthe loan. e. Loan Period-The "ouf date is the date the loan will be sent out. The "due" date is the day the loan is due back in the NSRL. Loans generally are for a six-month period with an option to renew for a second six-months. Requests for extension are made through the office ofthe Registrar and approved by the Director ofthe NSRL. f Approved By—The Director ofthe NSRL signs and dates the completed loan form. The Registrar signs and dates the loan form after assigning a loan number to the loan. g. Total Number of Specimens—Items with the same catalog number, e.g., skin, skull, and skeleton, are considered to be one specimen. h. Shipping Arrangements—Loans usually are sent by United Parcel Service (UPS) or FedEx, but loans sometimes are hand-carried. i. Catalog or Accession Number—The catalog numbers ofthe specimens loaned are listed. Uncataloged specimens are not loaned except in special circumstances. TK numbers sometimes can be used here. 67 j. Description-Genus and species if known, nature of specimen loaned (written out), and condition ofthe specimen are included here. Missing parts, broken processes, lost teeth, tom ears, bent tails, damage to skin or pelage, and the like are recorded. For fluid-preserved specimens, the type and concentration of preservative in which the specimen is kept (i.e. 70% ethanol) are noted. k. Insurance Value-Normally, specimens are valued at $25 each, but may be higher depending on the specimen. One-hundred dollars is the minimum insurance value for each loan. The insurance and commercial value for intemational loans is $0. 1. Special Conditions/Exceptions—(on back of form) This space is used for special instmctions, such as to note if special permission is granted to alter the specimens, etc. 3. Once the loan form is completed, it is signed by the Director ofthe NSRL. 4. The loan form is then sent to the office ofthe Registrar to be assigned a loan number and to be signed by the Registrar. 5. The Registrar sends the original loan form to the borrower to be signed and retumed following receipt ofthe specimens. A copy ofthe completed loan form is sent to the NSRL to be filed with the request letter and other correspondence conceming the loan in the departmental loan files located in the office ofthe Curator of Collections of the NSRL. The Registrar also receives copies ofthe request letter. The loans are filed sequentially by year. The above process for completing loan contracts is being replaced by electronic transfer of information. Eventually all of this will be done electronically via MuseNet, 68 the computer network ofthe Museum of Texas Tech University, and email. A hard copy of all loan contracts will be maintained by the Registrar and the NSRL. Furthermore, the ability to generate loan invoices and update the collection database with specific loan information is facilitated by bar code use (Monk, 1998). Packaging Loans Study Skins. Study skins are wrapped individually in acid-free tissue paper with the skin tags carefully tumed to lie flat along the underside ofthe skin. The ends ofthe tissue paper are carefully folded under to create an envelope for the skin. Care is taken that legs, ears, tail, nose, and wings are not damaged. The wrapping is tight enough to support and protect the specimen but not so tight as to risk damage to the skin in any way. Fluid-Preserved Specimens. The specimen is removed from its jar, and the jar is retumed with a removal slip attached to its appropriate position on the shelf in the collection. The specimen is wrapped in cheesecloth moistened with the alcohol in which the specimen is stored (isopropanol or ethanol). The specimen is then placed in a plastic bag of appropriate size and heat-sealed twice. It is important that the bag contains enough alcohol to prevent the specimen from drying out during shipment. Depending on size, several specimens may be placed in the same bag (e.g., a one-quart bag will hold a maximum of one lb.). Specimens that are stored in different kinds of alcohol, such as 70% ethanol and 50% isopropanol, are not placed in the same bag. The sealed bag is placed in a larger plastic bag with a note indicating which alcohol (and concentration) the 69 specimens have been stored. This bag is heat-sealed twice. Fluid-preserved and dry specimens are not shipped in the same box. Skeletal Material. Skulls in vials and boxes are padded inside with tissue paper (bathroom tissue works well) to prevent movement and possible breakage during shipment. Small skulls are individually wrapped in a square of tissue and carefiiUy placed back in their vial/box. Extra tissue is used to fill the vial/box as necessary. The contents ofthe viaL^Dox should be snug, but not tight. Cotton is not used for packing, because the fibers become entangled with small bones and may result in damage or loss of parts. Post-cranial skeletal material is wrapped as careftiUy as possible following the procedures for small skulls. Larger skulls are wrapped in tissue paper and/or bubble wrap. Padding is placed between teeth to prevent chipping or breakage. The vials are wrapped in a sheet of cotton or tissue paper and secured in an appropriate manner within a small box or cardboard tray to avoid scattering or breakage ofthe vials. Boxes are held closed with a taped strip of paper or mbber band. Packing the Box. Wooden boxes with screw-down lids offer the best protection for mailing. The wooden boxes are the property ofthe NSRL and are considered part of the loan. The boxes must be retumed with the specimens. The bottom, top, and sides of the box are well cushioned with packing cotton. When the specimens are placed into the lined box, the skulls and other skeletal materials form the lower layer(s). Care is taken that tails, ears, wings, and other delicate parts are not damaged. Specimens are placed snugly, but not tightly, against each other so that shifting does not occur during shipment. Layers of packing cotton are placed between all layers of specimens. Skins or skeletal material are propedy protected from the weight of other specimens. The plastic bags 70 containing fluid-preserved material are packed in a similar manner, with a layer of packing cotton separating each layer of specimens. Fluid-preserved material is packaged in a separate box than the dry specimens to prevent possible damage from leakage. One copy ofthe loan invoice, along with a shipping label, is placed inside the box before it is sealed. A clear, packing list envelope is attached to the outside ofthe package containing a second copy ofthe loan invoice. Two shipping labels are required. One is placed inside the shipping box in the event that the outside ofthe package is damaged. The second label is affixed to the outside ofthe package. On the outside ofthe box, "Museum specimens for scientific study. No commercial value" is written. "No endangered species" is added when appropriate. Shipping The NSRL usually pays postage on outgoing shipments. Shipping costs to retum material is paid by the institution that requested the loan. Packages are shipped through the Registrar's Office. Loans of specimens are normally sent via United Parcel Service. The shipping way-bill is retained by the Registrar so that the package can be tracked, if necessary. Processing Retumed Loans The procedure for processing retumed loans is as follows: 1. Specimens are unpacked and the inventory and condition are checked against the loan form on file in the office ofthe Curator of Collections. Discrepancies are noted on the loan form. The bottom ofthe loan fonn is signed and dated where indicated. The 71 borrowing institution's loan form is signed, dated, and retumed, if applicable. The Registrar is notified that the loan should be closed. The loan form is refiled. The Registrar notifies the borrower that the loan has been safely retumed and of any problems with the loan. 2. Dry specimens are sealed in a plastic bag and frozen for at least two weeks to kill any insect pests. 3. Specimens are reinstalled into the collection. The blue removal slips are discarded as the specimens are replaced. 4. When the database includes information that the specimen was on loan, it must be updated to indicate that the loan has been closed. Incoming Loans Incoming loans are usually processed by the person requesting the loan. Occasionally these loans are processed by the NSRL following the procedures below. Inasmuch as the NSRL has a legal responsibility regarding incoming loans, the specimens are kept in the loan case at the NSRL for the duration ofthe loan period. They receive the same level of care as specimens accessioned into the TTU collections. 1. The package is carefully unpacked. The inventory and condition are checked against the lending institution's loan form (which will usually be inside the shipping box or taped on the outside ofthe box). Discrepancies are recorded on the loan form. The Registrar is notified of any problems. The lending institution's loan form is signed, dated, and retumed. This will notify the lender that the loan has arrived safely. A copy ofthe loan form is sent to the Registrar. Another copy is placed in the Incoming Loan 72 file. An Incoming Loan form is created by the Registrar to document the loan. The same general procedures used for the Outgoing Loan forni are followed. Unless requested to do otherwise, the empty shipping box is labeled to indicate the loan it contained and stored for use when the loan is retumed. 2. The specimens are placed in the specimen case designated as the loan cabinet. The drawer(s) and outer door ofthe case are labeled with an appropriate description to facilitate access to the loan. The specimens are kept under conditions specified by the lending institution. The borrower is notified that the loan has arrived and is ready for study. 3. When the loan is retumed, the inventory and condition is checked against the loan form. Discrepancies are noted on the loan form. The loan form is refiled in the Incoming Loan file. The specimens are wrapped and packed in the same or better maimer as they were received. The original box is used to retum the loan. A copy ofthe loan form is placed in the box along with a shipping label. A shipping label is attached to the outside ofthe box. Another copy ofthe loan form is placed in a clear, packing envelope and is attached to the outside ofthe box. 4. The package is shipped by the Registrar's Office following the procedures specified by the lending institution. The package is insured for the amount stated by the lender. The Registrar will close the loan after the lending institution acknowledges receipt ofthe specimens. 73 CHAPTER XII TISSUE SAMPLES FROM A COLLECTION'S PERSPECTIVE With the growing demand for frozen tissue for research in molecular genetics, ecotoxicology, disease, biodiversity, systematics, etc., collections of vital tissue have become a more prevalent part of systematics collections. For collections with large tissue holdings, the number of loans of frozen tissue are often several times that of loans of voucher specimens. Tissue samples are now routinely taken from specimens to augment the biological information stored for each specimen. Responsible collecting practice requires that as much information as possible be archived for each animal collected. This includes descriptions of habitat and behavior, the physical specimen itself (study skin, skull, skeleton), and tissues. The NSRL maintains a large collection of frozen tissues in the Molecular Resources Collection, formerly the Frozen or Vital Tissues Collection. As collections of frozen tissue are added to traditional systematics collections, processing techniques ofthe traditional specimens can be affected. One obvious area impacted by the collection of tissues is specimen preparation. The addition of some form of ultra-cold storage is required in the field to properly preserve the tissue. Differences in processing techniques, such as cataloging and accessioning, are also caused by the presence of frozen tissue. Collections of frozen tissue pose an unique problem in that catalog numbers cannot be written on frozen tubes. Tubes must be frozen as tissues are collected in the field, but catalog numbers are not assigned until the specimens have been deposited and 74 processed at the museum. To solve this problem, a tissue collection catalog is used. This is a separate series of numbers used to reference the tissue with the voucher specimens. At the NSRL, the TK (Tissue/Karyotype) number series serves as this field number. Because TK numbers are not tme catalog numbers, they can be assigned in the field and written or applied on the tissue tubes before they are frozen. Specimen data for each TK number is recorded in TK books. To ensure that tissues are collected and documented correctly, the NSRL provides collectors with a copy of "Guidelines for Collecting Tissues" and "Guidelines for Completing TK Sheets" (see Appendix A and Appendix B). The voucher specimen and related tissue(s) are assigned the same, unique TK number. Before a major field trip is initiated, a set of bar code, self adhesive labels is generated specifically for that field trip. Tissues collected may include heart, kidney, liver, spleen, lung, brain, skeletal muscle, bone, blood, and karyotype. A bar code tag including the field (TK) number and inventory type (i.e., skin, skull, skeleton) is attached to each part ofthe specimen and a bar code sticker including the TK number and tissue type is applied to each tube of tissue to facilitate processing at the museum. The bar code stickers are printed on sticker stock designed to adhere to the tissue tubes in liquid nitrogen. Once inventoried and processed, a catalog number is assigned to each specimen. The catalog number is written on the tags for the voucher specimen, but not the tissue tubes. The field number remains the identifying number (primary key) in the database and for the tissue collection and is cross-referenced with the catalog number. The tissue holdings for each specimen are recorded in the database along with the inventory ofthe voucher specimen. The database provides the link from tissues to their voucher's permanent (TTU) catalog number. 75 Accessioning is the process through which the museum assumes legal ownership of its collections. Usually, specimens are accessioned by collecting trip as they come into the museum (see Chapter IV). Once accessioned, specimens must be deaccessioned to permanently remove them from the collection and to relieve the museum of legal responsibility of ownership. This creates a problem when tissue samples are taken into consideration. Tissues are collected for the sole purpose of being "used" in research. Analysis involves destmction ofthe tissue sample. This produces the question of whether to accession tissue samples. At the NSRL, tissue samples are accessioned along with the voucher specimens. In this way, the NSRL maintains ownership ofthe tissue. Tissue samples are not deaccessioned before going on loan. Instead, the data gained from the analysis ofthe tissue replace the actual tissue (Monk et al., 1993). It is the responsibility ofthe borrower to supply the NSRL with this data (and publications). The NSRL must preserve the data so that they are easily referenced with the voucher specimen. The advantages of accessioning tissues are that there is a guarantee that the data will be maintained and that the NSRL has legal grounds to recall tissues if deemed necessary (Monk et al, 1993). This is particulariy important when specimens are collected from foreign countries. The national interests ofthe country of origin must be protected. It is common practice for the Museum to provide written assurance to the country of origin that the tissues will not be used for financial gain without written permission and negotiation with the proper authorities in the country of origin. By accessioning the frozen tissue collection, the Museum and the State retain the right to secure and protect the interests ofthe country of origin. The interests of Texas Tech University also are secured by accessioning. 76 The value of traditional systematics collections is greatly enhanced by the addition of an accompanying collection of frozen tissue. Improved molecular techniques have increased the demand for samples of frozen tissue and many institutions now collect and store frozen tissues. Such collections will have widespread impact on traditional systematics collections. The way in which specimens are collected, handled, prepared, and processed may need to be modified to accommodate archiving frozen tissues. 77 CHAPTER XIII INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT Pest management plays an important role in museum collection management, particulariy in natural history collections. Biological specimens serve as attractive food sources for many types of pests. Specimens brought into the museum from the field are often infested and can serve as a vector for introducing pests into the collection. Many treatments have been used to control infestations in the past. Poisons such as arsenic and mercuric chloride have been applied directly to specimens (Makos and Dietrich, 1995). Other techniques involved ftamigatingspecimen s with toxic vapors. Until recently, little was known about the effects these kinds of chemicals had on specimens or personnel working with these collections. Today, the museum community better understands the irreversible damage to specimen integrity and the risks to human health that the use of these chemicals can cause. As a result, a movement towards alternative, non-chemical methods of pest control has begun. Integrated pest management (IPM) is one of these approaches. The primary objective of any IPM program is to prevent pests from gaining access to or becoming established in the collections. Consequently, there will be little or no need for harmful chemical fumigation. An IPM program is a more holistic approach than traditional pest management, which primarily relies on the use of chemicals for routine ftimigation of collections as well as for treatment of infestations. IPM involves a combination of strategies employing chemical fumigants as a last resort. The focus is placed on prevention by controlling 78 entrance points to the collection that might be utilized by pests and by eliminating food, moisture, and habitat that can sustain pests in the collection. The primary elements of an IPM program are monitoring and identification of pests, inspection, habitat modification, good housekeeping, treatment action, evaluation, and education (Jessup, 1995; National Park Service, 1990). Monitoring, Inspection, and Identification The first step of an IPM program involves determining the type and extent of biological activity through monitoring, inspection, and identification. Identification of the pest species found in the collection and knowledge ofthe ecology of these pests, such as food and habitat preference, are used to design an appropriate IPM strategy. Monitoring consists of two parts: environmental monitoring and monitoring for pests. Documentation ofthe ambient temperature and relative humidity ofthe collection provides useful information for identifying climatic conditions within the building that could support pests. Monitoring for pests in the collection usually involves use of passive trapping, such as sticky traps, and visual inspection ofthe collection. Sticky traps should be placed around the perimeter walls, in comers, near doors, under furniture, and near water and heat sources. The traps should be monitored weekly during spring and summer months, and bi-monthly during the fall and winter months. Traps should be replaced when full of insects or dust, or every two months at the latest. A visual inspection ofthe entire collection should be conducted biannually. The ideal time for the inspections is spring and late summer. The most common signs of an insect infestation are cast larval skins, frass, or moth webbing attached to specimens. Other signs include 79 damaged skins where insects have been feeding. This damage commonly occurs on ears, faces, and the undersides of skins. Users ofthe collection are instmcted to report any evidence of an infestation to museum personnel. Documentation is made of each insect found or of any biological activity found within the collection. Habitat Modification Habitat modification is an integral component of an IPM program. The goal is to make the collection less attractive to pests, primarily through habitat elimination. IPM programs are designed so that insects and other pests must pass through multiple lines of defense to establish an infestation in the collection. Therefore, even if one method fails, a pest will have other barriers to overcome before reaching the collection. The extemal stmcture ofthe building forms the first barrier against pest entrance. Exterior doors are kept closed when not in use. All stmctural gaps are sealed to prohibit pest access to the building. Openings as small as a VA inch are sufficient for mice to enter the building. Cracks in walls and floors are repaired. Vegetation along the exterior of the building is minimized to reduce habitat that could sustain insects and rodents. Large populations of pests outside ofthe building could lead to pest infestations within the building. The next barrier involves keeping pests out ofthe collection storage area. "Collections storage areas should be dedicated spaces that are separated physically from specimen preparation facilities, offices, laboratories, colonies of live organisms, kitchens, snack bars, janitor closets, exhibition spaces, and any other areas where activities may attract pests to the museum or provide conditions that support pest survival" (Jessup, 80 1995, p. 212). Unprocessed material is stored in the storage cases located in the preparation room. Incoming specimens, including those from retumed loans, or any suspect specimens are isolated from the collection until proven to be pest free to prevent bringing pests into the building. Specimens are isolated for two weeks in a quarantine freezer or under daily observation in the temporary holding cases in the preparation room to ensure that specimens are pest free (see Chapters II and III for freezing procedures). A problem unique to many natural history collections, including the NSRL, is the maintenance of an on-site dermestid colony for osteological preparation. The dermestid colony represents a serious risk for potential infestation ofthe collection. Measures are taken to ensure that no colony members escape to establish an infestation in the collection. A lid is securely placed on top of each aquarium in the dermestid colony to keep the animals inside. They will be less likely to escape from the aquariums when well fed. In the event that some dermestids do escape from the aquariums, a heated strip placed around the doorframe will help maintain escapees within the room (Williams, 1995). At the NSRL, sticky traps placed around the perimeter ofthe loading dock area and a bug light is used to capture escaped dermestids. If pests do enter the collection storage area, the next line of defense is to eliminate any environment in which pests can survive. Generally, insects prefer warm, humid environments. Therefore, the building temperature should be kept below 24° C (75° F), and the relative humidity below 75%, so that any insects that do enter the building will be much less likely to survive to cause an infestation problem. Ideally, for best control of pests the temperature should be 18 ± 2° C (65 ±5° F) and the relative humidity should be 50-60% (Cato, 1986). 81 Good housekeeping practices are essential to the success of an IPM program. Very small quantities of dust can create enough of a microenvironment to sustain insects in the collection. The use of a vacuum cleaner equipped with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEP A) filter is preferred over a broom or dust mop, both of which can redistribute dust, insects, and eggs throughout the collection. The storage area should be kept tree of clutter. Clutter prevents the proper cleaning of storage areas and provides shelter for insects and rodents. No food or drink is allowed in the collection storage area. These can attract pests and can damage specimens or equipment if spilled. If all other barriers fail, the last line of defense against pests gaining access to specimens is good enclosure ofthe collection in storage cases. Specimen cases are raised 15 cm above the floor on metal risers (Figure 13.1). This allows for cleaning imdemeath the cases and reduces the risk that insects will enter the storage cases (Williams and McLaren, 1990). Cases should have a tight seal. Damaged gaskets are reported and replaced. A tightly sealed, high quality metal storage case will prevent insects that have gained access to the storage area from reaching specimens. Additionally, if an infested specimen is placed in a well-sealed cabinet, the infestation will be restricted to that one case. To protect specimens, storage cases remain closed when not in use (even for a few minutes). Similariy, specimens are replaced in a storage case when not being used and are never left out overnight. 82 Figure 13.1. Specimen Cases Placed on Metal Risers. 83 Infestation Management When evidence of an infestation is found, the type and extent ofthe infestation must be determined to develop treatment options for addressing the infestation as well as to prevent future infestations. Infestations are evaluated on a case by case basis. For example, if adult dermestid beetles are found roaming the building, the dermestid colony is checked to determine whether more insects are escaping and to ensure that the colony has enough food. The next option is to make sure that all incoming specimens are properly isolated or frozen before entering the storage area. An infestation found in a storage case is a much more serious matter. Live insects are physically removed from the specimens and destroyed. The extent ofthe infestation is determined by starting at the point of known infestation and working outward. If an infestation is restricted to one drawer, all the specimens in that drawer are frozen, following the procedures outlined below. The remainder ofthe specimens in the case are inspected daily for three weeks for signs of infestation. If the infestation has spread to multiple drawers, all specimens in the case are frozen. Freezing is much preferred to chemical fumigation because there are no associated health risks and out of all ofthe possible treatments, freezing has the least chemical effects on the specimen. Chemical fumigation is used only if there is not enough freezer space available to freeze all the specimens. Florian (1990) describes the procedures for freezing specimens. Infested specimens are sealed in polyethylene bags to prevent condensation from forming on the specimens. A minimum thickness of 6 mil is recommended for polyethylene bags (National Park Service, 1990). The air in the bag is partially evacuated. The bagged 84 specimens are kept at room temperature until being placed in the freezer to make the insects most vulnerable to freezing. It is suggested that the contents ofthe bag be cooled to 5° C (10° F) within 4 hours of being placed in the freezer to prevent the insects from becoming acclimated to the colder temperature. The bagged specimens must remain at -20° C (-4° F) for at least 48 hours. A slow rate of thawing is most lethal to insects that might have survived the freezing process. Florian (1990) suggests that a second freeze- thaw cycle immediately follow. Some recommend "flash-freezing," but this may be harmful to skeletal material. To prevent condensation from forming on the specimens, the bag is not opened until it has reached room temperature and there is no condensation on the outside ofthe bag (at least 24 hours). The use of chemical fumigation is sometimes necessary for pest eradication. This is reserved for situations when non-chemical methods are not feasible. Two types of chemical fumigants are used at the NSRL, naphthalene crystals and liquid Vulcan Formula 72 Fumigant (72.2%) ethylene dichloride and 29.8% carbon tetrachloride). Vulcan Formula 72 Fumigant is labeled for use with biological museum collections. The directions for use and precautions listed on the container labels should always be followed. Good ventilation and the use of gloves are required when working with these chemicals. While fumigation is in progress, a label is placed on the outer door ofthe storage case indicating what fumigant is being used, when the ftimigation began, and when the case can be reopened. Naphthalene's use as an insecticide is questionable. It is most effective when used as a repellent (Cato, 1986; WiUiams et al., 1985). However, naphthalene is sometimes used as an insecticide because it seems to be less harmful to human health 85 than most liquid fumigants. Naphthalene crystals are collected in a small jar and placed in the top drawer ofthe specimen case to be treated. The recommended quantity is 0.45 kg/2.8 m^ (approximately 0.10 kg per average specimen case) (WiUiams et al., 1977, 1985). The fiimigant is left in the tightly sealed case for two weeks. At this time, the jar of naphthalene is removed and disposed of properiy. The case will remain closed for one more week to allow the fumigant to dissipate before personnel work with the specimens in the case. Altematively, Vulcan Formula 72 Fumigant, in the quantity of 50 cc per 0.34 m"^ of storage case volume (approximately 96 cc per average specimen case), is poured into a small jar. A rectangular piece of cardboard, cut so that the cormgations mn lengthwise along the strip, is placed in the jar with the cormgations mnning up from the fumigant to act as a wick and facilitate evaporation. The jar is placed on the top shelf of the storage case because the fumes are heavier than air. NSRL policy is to keep the storage case tightly closed for two weeks. The fumigant label recommends that the case remain closed for a minimum of 120 hours. Following the two-week treatment period, the storage case is opened and allowed to air out for at least 30 minutes before personnel work in the case or remove specimens from the case. Chemical fiimigants are used with extreme caution. The chemicals in Vulcan Formula 72 Fumigant, ethylene dichloride and carbon tetrachloride, are health hazards. Additionally, ethylene dichloride is highly flammable. The skin, eyes, liver, lungs, kidneys, cardiovascular system, and central nervous system may be affected by exposure to this chemical (Williams et al, 1985). Carbon tetrachloride is added to Vulcan Formula 72 Fumigant to reduce the flammability of pure ethylene dichlonde. Exposure to carbon 86 tetrachloride can involve reactions with the skin, liver, kidneys, central nervous system, and possibly the reproductive system (Williams et al., 1985). Both chemicals may be carcinogenic. Acute exposure may be fatal, hi addition to the health hazards, these ftimigants may chemically alter specimens. Glew et al. (1994) showed that fumigants progressively degrade skin proteins. Ethylene dichloride was found to be particularly damaging. The degradation of skin proteins caused by fumigation might make specimens more susceptible to mechanical damage through inappropriate environmental conditions or careless handling. Furthermore, the use of some fumigants may lead to discoloration or embrittlement of specimens and polystyrene storage containers. Because of these risks, it is critical that chemical methods of pest control be reserved for last resort efforts when no other alternative is feasible. A non-chemical method of fumigation gaining attention in the museum community is the use of atmospheric gases. Carbon dioxide seems to the be the best choice for use as a fumigant because it can be used effectively at lower concentrations and for shorter periods of time than the inert gases sometimes used for this purpose. A concentration of 60%) carbon dioxide held for four days at a temperature of 20° C (68° F) or higher wiU kill all Ufe stages of most pests (Story, 1985; Williams et al., 1985). An important advantage of using carbon dioxide instead of traditional chemical ftimigants is that the health risks seem to be limited to short-term acute toxicity rather than long-term effects from chronic exposure (Story, 1985). Carbon dioxide gas does not seem to have a detrimental effect on specimens, unlike traditional ftimigants which might chemically damage specimens or freezing which might lead to mechanical damage. The main limitation on the use of carbon dioxide as a ftimigant is finding a specimen case with a 87 seal tight enough to maintain the positive pressure produced by the gas (Williams et al., 1985). Because it is less harmful to health and specimens, the use of carbon dioxide as a fiimigant in museum collections should be further explored. Chemical fumigants are used to treat the building. These treatments do not affect specimens sealed in storage cases but are targeted toward pests that may be in preparation or office areas. Terminix is contracted to spray the baseboards ofthe building on the first Wednesday of each month. The building is fogged with a pyrethmm pesticide annually, usually in the spring. Pyrethmm is non-residual and completely dissipates thirty minutes after treatment. Education Prevention of infestations requires that everyone using the collection understand how their actions can affect the success ofthe pest management program. All staff should receive training in pest awareness, particularly people working directly with the collection and housekeeping personnel. In addition, it is important that museum personnel stay abreast of new research relating to pest management and treatments to eradicate pests, such as the effects of treatments on specimen integrity or human health, and descriptions of more acceptable treatments, like non-chemical fumigation using atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. Summary Adopting preventive actions to exclude pests from museum spaces and exercising constant vigilance through monitoring and inspections are the keys to effectively 88 controlling pest problems in museum collections (National Park Service, 1990). IPM programs implement treatment strategies that are the least harmfiil to human health and the least damaging to specimens. The most common cause of infestations in natural history collections is the installation of specimens into the collection that have not been properly isolated to ensure that they are free of pests. Once an infestation has been found, effected specimens are isolated and treated. Chemical fumigation of specimens is used only when preventive measures are not sufficient to control an infestation. Chemical fumigation plays a small role in the management ofthe collection. Other than treatment ofthe building, chemical fumigants are applied to the collection one to three times per year (each treatment being restricted to a single case). This is a significant improvement over the previous methods employed by the NSRL when all cases were fumigated one or more times a year. Education of museum personnel, as well as other users ofthe collection, in pest awareness is critical to the success of any pest management program. 89 CHAPTER XIV COLLECTION MANAGEMENT For the purposes of this document, "collection management" refers to the day-to day maintenance of specimens that have been installed into the collections. Normally, this is a relatively minor activity since the majority of collection tasks focus on incoming specimens or on curatorial projects (i.e., revision of murids, data verification, etc.). None-the-less, collection management is an extremely important function of museum staff Good collection management practices are essential to the long-term preservation and conservation of specimens. One ofthe major objectives of collection management is preventive conservation. The goal of preventive conservation is to minimize deterioration by eliminating or mitigating potential sources of damage to the specimens (Hawks, 1990). If a specimen or its inherent data are damaged, the scientific value of that specimen is lost or greatly reduced. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that a damaged specimen can be repaired, and in most circumstances it will never be retumed to its previous condition. In order to prevent collections from incurring damage, those utilizing collections and those responsible for the care of collections must understand how damage can occur. Damage can be categorized as mechanical, chemical, or biological. As illustrated in Figure 14.1, one form of damage may contribute to the others. It is important to note that 90 CQNPLICATES PKOPER BTORAOE; INCREASES PARTS ANO SURFACE AREAS FOR ADOtTIONAL MMAOE THROUOH SMOCX ANO ASRASION OF FRAOMENTS AS MELL AS FURTHER RESPONSE TO CLIMATIC FLUCTUATIONS. WEAKENING OR ALTERING INCREASED SURFACE AREA OP SUUTRATE. ANO SITES FOR CHENICAL REACTIONS. REACTION PRODUCTS AND OROAMiaNS REPRODUCE AND SY-PROOUCTS MAY PROMOTE PROVIDE OROANIC MATERIALS FURTHER REACTION. THAT MAT SERVE AS A FOOD SOURCE FOR OTMCR OIMANISMS. ALTERATION OF SUMTATE NAY CAUSE IT TO •£ ATTRACTIVE TO ORAANISMS. Figiu-e 14.1. Diagram Illustrating the Interaction of Biological, Chemical, and Mechanical Damage. Source: WiUiams, S. L., and C. A. Hawks. 1992. Condition of type specimens ofthe genus Peromyscus. J. Mamm., 73(4):731-743. 91 this damage is cumulative and often occurs in small increments such that it is not noticed until extensive damage has occurred. Sources of damage or deterioration of natural history specimens are fire, water, dust, atmospheric pollutants, extreme temperatures, excessive fluctuations in temperatiue and atmospheric moisture, desiccation, direct light, careless handling, inappropriate materials and treatment methods, accidents, and pests. A good collection management policy should address all of these potential hazards. Some common collection management tasks include: • restricting collection access to persons with appropriate training and permission • monitoring cases for doors that have been left ajar, improperly closed, or entirely open • minimizing light (particularly UV light) in collection areas • minimizing dust in collection areas • maintaining appropriate temperature and humidity levels in collection areas • protecting specimens from harmful materials and treatments • monitoring for changes in collection storage that might require re-labeling of drawers and/or cases • installation of new storage equipment (cases, shelves, freezers, etc.) Several of these tasks are self-explanatory and do not require fiirther comment. However, access to collections, the effects of light on collection objects, climatic control of collection areas, and deletenous matenals and treatments wiU be discussed below. 92 Access to Collections Access to collection storage areas is strictly controlled and is restricted to persons with appropriate training and permission to utilize the collection. Access to collections is permitted for research and educational purposes. Visitors to the collection should call or write in advance of their visit by contacting a divisional curator or the Director ofthe NSRL. Museum staff are responsible for ensuring that users ofthe collection are trained in specimen handling and collection arrangement before access to the collection is granted. All visitors to the collection are expected to sign the guest book. Guided tours ofthe collection, arranged in advance through museum personnel, are given to groups of up to 15 people. Such groups are supervised by museum staff at aU times. Members of tour groups are never allowed to handle specimens. All doors to the collection storage area, as well as exterior doors, remain closed and locked at all times. Personnel submit a key request form (to request keys) and an access request form (to request hours of access to the collection), signed by the Director ofthe NSRL, to the Associate Director for Operations and Programs. The appropriate key(s) is issued. The access request form is used to program the security computer that controls access to the building and interior collection doors. The security computer records by whom and at what time the building was accessed. This provides a valuable security control record. For added security, all personnel are required to wear an identification badge, issued by the Associate Director for Operations and Programs, while at the museum. 93 Light Light is a form of energy. When objects are exposed to light, the light energy is absorbed by the object. The energy thus received activates and excites some molecules creating an environment for chemical change. Fading and bleaching of objects are the most visible signs of light damage. Exposure to light is particulariy damaging to natural history specimens (National Park Service, 1990). Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the most damaging segment ofthe light spectmm (National Park Service, 1990). When absorbed, the short wavelengths of UV radiation are more damaging because they contain more energy than the longer wavelengths of visible light and infrared radiation. All forms of lighting used in museum settings emit varying degrees of UV radiation, i.e., sunlight, fluorescent lamps, incandescent lamps, and halogen lamps. Sunlight and fluorescent light give off high levels of UV radiation. Exposure to ultraviolet light may cause fading, bleaching, and embrittlement of museum materials. Specimens preserved in alcohol are particularly susceptible to fading from exposure to UV radiation (Jones and Owen, 1987). To reduce exposure of specimens to UV radiation windows are covered, UV filter sleeves are placed over fluorescent light bulbs, specimens are stored in sealed, metal museum cases when not being used, and lights are tumed off when not needed. Climate Control Inappropriate temperature and relative humidity levels cause detrimental chemical and physical reactions in specimens. Therefore, it is essential for the long-term preservation of specimens that the climatic conditions of museum spaces be monitored and controlled. High temperatures may cause desiccation, cracking, spliUmg, 94 embrittlement, increased chemical activities, and increased risk of biological deterioration of specimens. High relative humidity may provide a suitable environment for pest and fungal infestation, increased chemical activities, and fading of specimens. Low relative humidity may lead to shrinking and desiccation of specimens. Rapid changes in temperature and relative humidity are particularly damaging. This is because specimens are continually interacting with the surrounding environment, expanding and contracting as necessary to reach equilibrium with the ambient air. This causes incredible stmctural stress within the object. Because they are hygroscopic, organic materials are very susceptible to changes in relative humidity. Ideally, the building temperature should be maintained at 18 ±2° C (65 ±5° F), while the relative humidity should remain between 50-60% (Cato, 1986). A Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system maintains the temperature and relative humidity at acceptable levels. Deleterious Materials and Treatments The materials and treatments to which specimens are exposed are carefully chosen to avoid causing damage to specimens. Ideally, a specimen should not be physically or chemically altered from its natural state because "any alteration of a specimen or object has the potential to adversely affect the utility of that specimen or object for the purposes for which it was collected" (Rose and Hawks, 1995, p. 2). However, some treatment, therefore alteration, is required to slow the natural „« iUTr.^^oh after death Procedures used in the deterioration process that living orgamsms go through alter aeam. r J .;«^ Hm/ina tanning fixation, fluid-preservation, preparation of specimens such as degreasmg, drying, tanning, • ^c frr^m deterioration for as long as possible etc., are designed to preserve specimens from deterioration 95 (Williams, 1999). Specimens are subjected to chemicals and treatments in the storage environment such as fumigation, to augment preparation procedures. Many of these materials and treatments can lead to the deterioration of specimens, rather than the preservation of them. It also is important to note that other materials in the museum environment can damage specimens, such as wooden storage cases or drawers and acidic specimen trays or paper labels. Specimens can be protected from materials and methods that are known to be deleterious. However, testing of currently accepted procedures indicates that many commonly used materials and curatorial techniques also can affect the long-term preservation and research potential of specimens. This is due to the fact that many commonly used preparation and curatorial techniques are based on traditional methods developed over a century ago, rather than on modem, scientifically proven procedures (Rose, 1991). A collector's preparation technique is critical to the overall stability of specimens. The conditions that specimens are exposed to in the storage environment can be just as important. Williams and Hawks (1992) have shown that serious damage has occurred to specimens stored and handled under conditions that are fairly standard for most research collections. These findings are even more alarming in that the study focuses on type specimens, which receive special care in most collections. One may assume that non-type voucher specimens in collections have incurred more damage than type specimens. Over time, as specimens age and as more materials and methods of preparation and storage are tested, an increasing number of accepted practices might be shown to damage specimens. For example, chemical ftimigation was a routine practice in 96 museums until it was shown to cause serious damage to specimens, such as protei nn degradation, color changes, pH changes, and increased rates of oxidation (Williams and Hawks, 1992). Because of this, it is important that those entmsted with the care of natural history collections stay abreast ofthe latest literature regarding collection management techniques and procedures so that the best possible care is given to the collections. One ofthe biggest obstacles to providing appropriate care for collections is the lack of documentation of materials and methods used in the preparation and storage of natural history specimens (Cato and Williams, 1993). Without this baseline information, it is impossible to assess the suitability of a given technique or to rate one technique above another. Therefore, to better evaluate the effectiveness and long-term effects of the materials and treatments used in the preparation, maintenance, and storage of natural history specimens, documentation of specimen histories should be recorded for each specimen (Cato and Williams, 1993; Garrett, 1989; Hawks, 1990; Herholdt, 1990; Jones and Owen, 1987; and WiUiams and Hawks, 1992). Thorough documentation of this type also will allow scientists to determine the potential specimens have for biochemical and molecular research. Documentation should begin in the field at the time of collection and should continue throughout the specimen's existence. A condition/treatment report should be completed whenever a specimen is accessioned, treated, loaned, or placed on exhibit. Not only should the condition ofthe specimen be recorded, but also, more importantly, documentation should be made of all chemicals that are used on or come m contact with the specimen. 97 Currently, the NSRL does not record complete specimen histories. Undocumented preparation and preservation treatments may seriously compromise the research potential ofthe collection (Hawks, 1990). I recommend that a policy be written to document preparation and treatment procedures of specimens housed at the NSRL. The policy should follow the documentation guidelines for the preparation and conservation of biological specimens set forth by Garrett (1989). An apphcation should be created in WildCat, the NSRL's database, to electronically record this data. The use of bar codes will facilitate the documentation process. Hard copies of condition and treatment reports should be placed in the collection's files. The documentation ofthe preparation and treatment history of all incoming specimens will be complete. The histories of existing specimens will include all subsequent treatments. Conclusion Good collection management practices that incorporate preventive conservation procedures are essential to the long-term preservation of specimens. These include: (1) breaches to the building's outer walls or roof are reported to the main office immediately, (2) the exposure of specimens to light, particularly UV radiation, is limited. (3) Temperature and relative humidity should be monitored and recorded on a daily basis to ensure that dangerous conditions do not exist within the collection. Over time, these records may indicate problems within the building or seasonal variation that may need to be fiirther addressed to ensure the long-term stability of valuable scientific specimens. (4) Specimens are protected from damaging chemicals and treatments. (5) Thorough 98 specimen histories documenting preparation and treatment procedures should be maintained for all specimens in the collection. 99 CHAPTER XV CONCLUSION Biological collections document the Earth's biodiversity. The need for these collections increases as habitats and species are lost due to the encroachment of an exponentially increasing human population. The reference material housed in these collections is cmcial for the assessment of biodiversity (Baker, 1994; Danks, 1991; Wilson, 1992). As such, systematics collections provide an essential resource to the scientific community. Those entmsted with the generation and care of these collections are responsible for maintaining accurate collections in perpetuity. Specimens are nonrenewable, irreplaceable, resources. It is important that all persons in contact with biological collections know the correct procedures regarding their use ofthe collection, as well as understand how their inappropriate use of specimens can lead to irreparable damage or loss of research value ofthe specimens. It is important that museum staff understand the mechanisms that lead to damage of museum specimens. Damage can occur through mechanical, chemical, and biological means. The sources of this damage include water, dust, atmospheric pollutants, extreme temperatures, fluctuations in temperature and atmospheric moisture, desiccation, direct sunlight, careless handling, inappropriate treatments, accidents, and pests. A collection management policy should be based on preventive conservation practices. Preventive conservation is a proactive strategy intended to prevent damage from occurring by eliminating, as much as possible, the elements of deterioration. Damage to specimens can be avoided through storage in closed, nonreactive, airtight 100 museum cases. The use of inappropriate preparation and storage materials should be avoided. The ambient temperature and relative humidity level in the collection area should be routinely monitored and controlled. Anyone in contact with specimens should be instmcted in proper handling teclmiques. An integrated pest management program designed to prevent infestation ofthe collection should be implemented. Proper handling and packing techniques should be utilized to avoid causing damage to loaned specimens. The documentation and data associated with specimens are equally important as the specimens themselves (Hall, 1962). The scientific value of specimens without complete and accurate data is greatly diminished, if not completely destroyed (Monk, 1997). It is the responsibility of collectors and preparators to provide complete and accurate data, and it is the responsibility of collection staff to maintain this data. Collection staff should be alert to any problems or potential problems within the collection. Improper storage conditions, misplaced specimens, evidence of pest infestation or damage to specimens, and errors or discrepancies in the documentation or data associated with specimens should be reported and rectified. In addition, collection staff should stay abreast ofthe current literature regarding collection management techniques and procedures. Recent research in collection management has shown that some traditionally accepted procedures or materials may lead to the deterioration of specimens (i.e., chemical fumigation and placement of newly fixed specimens directly into storage strength alcohol). Most specimens in the worid's repositories are less than 100 years old. Damage caused by current curatorial procedures may not become apparent for decades. Therefore, as collections age and as research techniques continue to advance, currently accepted practices may be shown to have deleterious effects on 101 specimens. Williams and Hawks (1992) have shown that much ofthe damage done to specimens occurs under storage and handling conditions considered standard for most research collections. Knowledge ofthe recent literature will help collection staff improve curatorial procedures, ensuring that specimens will continue to be of value for future research. The use of standardized curatorial procedures facilitates accountability and simplifies collection management tasks. Such procedures should be developed to ensure that the collections are maintained appropriately and efficiently. Pohcies and procedures should be written to provide direction, continuity, and predictability (Cato and Williams, 1993). These protocols should encompass acquisitions, preparation techniques and materials, specimen handling, processing, documentation, installation, storage, access, loans, and pest control, and can be stmctured similar to the guidelines presented in this thesis. This facilitates education of collection staff and provides for a high standard of care for the collections. 102 LITERATURE CITED Allen, K. E., R. D. Bradley, R. R. Monk, O. V. Knyazhnitskiy, N. C Parker D J Schmidly, and R. J. Baker. Submitted. Employment of geographic information systems and habitat data for determining misidentified museum voucher specimens. Submitted to Occasional Papers, Museum of Texas Tech University. Baker, R. J. 1994. Some thoughts on conservation: biodiversity, museums, molecular characters, systematics, and basic research. Journal of Mammalogy, 75(2):277- 287. Baker, R. J., C. J. Phillips, R. D. Bradley, J. M. Bums, D. Cooke, G. F. Edson, D. R. Haragan, C. Jones, R. R. Monk, J. T. Montford, D. J. Schmidly, and N. C. Parker. 1998. Bioinformatics, museums and society: Integrating biological data for knowledge-based decisions. Occasional Papers, Museum of Texas Tech University, 187:1+1-4. Cato, P. S. 1986. Guidelines for managing bird collections. Muscology, Texas Tech University, 7:1-78. Cato, P. S. and S. L. Williams. 1993. Guidelines for developing policies for the management and care of natural histoiy collections. Collection Fomm, 9(2):84- 107. Danks, H. V. 1991. Museum collections: Fundamental values and modem problems. Collection Fomm, 7(2):95-l 11. de Moor, F. C. 1990. Containers for wet collections-problems and solutions. Pp. 27-36 in Natural history collections: Their management and value (Herholdt, E. M., ed.). Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. Special Publication, No. l:x+172. Fishman-Armstrong, S. E. 2000. Incorporation of bar code capabilities to existing museum databases. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Texas Tech University, x+1- 181pp. Florian, M. 1990. Freezing for museum insect pest eradication. Collection Fomm, 6(l):l-7. Fuller, T., A. Bount, and C. Bossert. 1995. Support system for nests. Pp. 175-176 m Storage of natural history collections: Ideas and practical solutions (Rose, C. L., and A. R. de Torres, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsburgh, PA, xvi+346 pp. 103 Garrett, K. L. 1989. Documentation guidelines for the preparation and conservation of biological specimens. Collection Fomm, 5(2):47-51. Glew, R. H., S. L. Williams, M. D. Stroz, and A. K. Saha. 1994. Electrophoretic analysis ofthe effect of selected fiimigants on coUagenase-protease digestibility of skin proteins. Journal ofthe Intemational Institute for Conservation-Canadian Group. 18:11-16. Hall, E. R. 1962. Collecting and preparing study specimens of vertebrates. Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas, Miscellaneous Publications 30:1-46. Hawks, C. A. 1990. Advances in the conservation of natural science collections. Pp. 53- 60 in Natural history collections: Their management and value (Herholdt, E. M., ed.). Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. Special Pubhcation, No. l:x+172. Hawks, C. A., S. L. WiUiams, and J. S. Gardner. 1984. The care of tanned skins in mammal research collections, Muscology, Texas Tech University, 6:1-32. Herholdt, E. M. 1990. Vertebrate collections management: A personal perspective with special reference to southem Africa. Pp. 1-11 in Natural history collections: Their management and value (Herholdt, E. M., ed.). Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. Special Pubhcation, No. l:x+172. Jessup, W. C. 1995. Pest management. Pp. 211-220 in Storage of natural history collections: A preventive conservation approach (Rose, C. L., C. A. Hawks, and H. H. Genoways, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsburgh, PA, x+448 pp. Jones, E. M., and R. D. Owen. 1987. Fluid preservation of specimens. Pp. 51-63 in Mammal collection management (Genoways, H. H., C. Jones, and O. L. Rossolimo, eds.). Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, TX, iv+219 pp. Lafontaine, R. H., and P. A. Wood. 1982. The stabilization of ivory against relative humidity fluctuations. Studies in Conservation, 27:109-117. Longmire, J. L., M. Maltbie, and R. J. Baker. 1997. Use of "lysis buffer" in DNA isolation and its implication for museum collections. Occasional Papers, Museum ofTexas Tech University, 163:1-3. Kishinami, C. H. 1995. Padding system for eggs in boxes. Pp. 177-180 in Storage of natural history collections: Ideas and practical solutions (Rose, C. L., and A. R. de Torres, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsbugh, PA, xvi+346 pp. 104 Makos, K. A., and E. C. Dietrich. 1995. Health and environmental safety Pp 233-252 in Storage of natural history collections: A preventive conservation approach (Rose, C. L., C. A. Hawks, and H. H. Genoways, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsburgh, PA, x+448 pp. McGinley, R. J. 1989. Entomological collection management—Are we really managing? Insect Collection News, 2(2): 19-24. McLaren, S. B., P. V. August, L. N. Carraway, P. S. Cato, W. L. Gannon, M. A. Lawrence, N. A. Slade, P. D. Sudman, R. W. Thorington, Jr., S. L. Williams, and S. M. Woodward. 1996. Documentation standards for automatic data processing in mammalogy, version 2.0. American Society of Mammalogists, Pittsburgh, Permsylvania, 62 pp. Monk, R. R. 1996. An automated data management system for use in the NSRL, Museum ofTexas Tech University. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation Proposal, 22 pp. Monk, R. R. 1997. Automated data management in systematic collections. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Texas Tech University, vii+118 pp. Monk, R. R. 1998. Bar code use in the mammal collection at the Museum ofTexas Tech University. Muscology, Texas Tech University, 8:1-8. Monk, R. R., R. D. Owen, S. L. WiUiams, and R. J. Baker. 1993. Unpublished Manuscript. Guidelines for the Management of Frozen Tissue Collections, 48 pp. Morony, J. J., Jr., W. J. Brock, and J. Farrand, Jr. 1975. Reference hst ofthe birds ofthe world. American Museum of Natural History. New York. National Park Service. 1990. Museum handbook. Part 1, Museum Collections, xi+l:l- P:44 pp. Parker, N. C, R. D. Bradley, J. M. Bums, G. F. Edson, D. R. Haragan, C. Jones, R. R. Monk, L T. Montford, C. J. Phillips, D. J. Schmidly, R. J. Baker. 1998. Bioinformatics: A multidisciplinary approach for the life sciences. Occasional Papers, Museum ofTexas Tech University, 186:1+1-8. Rose, C L 1991 The conservation of natural history collections: Addressing preservation concems and maintaining the integrity of research specimens. Pp. 51-59 in Natural history museums: Directions for growth (Cato, P. S. and C. Jones, eds.). Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, iv+252 pp. 105 Rose, C. L. and C. A. Hawks. 1995. A preventive conservation approach to the storage of collections. Pp. 1-20 in Storage of natural history collections: A preventive conservation approach (Rose, C. L., C. A. Hawks, and H. H. Genoways, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsburgh, PA, x+448 pp. Schmidly, D. J., W. R. Barber, P. S. Cato, and M. E. Retzer. 1985. The collection management practices ofthe Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, Texas A&M University. Unpublished manual. 1-109pp. Simmons, J. E. 1991. Conservation problems of fluid-preservedcollections . Pp. 69-89 in Natural history museums: Directions for growth (Cato, P. S. and C. Jones, eds.). Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, iv+252 pp. Simmons, J. E. 1995. Storage in fluid preservatives Pp. 161-186 in Storage of natural history collections: A preventive conservation approach (Rose, C. L., C. A. Hawks, and H. H. Genoways, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsburgh, PA, x+448 pp. Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections. 1994. Guidelines for the care of natural history collections. Collection Fomm, 10:30-39. Story, K. O. 1985. Approaches to pest management in museums. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 165 pp. WiUiams, S. L. 1991. Investigation ofthe causes of stmctural damage to teeth in natural history collections. Collection Fomm, 7(1): 13-25. Williams, S. L. 1992. Methods of processing osteological material for research value and long-term stability. Collection Forum, 8(1):15-21. Williams, S. L. 1995. Heat panels for controlling crawling insects in storage areas. Pp. 255-256 in Storage of natural history collections: Ideas and practical solutions (Rose, C. L., and A. R. de Torres, eds.). Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, Pittsburgh, PA, xvi+346 pp. Williams, S. L. 1999. Destmctive Preservation: A review ofthe effect of standard proservation practices on the ftiture use of natural history collections. Goteborg, Institute of Conservation, 6:xiv+206 pp. WiUiams, S. L., and C. A. Hawks. 1992. Condition of type specimens ofthe genus Peromyscus. J. Mamm., 73(4):731-743. WiUiams, S. L., and S. B. McLaren. 1990. Modification of storage design to mitigate insect problems. CoUection Fomm, 6(l):27-32. 106 WiUiams, S. L., R. Laubach, and H. H. Genoways. 1977. A guide to the management of Recent mammal coUections. Spec. Pub, Camegie Mus. Nat. Hist., 4:1-105. Williams, S. L., H. H. Genoways, and D. A. Schlitter. 1985. Control of insect pests in Recent mammal collections. Acta Zool. Fennica, 170:71-73. Williams, S. L., A. M. Wallace, and C. Jones. 1993. Effect of relative humidity on cranial dimensions of mammals. Collection Fomm, 9(1): 40-46. Williams, S. L., R. R. Monk, and J. Arroyo-Cabrales. 1996. Applying McGinley's model for collection assessment to collections of recent vertebrates. Collection Fomm, 12(l):21-35. Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder. 1993. Mammal species ofthe world: A taxonomic and geographic reference. Second Edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, xviii+1-1207 pp. Wilson, E. O. 1992. The diversity of Ufe. W. W. Norton & Company, New York, iii+424 pp. Yates, T. L. 1987. Value and potential ofthe coUection resource. Pp. 9-17 in Mammal collection management (Genoways, H. H., C. Jones, and O. L. Rossolimo, eds.). Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, TX, iv+219 pp. 107 APPENDIX A GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTING TISSUES Natural Science Research Laboratory Museum ofTexas Tech University November 14, 1996 TISSUES: 1. Tissues that are normally collected are heart, kidney, liver, muscle, lung, and spleen. Multiple sets of tissues are collected only for rare specimens and if sufficient quantities of tissue exist. Blocks of tissue may be collected from large, rare specimens (zoo specimens). 2. Heart and kidney are normally put together in one tube. For large specimens, heart and kidney may be put into separate tubes, labeled as TK ?????H and TK ?????K. 3. Depending on the research project and the rarity ofthe specimen, other tissues (brain, blood, testis, embryo, etc.) may be collected. 4. Tissue samples are to be collected using Nunc® tubes. Do not fill the tubes more than 2/3 full. This prevents the tubes from bursting when frozen. Sampling implements (scissors, forceps) should be cleaned between extraction of each tissue and especially afer removal of tissues from each specimen. 5. Before the use of bar code stickers, tubes were labeled with specimen ID, TK number, and tissue type (written twice). The bar code stickers eliminate the need to write on the tube. Simply use the appropriate sticker for each specimen and tissue. Adhere the sticker to the tube so that the code reads up the tube like a ladder; be careful to not cover up the code with the "tail" ofthe sticker. Do not write the specimen's ID on the tube or the sticker. For security purposes, the TK number and tissue type should be written on the cap of each tube. 6. Use an extra-fine point Sharpie® pen for labeling caps. Write legibly and double check to ensure that the correct TK number is recorded on the cap. BE CAREFUL TO NOT TRANSPOSE DIGITS. 7. The tissue type is to be written on the cap of eveiy tube. Use ONLY the following conventions: HK = Heart/Kidney Lung = Lung H = Heart Brain = Brain K = Kidney Blood=Blood 108 L = Liver Tes = Testis M = Muscle Emb = Embryo Spl = Spleen 8. If there is no sticker for a tissue sample, use a blank sticker to create a label. Include the TK number and the tissue type (both written twice). Verify the accuracy ofthe numbers. Do NOT use stickers with existing bar codes, even for a different tissue from the same specimen, as the bar code includes information about both the TK number and tissue type. 9. Tissue samples are to be frozen immediately in liquid nitrogen (preferred for field use), on dry ice, or in an ultra-cold freezer (preferred for lab use). 10. THE NSRL RESERVES THE RIGHT TO REFUSE TISSUES AND/OR SPECIMENS DEEMED TO BE INFERIOR WITH REGARDS TO SPECIMEN QUALITY, DATA ACCURACY, AND COMPLETENESS. KARYOTYPES: 11. Cell suspensions for karyotype are to be stored in Eppendorf® tubes, as Nunc® tubes do not provide an adequate seal to prevent evaporation ofthe alcohol. 12. Cell suspensions are to be labled using the same standards as for tissue samples. The labeling for a karyotype preparation is "Cells." 13. Sharpie® ink is not permanent in alcohol. Use pencil or bar code stickers. 14. It is not mandatory that cell suspensions be frozen, but it is good to refiigerate or put them into a conventional freezer if possible. Do NOT put cell suspensions into liquid nitrogen. LYSIS BUFFER: 15. Tissues intended for DNA isolation may be macerated and stored in lysis buffer. One gram of tissue is macerated and suspended in 5 ml of lysis buffer. The suspension is stored in a 15 ml centnfiige tube. The tube is labeled using the ^^ same standards as for tissue samples. The labeling for the tube is Lysis Buffer. 16. It is not mandatory that lysis buffer preps be frozen, but it is good to refngerate them if possible. Do NOT put lysis buffer preps into liquid nitrogen. 109 APPENDIX B INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING TK SHEETS Natural Science Research Laboratory Museum ofTexas Tech University July 14, 1999 TK sheets are a method for recording specimen data and are no longer used just for tissues. All specimens will have a TK number assigned, regardless of whether tissues are collected or not. Every specimen collected and aU of its associated parts (e.g., ectoparasites, endoparasites, tissue, embryos, and stomach contents) are assigned the same TK number. If no voucher is taken, a TK number is still assigned to the parts. Every specimen that comes into the museum will have a completed TK sheet on file, regardless of its preservation method. Note that some ofthe data items on the TK sheet are in bold type. These are required data and must be completed. HOW TO COMPLETE A TK SHEET: SPECIES - Enter the field identification to the best of your knowledge, written out completely. Avoid common names if possible. Collecting Locahty - Record all information pertaining to the location where the specimen was collected on this part ofthe TK sheet. Country - Enter the name ofthe country or highest political unit. Write out the name completely. State - Enter the name ofthe state, province, or next level of political subdivision. Write out the name completely. County - Enter the county or second admimstrative division of a country such as parish, district, or department. Write out completely. Specific Locality - Record the most specific designation ofthe collecting locality. Write out completely. UTM or Lat/Long - Enter the Universal Transverse Mercator Value^ This is the global posftiomng system for indicating locations -'^e eartl^";^^^^^^^^^^ °" ground distances. In this space you should '"^'"^e the UTM ZONE (2 d>g.ts). UTM EASTING (6 digits), and UTM NORTHING (7 digits). 110 S^S^StiS::^^ '^ --' --^ ^^-™ -rdinates but s^^ fbS:; ii^Sh^s ^^^^^^^ -''-''' '-'• ^-""" ^-— Collector - Enter the ftiUnam e ofthe individuals(s) responsible for the collection ofthe specimens. Multiple collectors are listed as "Baker, R. J. and R. D Bradley (two collectors, for example) or Baker, R. J., et al. (more than two collectors - such as a class top, for example). Names of other members ofthe collecting trip are located in the field notes. Collection Date - Enter the month, day, and year in which the specimen was captured in that order. Preparator - Enter the name ofthe individual responsible for preparing the specimen. Prep Number - Enter the personal number ofthe individual responsible for preparing the specimen. Preparation Date - Enter the month, day, and year in which the specimen was prepared. VOUCHER - Check the blank(s) corresponding to the preservation ofthe voucher. Museum Collection - Enter the collection in which the voucher specimen will be deposited. This section to be completed by museum personnel. Catalog Number - Enter the catalog number ofthe voucher specimen. This section to be completed by museum personnel. Measurements - Enter the standard measurements (total body length, hind foot length, ear length, and weight) for each specimen before preservation. Measurements are taken using the millimeter scale. Weights are always recorded in grams. Male/Female - Check the blank for the appropriate sex. Reproductive Condition - And the data conceming reproductive condition is recorded here. Ill TISSUE - Enter the number of vials collected in the blank in front ofthe appropnate tissue type. For "lysis buffer," "alcohol," and "other" enter the number of vials in the first blank and tissue type in the second blank. OTHER PREPARATION - Place a check in the blank of each preparation performed. MISCELLANEOUS - Age - Circle the appropriate age ofthe specimen. Molting - Circle "Yes" or "No." Broken Tail - Circle "Yes" or "No." Special Niunber - If there is any other number besides the TK number that identifies the specimen, record it here. Comments - Any other information that is important to the specimen is recorded in this section. 112 APPENDIX C SOURCES Tabled Storage Item Description Size Source Rabbit 2 15/16 X 1 '/i X 7/8-7/8(iy4) Opossum 4 5/16x2 7/16x1 7/32-1 7/32 (2 7/16) Rigid Telescoping Specimen Fox 5 3/16 X 2 y4 X 1 3/8-1 3/8 (2 'A) Boxes All Packaging Company Porcupine 6 5/16x2 7/8x1 13/32-1 1515 W.9'^ Street (0.45 white vat, tight wrap base 13/32(2 13/16) Kansas City, MO 64101 and lid in TT-50 beige) 816-842-3711 Coyote 8 5/8x3 11/16 x 1 21/32-1 816-842-8312 Fax 21/32 (3 5/16) Bobcat 7 '/2 X 5 11/16 X 2 '/4-2 % (4 '/.) Puma 11 1/8 X 7 % X 3 '/4-3 % (6 Vi) Long skull 12 y4X 2 7/8x7/8 Prin Tech Texas Tech University Short skull 8 3/8x2 7/8 x 7/8 MS/Box 43151 Specimen Trays Lubbock, TX 79409-3151 Big skin 17 1/8x11 1/8x11/16 806-742-2768 806-742-2734 Fax Small skin 17 1/8x7 3/8x11/16 Fisher Scientific Shell Vials with Titeseal 2 Dram 999 Veteran Memorial Dr. Closures Houston, TX 77251 7 Dram 1-800-766-7000 Fisher Scientific 999 Veteran Memorial Dr. Pint, narrow mouth (uses 63mm cap) Houston, TX 77251 Pint, wide mouth (uses 89 mm cap) 1-800-766-7000 Flint Glass Jars Quart, narrow mouth (uses 63 mm cap) Quart, wide mouth (uses 89 mm cap) Southem Scientific, Inc. Half-gallon (uses 83 mm cap) P.O. Box 368 Gallon (uses 110 mm cap) McKenzie,TN 38201 1-800-748-8735 901-352-9829 113 Tabled (Cont.) Item Description Size Source 63 mm Chelsea Bottle Co, Inc. Polypropylene Caps 89 mm 10 Wesley Street (Lined F-217) 83 mm Chelsea, Mass 02150 UOmm 617-884-2323 617-889-1626 Fax Volora Foam 3/8 in X 60 in X 200 ft Advanced Packaging, Inc. (Type 2A) Seton Business Park 4818 Seton Drive Microfoam (Dow #221) 1/8 in X 48 in X 600 ft Balitmore,MD 21215 Mil. Spec. 1752 410-358-9444 410-358-9495 Fax 114 Table c.2 Chemicals Item Description bize Source Ethyl Alcohol Fisher Scientific 200 Liters 999 Veteran Memorial Dr. Houston, TX 77251 1-800-766-7000 Fisher Scientific Isopropyl Alcohol 20 Liters 999 Veteran Memorial Dr. Houston, TX 77251 1-800-766-7000 Van Waters «fe Rogers Formalin 200 Liters 4707 Alpha Road Dallas, TX 75234 Buffer Fisher Scientific 999 Veteran Memorial Dr. (Monobasic sodium phosphate Houston, TX 77251 monohydrate and dibasic sodium 1-800-766-7000 phosphate anhydrate) Lysis Buffer (see Occasional Paper 163) Ammonia Airgas, Inc. Dry Ice As needed 1101 E.Slaton Highway Lubbock, TX 79404 806-745-4658 Airgas, Inc. 1101 E. Slaton Highway Lubbock, TX 79404 806-745-4658 Liquid Nitrogen As needed Tri-Gas, Inc. 3419 North Loop 289 Lubbock, TX 79415 806-744-4083 115 Table C.3 Preparation and Loan Supplies Item Description Size Source Malin Co. .0403Monel#18(llb.Can) 5400 Smith Road Wire Book Park, OH 44142 .0319 Monel #20(1 lb. Can) 216-267-9080 216-267-9077 Fax Thread (Linen) Gaylord Brothers YA-768 20/2 1 lb. Spool P.O. Box 4901 Syracuse, NY 13221-4901 100% cotton string and thread Wal-Mart Moming Glory Products 100% Dacron® polyester batting Taylor, TX 76574 Wal-Mart Straight Pins Long with round heads Wal-Mart Light Impressions 439 Monroe Avenue Acid-free Tissue Paper P.O. Box 940 And Rochester, NY 14603-0940 Buffered Tissue Paper 1-800-828-6216 1-800-828-5539 Fax 116 Table C.4 Documentation Media Item Description Size Source Prin Tech Texas Tech University Byron Weston Resistall Paper 1001b. Index stock MS/Box 43151 melamine impregnated Lubbock, TX 79409-3151 806-742-2768 806-742-2734 Fax Office Depot 100% Cotton Paper Various sizes 2504 SO'*" Street Lubbock, TX 79413 806-791-1695 Prin Tech Texas Tech University 100% Cotton Paper Field notebook size, lined MS/Box 43151 Lubbock, TX 79409-3151 806-742-2768 806-742-2734 Fax Office Depot Skin Label Stickers Avery #5160 2504 50*^ Street White address labels Lubbock, TX 79413 806-791-1695 Prin Tech 100% Cotton Card Stock for Jar Texas Tech University Labels 80-90 lb. Card Stock MS/Box 43151 (Fluid-preserved Collection) Lubbock, TX 79409-3151 806-742-2768 806-742-2734 Fax Office Depot Sanford Uni-Ball Deluxe Pen Micro 0.2mm (Black Ink) 2504 50^^ Street No. 60025 Lubbock, TX 79413 806-791-1695 Staedtler marsmagno 2 Sav-On Office Supplies Technical Pen 0.30 mm (Black Ink) 4620 50"* Street (Osteoscribing) Lubbock, TX 806-796-1555 117 PERMISSION TO COPY In presenting this thesis in partial ftilfillmentofth e requhements for a master's degree at Texas Tech University or Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, I agree that the Library and my major department shaU make it freely available for research purposes. Permission to copy this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Dfrector ofthe Library or my major professor. It is understood that any copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shaU not be aUowed without my fiirther written permission and that any user may be liable for copyright infringement. Agree (Permission is granted.) ' ' v-y VT. • Y fc«''.' \»^v s|tudent Signature ^^^^ Disagree (Permission is not granted.) Date Student Signature