English 525 Final Research Paper

Language Subordination in Animated Children’s Films

The principle of linguistic subordination, in which language varieties associated with socially subordinate groups are viewed as linguistic deficits rather than neutral linguistic differences, is perpetuated through many media outlets. From newspapers and journal articles to sitcoms and cartoons, socially dominant groups use popular media to enforce the idea that certain language varieties are associated with negative stereotypes. The focus of this research is the animated children’s movie. It is my hypothesis that the majority of characters in these films that display undesirable traits communicate using non-standard English varieties. I tested this hypothesis by viewing and critiquing 10 animated children’s movies.

It is important to distinguish children’s films from animated films in general. There are many types of animated films, including anime, that are made for adult audiences. These films are not included in this study because I am interested in the way the message of linguistic subordination is transmitted to children in particular. Because animation powerhouses like the Disney Corporation are viewed as innocent purveyors of merriment, and because the subject matter of animated films is considered wholesome and positive, these films are the perfect vehicle for acculturation (Giroux, 1996.) The tendency of many households in the United States to collect DVDs and to watch them repeatedly increases the usefulness of this medium as a tool for teaching children (Pandey, 2001).

In order for the message of language subordination to be spread, it must be assessable to the audience. Studies by Day (1982) provide evidence that “children as young as 3 are able to make language attitudinal judgments which reflect adult beliefs prevalent in the speech community” (p. 116). In other words, children are capable of judging people based on language as a result of what they see on TV or in real life. Similar research by Giles (1971) demonstrates that children are able to perceive stereotypes associated with the characters’ accents and are able to assign social status to these characters. Based on this and other research, it is conceivable that children who observe stereotypes about certain groups of people will apply those connections between language and characteristics to the real world. Because many children are only exposed to diverse cultures groups of people through TV or in the movies, their information about these cultures is limited, which makes their portrayal in animated children’s movies unique and therefore worthy of extra attention.

My hypothesis is supported by findings by Lippi-Green (1997), Pandey (2001), and Giroux (1996). Giroux (1996) argues that animated movies assign positive attributes to characters that represent the dominant culture while assigning negative attributes to non-mainstream social group. His research provides examples from Disney’s The Lion King and Aladdin. In Aladdin, the antagonist Jafar speaks with a think foreign accent, and the two protagonists Aladdin and Jasmine speak Standard American English (SAE). In The Lion King, the king and queen speak a posh variety of SAE, and the evil hyenas speak in jive accents that are associated with urban youth. His conclusion is that “children are taught that cultural differences that do not bear the imprint of white, middle class-ethnicity are deviant, inferior, unintelligent, and a threat to be overcome” (p. 106).

Although Pandey’s (2001) focus was lexical items specifically, she reaches a similar conclusion and offers examples from Disney’s Lady and the Tramp and The Jungle Book. The character King Louie in The Jungle Book speaks AAE and is portrayed as slow, dimwitted, and lazy. He is the subject of ridicule. In Lady and the Tramp, the protagonist Lady must contend with evil Siamese cats. The cats speak in an Asian accent and often in unison while using the pronoun we. This characterizes the cats as an amorphous whole lacking individualized identities. Based on these and other findings, Pandey (2001) concludes that the lexical constraints she observed “create an asymmetrical relation of power in which speakers of Standard English are placed in positions of authority” (p. 9).

Lippi-Green (1997) made the distinction between native speakers (characters that speak a socially accepted dialect of English) and non-native speakers (English speakers with foreign accents). She cites two animated movies set in France, Beauty and Beast and The Aristocats. Of the 38 characters appearing in both movies, only 7 speak with a French accent. All are servers of some kind (chef, chambermaid, waiter, etc.). Only one is a woman, and she is the sensual object of lust. The message presented in these two movies is that the only roles for people who are unmistakably French are food preparation and sex. The conclusion that Lippi-Green (1997) draws is that “characters with strongly positive actions and motivations are overwhelmingly speakers of socially mainstream varieties of English. Conversely, characters with strongly negative actions and motivations often speak varieties of English linked to specific geographical regions and marginalized social groups” (p. 101).

My hypothesis borrows from all three of these authors’ findings. I believe that animated children’s films portray speakers of non-standard varieties of English as powerless, threatening, or possessing undesirable traits. To test this hypothesis, I watched 10 animated children’s films (see the list in Table 1). Unlike Lippi-Green (1997), I choose movies from a few different companies (Disney, Pixar, DreamWorks, and Twentieth Century Fox). They are all full-length feature films, with running times between 78 and 115 minutes. I chose only movies produced after 1994 because Lippi- Green’s (1997) study covered movies made until that year. The purpose of this is twofold: (1) I can have a “fresh” and unbiased view because these films have not yet been studied, and (2) I can consider if the passage of time has had an effect on perceptions of language varieties.

In terms of the characters represented in the study, I chose to analyze only those characters with speaking parts that are on screen for more than 5 minutes. I consider these to be the “main characters.” I broke them into several categories. First, I determined if each character’s intention is good or bad. Characters that change from bad to good are represented in the changed categories in Table 1. Then I determined which characters speak with a foreign accent and then what English language variety the other characters speak. I considered an accent to be a set of phonetic traits from a native language that carried over to a second language. I considered an English dialect to be a regional variety of English distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary that differs from SAE. Table 1A shows the breakdown of all the characters that speak non-standards English varieties. Table 1B shows the characters that speak SAE. The varieties of non- SAE used in the movies are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 1A Movie Title Total Non- Good Non- Changed Bad Non- SAE Speakers SAE Non-SAE SAE Speakers Speakers Speakers Anastasia (2001) 5 2 2 1 Antz (1998) 7 6 1 — Brother Bear (2003) 5 5 — — Emperor’s New 3 2 — 1 Groove (2000) Finding Nemo (2003) 9 9 — — The Incredibles 3 2 1 — (2004) Mulan (1998) 8 7 — 1 Pocahontas (1995) 9 4 4 1 Toy Story (1995) 3 3 — — Toy Story 2 (1999) 4 4 — — Total 56 44 8 4

TABLE 1B Movie Title Total SAE Good SAE Changed SAE Bad SAE Speakers Speakers Speakers Speakers Anastasia (2001) 2 1 1 — Antz (1998) 4 3 — 1 Brother Bear (2003) 3 3 — — Emperor’s New 5 3 2 — Groove (2000) Finding Nemo (2003) 9 9 — — The Incredibles 5 4 — 1 (2004) Mulan (1998) 6 4 — 2 Pocahontas (1995) 3 3 — — Toy Story (1995) 7 6 — 1 Toy Story 2 (1999) 11 8 1 2 Total 55 44 4 7

TABLE 2 Non-SAE Number Percent of Accented Speakers English African American English 5 9% Dialects British English (working class) 3 5% Australian English 5 9% British English (upper class) 3 5% California surfer English 2 4% Canadian English 2 4% Chicano English 1 2% Midwest English 5 9% Native American English 4 8% New York English (working class) 10 18% New York English (upper class) 2 4% Southern English 2 4% Austrian/German Accent 1 2% Foreign- Chinese Accent 5 9% Accented French Accent 1 2% English Russian Accent 4 8% Scottish Accent 1 2%

The data I collected do not represent a clear conclusion. There are almost equal numbers of SAE speakers and non-SAE speakers. Good and bad qualities seem to be equally distributed among the different speakers. If one comparison is obvious, it is that more bad guys speak SAE than a non-standard variant. But numbers do not tell the whole story. In order to analyze the data, it is important to investigate the motivation behind using accents in animated children’s films. In the following sections, I will describe the reasons that filmmakers apply accents to their characters, and I will provide examples from the 10 movies that I viewed. In light of this discussion, it will be clear that, when utilized in certain ways, non-standard language varieties are paired with undesirable traits and therefore support the principle of language subordination.

(SETTING) Filmmakers often use language variety in a utilitarian way: to signal the setting of a film. In cases where a character comes to the United States from somewhere else, an accent is used to establish that character’s origin. Within the United States, dialects are used to show the region where the film takes place. The film Antz is set in an anthill in New York City. The anthill’s shape mimics the city’s skyline, but that is all the visual evidence of the setting. The film explores themes of autonomy born out of society’s pressure to conform. Filmmakers had to link the communal work-ethic that ants are famous for to people so that children could relate. They therefore assigned a New York working class dialect to 4 working class characters in the movie that eventually triumph over the leaders of the colony. The royalty and military general do not have the same accent, which separates them from the workers who are the focus of the story. When the setting is outside the United States, accents can be used to show that the logical language of the setting would not be SAE (Lippi-Green, 1997). Both Mulan and Anastasia are set outside the United States. In Mulan, the setting is China during the time of Mongolian invasions. Eight of the 14 characters speak with a Chinese accent. Four of the 7 characters in Anastasia speak with a Russian accent, which reflects one of the settings of the movie and the origin of the good guys. Interestingly, in both movies, the female leads and their love interests speak SAE, even though all are natives of the country in which the story is taking place. So while the role of the non-standard English speakers is to convey the setting, the role of the SAE speakers is to portray youth and beauty and love.

Often, when a language variety has been signaled as “the norm” for a movie, those characters that do not use that variety could be considered “outsiders.” Indeed, if those characters also look different, the audience knows that those characters do not belong. In the movie Pocahontas, which is set in the United States at the time the British were colonizing it, the characters that sailed from England speak varieties of British English. Three of the 6 Native American characters speak in a Native American English dialect. They are the wise elders. The other three speak SAE. It is important to note here that the 3 SAE speakers are Pocahontas and two other young and beautiful Native Americans. In this movie, the British are the outsiders with negative intentions. The speakers of the British English working class dialect include John Smith and his friends, who talk about killing Indians and taking the gold at the beginning of the movie. The audience sees that John Smith is different when he saves a man from drowning, which none of the other sailors are willing to do. But at the conclusion of the movie, all of the speakers of the British English working class dialect have had a change of heart and are good guys. In the end, only the speaker of a British English upper class dialect (General Ratcliff) still has evil intentions toward the Native Americans.

In Finding Nemo, the setting is the Indian Ocean surrounding Australia. Therefore, some characters, animal and human, use an Australian English dialect. Interestingly, those are the only ones that could potentially harm the protagonists, Marlin and Dory. For example, the sharks that form the “fish are friends” club have the capability to eat the two good guys. The pelican that acts a messenger between the fish in the tank and the rest of the world could also potentially eat Dory and Marlin. The same goes for the dentist who owns the tank and steals Nemo from the ocean. The other dangerous characters (jellyfish, a whale, and an angler fish, to name a few) do not speak. The characters that speak SAE are all victims: Dory and Marlin are endlessly searching, and Nemo and the other fish are trapped in a tank. The reason for this could be because there is no real “bad guy” in the movie. The characters are struggling against nature, in a sense, which is represented with the Australian English dialect.

(COMIC RELIEF) Because the target audience of these animated films is children, filmmakers steer clear of or gloss over upsetting plot developments. In movies that deal with serious issues or very scary characters, the filmmaker often create a “break” for the audience so that the suspense does not get too intense, which is referred to as comic relief. One way that they do this is by alternating serious scenes with scenes that have funny music or silly characters. Children can identify those silly characters by how they look or what they do. In Pocahontas, which deals with death and immanent war, animals provide a measure of comic relief by doing dumb things. The raccoon is routinely stealing biscuits from the General’s pampered pup, which is often bathing or dressing up in posh outfits.

Funny characters can also sound different. Accents can be amusing to children if they hear those accents infrequently. There is humor in things that are different and strange. In Finding Nemo, the protagonist Nemo finds himself in a strange glass box place after being captured by a human from the ocean. To set the audience at ease, the characters in the fish tank are a collection of funny and different personalities. One fish loves the bubbles from the treasure chest. Another thinks her reflection is her sister. And one character, the shrimp, has an exaggerated French accent. He sounds very different from the other fish in the tank, all of whom speak SAE. He also spends most of his time hiding in a diver’s helmet statue in the tank. Both of these traits emphasize his difference, which make his accent even funnier. Later in the movie, the audience sees this very phenomenon played out with Marlin and the sea turtles. The baby sea turtle is explaining how to exit the current and is using lexical items that are common in his dialect, the California “surfer” dialect. Marlin doesn’t understand, saying “It’s like he’s trying to speak to me, I know it! You know you’re really cute, but I don’t know what you’re saying!” This misunderstanding, which has language variety at its heart, is a source of amusement for the audience.

In Brother Bear, death and family obligation are constant themes. Keenai, the main protagonist, watches his brother, Sitka, die after Sitka tried to protect Keenai from a bear. In retaliation, Keenai kills the bear. To teach him a lesson about love, Sitka’s spirit transforms Keenai into a bear. In his journey to be transformed back, Keenai befriends Koda, which he finds out is the son of the bear he killed. With such heavy themes, some comic relief is necessary. Throughout the film, Rut and Took, two moose, lighten the mood with their banter. They speak a Canadian English dialect, which is a little out of place because the setting is Alaska and because they are the only ones that use that dialect. They also get their horns stuck in things and get confused easily, which adds to their value as funny characters.

In Anastasia, the villain, Rasputin, is a walking corpse whose curse keeps him animated. His appearance is scary, and the ghouls he dispenses to kill Anastasia are eerie and menacing. To balance his dark demeanor, the filmmakers gave him a silly sidekick with a Midwestern English dialect. The sidekick, a white bat named Bartok, makes jokes and generally lightens with witticisms and odd observations: “Well, sir, I guess a curse just ain’t what it used to be.” Once again, the humor is in his language, which does not fit in the setting and sounds silly to those who don’t speak it. His character, while initially an accessory to Rasputin’s dark purpose, has a change of heart. So the dialect is not associated with evil intent; it simply provides a source of comic relief.

(CHARACTERIZATION) How a character sounds reveals a lot about his or her personality. As Lippi-Green (1997) notes, “film uses language variation and accent to draw character quickly, building on established preconceived notions associated with specific regional loyalties, ethnic, racial, or economic alliances” (p. 81). These characterizations are based on stereotypes that are popular in Western society and that are continually reinforced. That these stereotypes exist and are perpetuated by adults is a subject that I can’t tackle in this article. That they are enforced in animated form for children to absorb is what I plan to prove. The setting of Emperor’s New Groove is Peru during the time of the Incan civilization. None of the characters have indigenous American accents to indicate the setting of the story. Accents instead are used to characterize. One of the protagonists, Pacha, is a peasant llama farmer who helps the Emperor take back the empire despite the fact that the Emperor wants to raze Pacha’s house to make a vacation home. Pacha uses a Midwestern dialect, which is usually associated with hard-working family-minded people. This helps convey Pacha’s motives and values to the audience. It also helps the audience understand why his home is so important to him. The villan, Yzma, is a conniving woman that ties to kill the Emporer and take his place. She speaks a dialect of upper class British English. She often dresses in gowns and has her helper carry her on his back so she doesn’t have to walk. In essence, she thinks she is more important than everyone else. Another character, a waitress, uses a New York working class dialect. This reflects the stereotype of the bored server who gives bad service and sets the scene of the greasy diner with bad food and worse coffee. Her monotone speech and deadpan delivery of jokes enforces the bad attitude.

Another New York dialect is used in Antz. Muffy and Chip, two yellowjackets that try to help the protagonists, speak in an upper class New York dialect that is classified by its r-lessness. They encounter the movie’s protagonist and love interest and try to help them. Muffy describes the ants as dirty and hungry and, after Muffy’s tantrum, Chip commends Muffy on her good heart and her willingness to help society’s cast-offs. It is clear that the yellowjackets consider the ants as “below” them socially. Also, Muffy’s tantrum portrays her as a spoiled brat. The New York upper class dialect helps characterize them as the wealthy elite, a group that is associated with disdain and pity for the working class. Another character, Barbados, represents the opposite end of the spectrum. He is a solider in the ant army that uses the AAE dialect. Barbados’s dialect reflects a stereotype because the stereotypical solider is lower to middle class, and the stereotypical lower to middle class citizen is an ethnic minority.

AAE is used in the film Mulan for a different effect. Mulan, the only daughter of a respected warrior, goes to war to prevent her father from going. She must pretend to be a man. Mushoo, a family guardian that is sent to protect Mulan, is a wisecracking AAE speaker. He tries to teach her how to act like a man, and he tried to help her keep up during army training. His efforts always failed. His solution to Mulan’s problems is to try to cheat the system. In the end, Mulan succeeds without his help; in fact, she does the opposite of what he suggests. So the one character using the AAE dialect is a silly, hapless character that is always getting into trouble by avoiding work. Two other characters, Mulan’s friends in the army, speak a New York working class dialect. They are shiftless slackers in the army training camp that get into fights and talk back to the commanding officer. The NY working class dialect is often associated with “tough” people like construction workers and gang members. A sight gag at the conclusion of the movie enforces this connection. The two men must dress up as geishas to infiltrate the bad guy’s hideout. Once inside, they fight with and subdue the bad guys while wearing dresses and make-up.

In Brother Bear, two characters speak AAE. One is Keenai’s friend Koda, and one is the leader of a group of bears named Tug. Both Koda and Tug have strong ties to their bear community. They, along with all the other bears, travel miles to the salmon run to have a kind of family reunion with the other bears. Tug acts as the ring leader when it’s time to tell stories, which is an important event. Koda also loves to tell stories and often embellishes. The African American community is considered to be family oriented and is considered to value the art of storytelling. In this movie, the filmmakers needed to portray two communities that are separate but very much alike to show the connectedness of nature and all living beings. They chose Native American and African American communities, which both have close family networks and a history of storytelling. The two representatives of the bear community therefore speak AAE.

The French shrimp in Finding Nemo has an accent that serves another purpose in addition to infuse comic relief. The shrimp’s job in the tank is to keep it clean by eating the algae off the fish and other surfaces. Just as Lippi-Green (1997) found, the French character in this movie is associated with food. Other characters in the movie are likewise characterized through language. The sea turtles show the protagonists how to navigate the East Australian Current to get to Sydney. The turtles speak using a California “surfer” dialect. They are portrayed as thrill seekers that ride the current to experience the rush. Crush’s laid back parenting philosophy is in direct opposition to Marlin’s overprotective mentality. Much like the surfers in California, these sea turtles that speak the California surfer dialect are laid back and go with the flow.

In The Incredibles, the character Edna Mode is a fashion designer. She provides costumes to all the superheroes. She uses short sentences, gives curt replies, is bossy and loud, and doesn’t listen. She also speaks with an Austrian accent. This accent, along with her speech style, characterizes her as a typical Eastern European. Eastern Europeans are often considered “cold” because their social norms are different from the United States. In the context of the movie, she is characterized as Austrian because many well known fashion designers are from European countries and they are often quirky and eccentric.

(NAME RECOGNITION) In some instances, filmmakers depend simply on the voice, not the dialect or accent, to provide characterization. They seek out famous movie or television personalities who have an easily recognizable voice to flesh out the characters the filmmakers created. Some times, the filmmaker even considers the actor’s facial features and mannerisms while creating the animated character (Lippi-Green, 1997). For filmmakers, it’s a quick and easy way to develop a character. For example, in the movie Antz, the main character Zee is an ant that is in therapy and feels inadequate because he doesn’t fit in with the colony mentality. Woody Allen provides the voice. The character is introspective and quirky, so Woody Allen’s distinct personality is a perfect match. The facial expressions are even the same.

In Toy Story and Toy Story 2, the two main good guys are a cowboy doll (Woody) and spaceman action figure (Buzz Lightyear), voiced by Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, respectively. Tom Hanks portrays himself as a happy-go-lucky guy, and Tim Allen is often the “man’s man” like his character in the television show Home Improvement. Allen’s Buzz is a headstrong alpha male type that often acts without thinking. Hanks’s Woody has the same easy going attitude; the artists even made him tall like Hanks.

This also applies to a few characters in recent Disney and Pixar movies that are all voiced by John Ratzenberger from the popular television show Cheers. Mr. Ratzenberger voices a character in 3 of the 10 films I studied: the well-meaning but dim-witted piggy bank Hamm in Toy Story and Toy Story 2 and the well-meaning but dim-witted school of fish in Finding Nemo. These characters are based on Ratzenberger’s character Cliff in Cheers, who was a kind but slow postal worker.

TABLE 3 Movie Reason for Dialect/Accent Title Setting Comic Characterizatio Name Unclear Relief n Recognition Anastasia 4 (Russian) 1 — — — (2001) (Midwest) Antz 4 (NY — 3 (AAE, NY 1 (NY — (1998) working upper class) working class) class) Brother 1 (Native 2 2 (AAE) — — Bear American) (Canadian) (2003) Emperor’s — — 3 (British upper — — New class, Midwest, Groove NY working (2000) class) Finding 5 3 (French, 3 (French, 1 (Midwest) — Nemo (Australian) Californian) Californian) (2003) The — — 1 (Austrian) — 2 (AAE, Incredibles Chicano) (2004) Mulan 4 (Chinese) — 3 (AAE, NY — — (1998) working class) Pocahontas 3 (Native — 6 (British, — — (1995) American) Scottish) Toy Story — — — 1 (Midwest) 2 (NY (1995) working class, Southern) Toy Story — — — 1 (Midwest) 3 (NY 2 (1999) working class, Southern)

(CONCLUSION) After examining the filmmakers’ motivations for choosing to include dialects or accents in their movies, a pattern emerges. For the purposes of this research, I ignored the setting and name recognition categories (see Table 3). Neither of those categories seems to be a useful vehicle for linguistic subordination. The focus is on the comic relief and characterization categories. It is clear that the majority of the characters that speak with dialects or accents have negative qualities or undesirable traits. In Brother Bear, the Canadian English speaking moose are silly and dim-witted. The AAE-speaking dragon in Mulan is a lazy wise-cracking failure. The French-accented shrimp in Finding Nemo is cast in a food service role.

More importantly, the data show that certain dialects or accents are marginalized more than others. In all of the movies studied, the upper class English speakers (both New York and British varieties) are characterized as snobs. Yzma in Emperor’s New Groove likes to be carried around and wears gowns in the jungle. The yellowjackets in Antz consider the ants beneath them. General Ratcliff is the only character in the movie Pocahontas that does not have a change of heart; he considers himself superior to Native Americans. He also wears furs and jewels and eats feasts while the other British speakers starve.

The working class English speakers are also marginalized in the movies studied. In Mulan, the two New York working class dialect speaking friends are foul-mouthed thugs that like to fight. In Emperor’s New Groove, the New York working class dialect speaker is a stereotypical lazy and cross waitress working in a filthy diner. And in Pocahontas, all of the working class British English speakers are willing to exploit the Native Americans to acquire gold. They are also portrayed as lazy, mean-spirited, and stupid. These examples support the principle of linguistic subordination because speakers of nonstandard dialects and speakers with accents are characterized as mean, lazy, pompous, and otherwise undesirable.

In movies in which the majority of characters speak a subordinated dialect or with an accent, the young and beautiful protagonists speak SAE. In Pocahontas, in which it would make sense for the Native American characters to speak a Native American dialect, Pocahontas, her friend Nakoma, and the young and proud Kokoum speak SAE. The elders and the “others” speak either a Native American dialect or British English. In Anastasia, the only characters that speak SAE are Anastasia and her love interest Dimitri, both of whom should be speaking Russian because the movie is set in Russia. In Mulan, most of the characters have Chinese accents because the movie is set in China. But Mulan and her love interest Li Shang both speak SAE. And in Brother Bear, the only SAE speakers are the three young Native American brothers. These examples support the principle of linguistic subordination because speakers of the standard dialect are characterized as young, beautiful, good, and pure.

There are, of course, exceptions to these observations. The character of John Smith in Pocahontas speaks a working class British English dialect, but he is one of the main protagonists and is young, beautiful, and good. He is the only character that speaks a British English dialect that is good. The sea turtles in Finding Nemo are associated with good traits. They save Marlin and Dori from the jellyfish and help teach Marlin about parenting. In Toy Story and Toy Story 2, the use of accents seems to be without purpose. The standard speakers and the nonstandard speakers have virtually the same motivations and traits. In The Incredibles and Brother Bear, the AAE speakers are associated with positive characteristics and are not marginalized.

References

Day, R. (1982) “Children’s attitude toward language.” Cited in: E. Bouchard-Ryan & H. Giles (Eds.) Attitudes towards language variation. 186–201. London: Edward Arnold. Cited in: A. Pandey (2001) “‘Scatterbrained apes’ and ‘mangy fools’: Lexicalizations of ideology in children’s animated movies.” Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education, 1(3). http://www.utpjournals.com/simile (11/2007).

Giles, H. (1971) “Ethnocentrism and the Evaluation of Accented Speech.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 10:187–188. Cited in: Wenke, E. (1998). “Accents in Children’s Animated Features as a Device for Teaching Children to Ethnocentrically Discriminate.” http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/popcult/handouts/wenkeric.htm (11/2007).

Giroux, H. A. (1996) Fugitive cultures: Race, violence and youth. New York: Routledge. Lippi-Green, R. (1997) English with an Accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge.

Pandey, A. (2001) “‘Scatterbrained apes’ and ‘mangy fools’: Lexicalizations of ideology in children’s animated movies.” Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education, 1(3). http://www.utpjournals.com/simile (11/2007).