Period 1: Technological and Environmental Transformations, to C

Period 2 Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies ▪ c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. ▪

Key Concept 2.1. The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions

I. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by. A. The association of monotheism with Judaism was further developed with the codification of the Hebrew Scriptures, which also showed Mesopotamian influences. Around 600 B.C.E. and 70 C.E., the Assyrian and Roman empires, respectively, created Jewish diasporic communities and destroyed the kingdom of Israel as a theocracy. Notes: Diaspora means dispersion or the scattering of people. Diasporic communities maintain and preserve their people's cultural traditions, often in the face of persecution. Judaism is considered the world's first monotheistic religion. Monotheism is the belief in one deity. It was a foundation of Western society and Christianity. The Hebrew Bible was a history and law book written by Jews from their own past. In 539B.C.E. Cyrus allows 40,000 exiles back into Jerusalem to build the temples. Most Jews were doing well and refused to go back and thus began Jewish diaspora. Jews stayed true to their monotheistic faith regardless of their polytheistic rulers B. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions — often known as Hinduisms — which show some influence of Indo-European traditions in the development of the social and political roles of a caste system and in the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma to promote teachings about reincarnation. Notes: The caste system is based on hereditary distinctions between individuals and groups , according to their occupations and roles. Comes from the Portuguese word costa and it refers to a social class of hereditary and usually unchangeable status. The term varna was used color to distinguish social classes. There were four main varna. There were subcastes known as jati. Occupation determined jati. There was a category of untouchables who, if touched, defiled your status. Brahmins were the highest and have1,800 jatis. The caste system was never completely rigid but operated so as to accommodate social change. Groups collectively moved up together by moving to new areas or getting new jobs.

II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths. A. The core beliefs preached by the historic Buddha and recorded by his followers into sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism changed over time as it spread throughout Asia — first through the support of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants, and the establishment of educational institutions to promote its core teachings. Notes: The Buddha was Siddhartha Gautma (founder of Buddhism). He wanted to achieve enlightenment.He wanted to change laws of righteousness(reaching nirvana and reincarnation). He rejected Vedic social structure (caste system), as well as rejecting Vedic g-ds and not allowing for his followers to worship them. Buddhism became a threat to Vedic order in India. Ashoka adopted Buddhism and made it the official religion of Mauryan Empire, causing Buddhism to become increasingly important. Over the Silk Road, merchants and missionaries, as well as pilgrims helped to spread Buddhism to areas such as China, Korea, and Japan. B. Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius and were elaborated by key disciples who sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for all people in China, including the rulers. Notes: Confucianism was created by Confucius as a response to the Warring states period. He was originally a school teacher. His pupils collected ideas in a book called the Analects. He didn’t address philosophical questions, because he did not believe that it would help any issues. He created junzi, or superior individuals. Because there was no specific educational system, his disciples studied poetry and history. He believed that education was very important . Three main ideas were emphasized: ren, li, and xiao. Believed individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in society, thus restoring Chinese political and social order. He had 2 major disciples- Mencius, and Xunzi. Mencius believed humans were good, placed emphasis on ren. He deeply influenced Confucian tradition. Xunzi believed that people are selfish, only way to control them was strong social discipline. Emphasized li, established well standards of conduct. Many Confucians held government positions. C. In the major Daoist writings (such as the Daodejing), the core belief of balance between humans and nature assumed that the Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development of Chinese culture (such as medical theories and practices, poetry, metallurgy or architecture). Notes: Daoism was focused on introspection, to bring harmony to society as a whole. There were two major writings: Daodejing and Zhuangzi, believed harmony between people and nature would indirectly affect politics. According to Daodejing, small self- sufficient communities were ideal. They would be so content that they wouldn’t even want to visit their neighbors. According to dao, one should retreat from world politics. Daoism added complexity to Chinese culture. Influenced medical theories such as acupuncture, poetry, metallurgy, and architecture, as well as alchemy and astronomy. It provided a counterbalance to extroversion of Confucianism. One may be both Confucianism and Daoist. D. The core beliefs preached by Jesus of Nazareth drew on the basic monotheism of Judaism, and initially rejected Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread through the efforts of missionaries and merchants through many parts of Afro-Eurasia, and eventually gained Roman imperial support by the time of Emperor Constantine. Notes: Jesus of Nazareth was a Jewish teacher, explained devotion to g-d and love for humans. Attracted many followers due to reputation of wisdom and powers. This alarmed Romans because he said “The kingdom of g-d is at hand” which Roman rulers viewed as a threat to their Palestinian rule. They had him executed, where he came back to life. Because of this his disciples wrote the New Testament, based on Jesus’ life. Paul of Tarsus was a follower of Jesus, he spread Christianity. He traveled across Rome seeking converts. Converts were looked for in the Hellenistic world. Christianity beliefs attracted urban masses. Although Rome did want to destroy Christianity, by third century CE, Rome embraced the faith. E. The core ideas in Greco-Roman philosophy and science emphasized logic, empirical observation, and the nature of political power and hierarchy. Notes: Greek science was based on observable evidence, thought, and reasons to explain the world. For example, Democritus suggested atoms, Hippocrates worked in anatomy. They used a systematic approach to mathematics. The most important thing to the Greek was philosophy. It gave reason to human issues and the natural world. Three important philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates criticized democracy and Sophists. He believed in absolute truths, and came up with Socratic Method. He was aware that he knew nothing. Plato believed the ideal society is the republic, with three social classes. Lastly, Aristotle questioned the nature of the world, used today’s scientific method; he also used the rules of logic.

III. Belief systems affected gender roles (such as Buddhism’s encouragement of a monastic life or Confucianism’s emphasis on filial piety). Notes: According to Classic of Filial Piety and Confucian morality said that appropriate virtues for women were humility, obedience, subservience, and devotion to father, husband and son. Ban Zhaowrote the Lessons For Women, she believed that education should be available to both girls and boys. (What she wrote was one of the most widespread statements on women in Chinese history.) Christianity allowed women to be active in the religious community, they could even be priests. Buddhism did not recognize any type of social distinction, and therefore allowed women to participate in many social and religious activities. Both Christianity and Buddhism allowed women to participate in monastic life.

IV. Other religious and cultural traditions continued parallel to the codified, written belief systems in core civilizations. A. Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core civilizations because of their daily reliance on the natural world. Notes: Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) reaching altered states of consciousness (trances, often achieved with mind-altering drugs) in order to encounter and interact with the spirit world. B. Ancestor veneration persisted in many regions (such as in Africa, the Mediterranean region, East Asia or the Andean areas). Notes: Veneration of ancestors is where people living worship their deceased ancestors, believing that they could help the living relatives. In China they believed strongly in the veneration of ancestors. They believed that ancestors passed into another realm, where they could support and protect surviving family. The family would prosper if the ancestors helped them.African cultivators had distinct cultural and religious traditions. They had a monotheistic religious belief. Sudanic people thought that divine force could take individual spirit forms. They reached him through prayer. Niger-Congo peoples believed in one g-d that created the world and basic principles, then stepped back and allowed humans to function freely. They did not pray to their g- d, but instead prayed to other spirits. V. Artistic expressions, including literature and drama, architecture, and sculpture,show distinctive cultural developments. A. Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms (such as Greek tragedy or Indian epics) that influenced artistic developments in neighboring regions and in later time periods (such as in Athens, Persia or South Asia). Notes: Indian epics were stories illustrating Hindu values. Brahmin scholars revised them and committed them to writing. Mahabharota was an epic that dealt with a bloody civil war for the control of northern India. Greek dramas began with tragedies that had a suffering hero and usually ended in disaster. They covered several universal themes, such as good and evil and the nature of human beings. Then came comedies. These writings contained crude humor and satirized politicians. This showed that Greeks could listen to criticism of themselves and their openness. B. Distinctive architectural styles can be seen in Indian, Greek, Mesoamerican and Roman buildings. Notes: Greeks had paintings on pottery to show everyday happenings. They also focused on the preferred body rather than a natural one. They made temples to their gods using marble columns. The Mesoamericans Made large monuments and pyramids to their gods. They added step stairs to ascend the pyramids. They also made monuments to predecessors. They also carved every day life into stones and pillars. They also made rock paintings of their gods. Romans made hundreds of statues, pools, fountains, and columns out of marble. The had monumental marble arches celebrating military victories and achievements. They also made aqueducts to transport water from the mountains. The Indians set up stone pillars promoting Buddhist teachings. They made sculptures of ideal Buddhist couples. C. The convergence of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs affected the development of unique sculptural developments, as seen in the Gandhara Buddhas, which exemplify a syncretism in which Hellenistic veneration for the body is combined with Buddhist symbols. Notes: Hellenistic culture mad sculptures of a thinner, more realistic depiction of Siddhartha. They combined the Greek view of art with the Indian religion to create their sculptures, statues, and theatre plays.

Key Concept 2.2. The Development of States and Empires I. The number and size of imperial societies grew dramatically by imposing political unity on areas where previously there had been competing states. NOTE: Students should know the location and names of the key states and empires below. A. Southwest Asia: Persian Empires (such as Achaemenid, Parthian or Sassanid) Notes: Cyrus was king of Alchaemenid at first. The government depended on finely tuned balance between central initiative and local administration. They appointed governors to serve as agents of the central administration and oversee affairs in the various religions. Darious divided the realm into 23 satraps-administrative and taxation districts governed by satraps. Rulers built roads across their realm like the Persian Royal Road. The Sassanid “king of kings” provided strong rule from Parthia to Mesopotamia while rebuilding an elaborate system of administration and refurbishing cites. The sasanids created buffer states. The Parthians didn’t have a centralized government. They were skillful warriers and used horses. They governed through satraps. B. East Asia: Qin and Han dynasties Notes: The Qin Dynasty was Chinas first empire. It only lasted 15 years but was important because it set the stage for the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty, in China, selected government officials using the civil service examination. They had a centralized rule and were a bureaucracy. Young men from any class could rise in the state hierarchy through merit. Han Wudi gave large landholding to members of the imperial family, and also divided the empire into administrative districts governed by officials. C. South Asia: Maurya and Gupta Empires Notes: The Maurya Empire had centralized imperial states and a unified government over the Indian subcontinent. They had a strong military and standard coinage to promote trade. Taxes equal to one-fourth of the value of an annual harvest funded Mauryan kings and government, administrated by relatives and associates in districts based on traditional ethnic boundaries. The Gupta Empire was headquartered in the northeast and was a bureaucracy with a smaller intelligence network and less pervasive. They Guptas produced theater states to maintain power. D. Mediterranean region: Phoenician and Greek colonization, Hellenistic and Roman Empires Notes: The Greek colonization, by the fifth century BCE, had formed over 400 colonies. Located in Greece and eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. They had no central government and the colonies didn’t take guidance from the poleis from which their settlers come but, rather, relied on their own recourses. The Hellenistic era was ushered in by the conquests of Alexander (323-330 BCE). Lands in northeastern Africa and western Asia “Hellenized,” or were profoundly influenced by Greek culture. Hellenistic sculptors moved toward more emotional and realistic art and away from the ideal beauty prized by Greek classicism. Phoenicians were organized by a series of independent city states ruled by local kings on the Mediterranean coast. The Roman Empire was in what is now Eastern Europe. They fought Carthage in the Punic Wars. E. Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Maya city-states Notes: Teotihuacan was located in the basin of Mexico. It is significant for in complexity. Maya occupied a region in southern Mexico that included the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. Mayan civilization was a collection of numerous city-states or kingdoms. Mayan society featured kings and ruling families at the top, and a large class of priests who maintained an elaborate calendar and were the keepers of the society’s knowledge of writing, astronomy and mathematics

F. Andean South America: Moche Notes: Moche flourished in northern Peru. They weren’t politically organized as a monolithic empire or as a state. Moche society was agriculturally based

II. Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial administration based, in part, on the success of earlier political forms. A. In order to organize their subjects, the rulers created administrative institutions, including centralized governments, elaborate legal systems and bureaucracies (such as in China, Persia, Rome or South Asia). Notes: A bureaucracy is a body of nonelective government officials. Rome was a bureaucracy and so was the Maurya Empire. A lot of Empires had centralized governments as seen in Key Concept 1. A centralized government is where power is exerted to smaller units. B. Imperial governments projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques, including diplomacy; developing supply lines; building fortifications, defensive walls and roads; and drawing new groups of military officers and soldiers from the local populations or conquered peoples. Notes: The Gupta Empire had a very strong military. Also, the Roman military borders and fortifications was a grand strategy. The Roman Empire was constantly expanding its borders. The empire included Britain and all of the land surrounding the northern and southern coast of the Mediterranean, from Iberia to Mesopotamia C. Much of the success of the empires rested on their promotion of trade and economic integration by building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies. Notes: Many Empires built roads for trade travel like the Royal Road. The Achaemenid Empire built this and it was used for rapid communication across the huge empire. Also the Roman Roads were used for travel of troops. Also, the Silk Roads were an extensive overland network of trade routes linking much of Eurasia, from China to the Mediterranean, and emerging during the classical age of strong empires (c. 600 BCE to 600 CE). Collectively known as the Silk Roads because the high-quality silk from China was one of the principal commodities exchanged over the roads. Although most people did not travel the entire length of the Silk Roads, caravans took more than four months to traverse the 2,500 miles between the western part of Central Asia and the capital cities along the Yellow River in northeastern China was a social system as well as a trading network: ideas spread east and west just as agricultural products and manufactured goods, which were meant primarily for the wealthy elite.

III. Imperial societies displayed unique social and economic dimensions. A. Cities served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and as political administration for states and empires (such as Persepolis, Chang’an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople or Teotihuacan). Notes: Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of Achaemenid Empire. The construction of Persepolis was there for a majestic atmosphere and a place to celebrate special events. Chang’an was one of the most important capitals of ancient China. It was a terminal on the Silk Road. The capital also influenced its neighboring countries o the designs of their capitals. Pataliputra was an administrative capital in ancient India they was used by the Guptas. It was a water fort and was a great trade center and attracted merchants. Athens was a capital of ancient Greece and was a powerful city state. It had a huge impact because of its cultural and political achievements. Carthage was a Phoenician settlement in North Africa that lived between 264 and 146 BCE. Alexandria was an important center of Hellenistic culture and the capital. Alexandria also became a major center of trade. Constantinople was the capital of Rome and famed by its massive defenses.

B. The social structures of all empires displayed hierarchies that included cultivators, laborers, slaves, artisans, merchants, elites and caste groups. Notes: Cultivators worked on farms and maintained crops. A Laborer is a person who does one of the construction trades and does unskilled manual labor. Artisans are skilled manual workers that make functional items like household tools, sculptures, clothing, and jewelry. Merchants profited from trade. The elites are a small group of people who control a huge amount of wealth and power. C. Imperial societies relied on a range of labor systems to maintain the production of food and provide rewards for the loyalty of the elites, including corvée, slavery, rents and tributes, peasant communities, and family and household production. Notes: Slavery was common throughout the ancient world, but Romans relied on slave labor more than any other people. Peaked at perhaps 1/3 of population by the last two centuries of the Republic as empire expanded through warfare (prisoners of war became slaves).Large gangs of slaves worked huge agricultural tracts under pitiful conditions: branded, beaten, inadequately fed, worked in chains and housed at night in underground prisons. D. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period. Notes: Patriarchy is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure. The males dominated the females and they had very few rights. It was very unequal.

IV. The Roman, Han, Maurya and Gupta empires created political, cultural and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to their decline, collapse and transformation into successor empires or states. A. Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments caused environmental damage (such as deforestation, desertification, soil erosion or silted rivers) and generated social tensions and economic difficulties by concentrating too much wealth in the hands of elites. Notes: Military adventure caused a strain on the Chinese economy. Fights against the Xiongnu were expensive and quickly ate through the surplus money. Han Wudi then raised taxes and confiscated land and personal property. Barrack emperors seized power briefly then lost it when they were faced by rivals. B. External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions (such as between Northern China and Xiongnu; between Gupta and the White Huns; or among Romans, Parthians, Sassanids and Kushan). Notes: . The Xiongnu were a threat from the north that fought with bows and arrows. The were not as deadly as the crossbows but the Xiongnu had the advantage of mobility. They alo taught boys to shoot from an early age. When they did not have sufficient trad the had sudden raids into villages. The Romans faced threats from Germanic tribes. The Sasanid were a major threat when they conquered the Parthinians in 224 C.E. The Hun became less of a threat but threatened the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks. They went into Rome and moved around almost at will. The Visigoths then sacked Rome in 410 C.E. Imperial authority the existed for another millennium but in the western hemisphere it gradually disintegrated.

Key Concept 2.3. Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange

I. Land and water routes created transregional trade, communication and exchange networks in the Eastern Hemisphere, while separate networks connected the peoples and societies of the Americas somewhat later. NOTE: Students should know how the typical trade goods, the ethnicity of people involved, and factors such as the climate and location of the routes shaped the distinctive features of the following trade routes. A. Eurasian Silk Roads Notes: Routes were land-based and water-based. The roads went across deserts, oceans, and rivers. Innovative technologies were used to spread along the trade routes. Disease traveled with people and goods. Ideas traveled also with people and caused the spread of religious traditions into new areas. High quality silk was one of the principles exchanged over the roads. Caravan trade was from China to the Roman empire. The main silk road went west until it was at the Taklamakan desert, which meant, "He who enters does not come back out." Goods traveled included mostly silk and spices. B. Trans-Saharan caravan routes Notes: The trans-Saharan caravan routes introduced using camels as a form of travel. Prehistoric trade spanned the northeastern corner of the Sahara in the Nagadan era. Predynastic Eqyptains in the Naqada 1st Period traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean to the east. They also imported obsidian from Ethiopia to shape blades and other objects. The overland route through the Wadi Hammamat from the Nile to the Red Sea was known as early as Predynastic times; drawings depicting Egyptian reed boats have been found along the path dating to 4000 BC. Ancient cities dating to the First Dynasty of Egypt arose along both its Nile and Red Sea junctions, testifying to the route's ancient popularity. It became a major route from Thebes to the Red Sea port of Elim, where travelers then moved on to either Asia, Arabia or the Horn of Africa. Records exist documenting knowledge of the route among Senusret 1, Seti, Ramesses 5 and also, later, the Roman Empire, especially for mining. C. Indian Ocean sea lanes Notes: Large numbers of people devote themselves to trade and manufacturing rather than food. Trade created links between various regions, transformed the Indian Ocean in a vast zone of communication and exchange. The Indian society changes through merchant and artisan guilds growing stronger and more influential, while other things (caste identities, loyalties) stayed strong. D. One of the following: Mediterranean sea lanes; American trade routes; or the north-south Eurasian trade routes linking the Baltic region, Constantinople and Central Asia Notes: Long-distance trade played a major role in the cultural, religious, and artistic exchanges that took place between the major centers of civilization in Europe and Asia during antiquity. Some of these trade routes had been in use for centuries, but by the beginning of the first century A.D., merchants, diplomats, and travelers could cross the ancient world from Britain and Spain in the west to China and Japan in the east. The trade routes served principally to transfer raw materials, foodstuffs, and luxury goods from areas with surpluses to others where they were in short supply. Some areas had a monopoly on certain materials or goods. China, for example, supplied West Asia and the Mediterranean world with silk, while spices were obtained principally from South Asia. These goods were transported over vast distances— either by pack animals overland or by seagoing ships—along the Silk and Spice Routes, which were the main arteries of contact between the various ancient empires of the Old World. Another important trade route, known as the Incense Route, was controlled by the Arabs, who brought frankincense and myrrh by camel caravan from South Arabia.

II. New technologies facilitated long-distance communication and exchange. A. New technologies (such as yokes, saddles or stirrups) permitted the use of domesticated pack animals (such as horses, oxen, llamas or camels) to transport goods across longer routes. Notes: Inventions created at this time helped transporting trade saddles, caravans, wagons to help transport items on camels, horses helped with long distances. Camels started to be used as transportation once Trans-Saharan caravan routes started the idea of using them for transportation/storage. B. Innovations in maritime technologies (such as the lateen sail or dhow ships), as well as advanced knowledge of the monsoon winds, stimulated exchanges along maritime routes from East Africa to East Asia. Notes: Sailors learning to adapt to the monsoon winds that allowed predictable, safe trade in the Indian ocean basin (which led to more trade with few shipwrecks discouraging people and allowing a simple route). But most trade flourished whenever there was only one person,empire dominating a region. This is because regions inside of said empire were much safer to travel in which encouraged trade.The roman and mongol empires saw a ridiculous growth in trade because the empires allowed traders to go from one side of that empire to another with little worry of being robbed. to answer your question, war technologies that helped create those empires: the mongols although with a small army--being nomads that did this for survival-- were expert archers that could attack/raid and disperse (on horseback) when confronting a stronger enemy

III. Alongside the trade in goods, the exchange of people, technology, religious and cultural beliefs, food crops, domesticated animals, and disease pathogens developed across far-flung networks of communication and exchange. A. The spread of crops, including sugar, rice and cotton from South Asia to the Middle East, encouraged changes in farming and irrigation techniques (such as the development of the qanat system). Notes: At the initial stage of the Silk Road development Chinese received expensive horses and the seeds of lucerne and grapes. The ancient world had cultivated grapevine and made wines from time immemorial. But for Chinese, separated from other civilizations, grapes were a novelty. Moreover, Chinese envoys were very surprised when they found that it was possible to make wine not only from rice but also from berries unknown to them. Later Chinese discovered for themselves other agricultural crops – string beans, onions, cucumbers, carrots, pomegranates, figs etc. Various woolen goods, carpets, curtains, blankets and rugs, came to China from Central Asia and East Mediterranean. They made huge impression upon Chinese who were unfamiliar with methods wool and flax processing, carpet manufacture and weaving. Highly appreciated in Ancient China were Parthian tapestries and carpets. Central Asia exported camels which were very appreciated in China, military equipment, gold and silver, semi-precious stones and glass items. Samarkand made glass was especially valued due to its high quality. It was considered as luxury goods. Other goods were skins, wool, cotton fabrics, gold embroidery, exotic fruits – water-melons, melons and peaches; fat-tailed sheep and hunting dogs, leopards and lions. From China caravans carried the well-known Chinese china – snow-white vases, bowls, glasses, and dishes with graceful patterns. Only Chinese owned the secret of making the thinnest and resonant porcelain, therefore, it was very expensive in European markets. Bronze ornaments and other products from this metal, ornate bronze mirrors, umbrellas, products from the well-known Chinese varnish, medicines, and perfumery were also popular. Chinese paper, one of the most remarkable inventions of Chinese technical genius, was highly appreciated too. Gold, skins and many other things were exported as well. Merchants also carried tea and rice, woolen and flax fabrics, corals, amber and asbestos. The sacks of merchants were filled with ivory, rhino horns, turtle shells, spices, ceramic and iron items, glaze and cinnamon, ginger, bronze weapons and mirrors.India was famous for its fabrics, spices and semi-precious stones, dyes, and ivory. Iran – for its silver products. Rome received spices, fragrances, jewels, ivory, and sugar and sent European pictures and luxury goods. Eastern Europe imported rice, cotton, woolen and silk fabrics from Central Asia and exported considerable volumes of skins, furs, fur animals, bark for skin processing, cattle and slaves to Khoresm. Northern Europe was the source of furs, skins, honey and slaves.

B. The spread of disease pathogens diminished urban populations and contributed to the decline of some empires (such as Rome or China). Notes: The silk roads also made it easier for infectious and contagious diseases to spread throughout the classical world. These diseases were exposed to populations who didn't have any immunity to them, causing many deaths. During the second and third centuries C.E. the Han and Roman empires experienced outbreaks of diseases. The three most deadly were probably smallpox, measles and bubonic plagues. All three are are deadly if there is no resistance, immunizes or medicines to fight them. The population in the Chinese and Roman empires declined sharply. When Augustus reigned the Roman empire, there were about 60 million people living in the empire. During the second century C.E., Roman population declined to about 45 million due to epidemics. The most devastating was an outbreak of smallpox that spread through the Mediterranean basin from 165-180 C.E. The disease also killed the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 C.E. Outbreaks and war caused a population decline in the third and fourth centuries and by 400 C.E., the Roman population had probably dropped to about 40 million. The eastern Mediterranean's population had stabilized by the sixth century C.E., but the western Mediterranean's population did not stabilize until the tenth century. The Chinese were hit by epidemics in about 200 C.E. Their population was: 60 million in 200 C.E., 50 million in 400 C.E., and 45 million in 600 C.E. Trade within empires declined and economies shrunk. The Chinese and Roman economies moved toward self-sufficiency. Smaller regional economies were created that concentrated on their own needs and not needs of other regions. There is limited information on epidemics in India and Persia, but they probably experienced epidemics similar to the ones in the Chinese and Roman empires. Epidemic diseases contributed to the instability in China after the fall of the Han dynasty, the weakening of Mediterranean society, and the decline and fall of the western Roman empire. C. Religious and cultural traditions, including Chinese culture, Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism, were transformed as they spread. Notes: Buddhism traveled to merchants who expanded the religion to others. To iron, central Asia, china, and south east Asia. Merchants built monasteries to invite monks and scribes into their communities. These monasteries became cosmopolitan centers because of the diverse language and religion. Both Buddhism and Hinduism spread this way. Christianity was attempted to be ride, because they refused to observe state cults that honored emperors as divine beings. People thought Christians were a menace to the society. Christian missionaries used road and sea to carry their message through the Roman empire and Mediterranean basin.