Symbolic Convergence Theory

Theories of Intercultural Communication

Ting-Toomey, S. (2004). The matrix of face: An updated face-negotiation theory. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 71-92). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gudykunst, W. B. (2005). An anxiety-uncertainty management (AUM) theory of effective communication. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 281-332). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Face Negotiation Theory – Ting-Toomey

People from collectivistic cultures with an interdependent self-image are concerned with giving other-face or mutual-face, so they adopt a conflict style of avoiding or integrating. People from individualistic cultures with an independent self-image are concerned with protecting self-face, so they adopt a conflict style of dominating. (Socio-cultural and socio- psychological traditions)

This is a heuristic theory that helps explain the cultural research of Triandis (individualism- collectivism) and builds on the conflict management typology of Rahim (five conflict styles) and the concept of face developed by Goffman. FNT is closely aligned with communication competence. The major tenets are below, and the theory is evaluated on the next page.

Tenets Clarification

Face concerns are universal and may be During an interpersonal disagreement, we threatened during interpersonal conflict. use face work to maintain face when threatened, restore face when lost, or give face to others by making them look good even if we must give in to them.

Culture influences conflict style. Collectivists are more likely to communicate in indirect ways (mutual-face or other-face maintenance). Individualists engage in direct confrontation if necessary to defend themselves (self-face maintenance).

Self-construal is a better predictor of conflict Regardless of their home culture, individuals style than is culture. who construe themselves as independent are more likely to adopt direct conflict styles than interdependent individuals.

Biconstrual gives competent intercultural Rather than using only one conflict style, communicators an advantage in conflict. competent (adaptable) communicators possess a wider repertoire of behavioral options to use in different conflict situations. To what extent does Face Negotiation Theory meet the criteria for a good objective theory?

1. Is it explanatory? The theory describes variations in communicating style across different types of cultures, but identifies an individual’s free choice (self-construal) as the primary determinant of conflict style.

2. Is it predictive? FNT makes some predictions about the communicating style of an individual based on cultural and self-construal. However, predicting an individual’s behavior in the midst of conflict is not totally reliable.

3. Is it simple? This theory is conceptually simple but addresses a level of detail not found in all the theories we have studied.

4. Is it testable? Yes, FNT is testable and has been repeatedly examined over time by using different experiments and surveys.

5. Does it contribute to communication competence? Competent communicators benefit from knowing and using this theory. It addresses appropriateness (choosing acceptable styles given the mix of cultures), effectiveness (successfully resolving conflict), and adaptability (changing our preferred conflict style if necessary when crossing cultural boundaries).

Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory – William Gudykunst

Cross-cultural encounters are characterized by high levels of uncertainty and anxiety, especially when cultural variability is high. Effective communication is made possible by our ability to mindfully manage our anxiety and reduce our uncertainty about ourselves and the people with whom we are communicating. (Socio-cultural and Socio-psychological traditions)

If we want to achieve effective communication (i.e., minimize misunderstanding) in cross- cultural encounters, we must manage the twin threats of anxiety and uncertainty. For Gudykunst, the key is to be mindful of ourselves, the stranger, and the cultural and communicative differences that exist between us. This in turn enables us to thoughtfully adapt our communication behaviors to reduce tension and potential confusion. His associate William Howell developed the following model to illustrate the effects of mindfulness:

High Mindfulness Low Mindfulness

Conscious Competent Unconscious Competent

Conscious Incompetent Unconscious Incompetent

The 34 axioms of AUM theory identify such correlations as these: Anxiety and uncertainty are reduced in the presence of greater self-esteem, tolerance for ambiguity, perceived power over strangers, attraction to strangers, and moral inclusiveness toward strangers.