Diction: An Author’S Choice Of Words

Rhetorical Handbook Style: The manner of expression of a particular writer, produced by choice of words, grammatical structures, use of literary devices, and all the possible parts of language use. Some general styles might include scientific, ornate, plain, and emotive. Most writers have their own particular styles. ------Diction: An author’s choice of words. Since words have specific meanings, and since one’s choice of words can affect feelings, a writer’s choice of words can have great impact in a literary work. Term and Pronunciation Definition Example Student Notes Connotation vs. denotation An idea or meaning suggested by A good example is the word "gold." The denotation [kon-uh-tey-shuh n] or associated with a word or thing of gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element. The [dee-noh-tey-shuh n] vs. Literal definition of a word. connotations, however, are the ideas associated with gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Writers use connotation to make their writing more vivid and interesting to read. Pedantic vs. simple Characterized by a narrow, often Pedantic: “Though I employ so much of my time in [puh-dan-tik] ostentatious concern for book writing to you, I confess I have often my doubts [sim-puh l] learning and formal rules vs. pure, whether it is to any purpose. I know how easy, plain, basic. unwelcome advice generally is; I know that those who want it most, like it and follow it least; and I know, too, that the advice of parents, more particularly, is ascribed to the moroseness, the imperiousness, or the garrulity of old age.” Lord Chesterfield, “Letter to His Son” Simple: In a flash Buck knew it. The time had come. It was to the death. As they circled about, snarling, ears laid back, keenly watchful for the advantage, the scenes came to Buck with a sense of familiarity. Jack London’s Call of the Wild

Monosyllabic vs. polysyllabic One syllable vs. more than one Monosyllabic: Cats eat meat. Polysyllabic: Felines [mon-uh-si-lab-ik] syllable. are carnivorous mammals. [pol-ee-si-lab-ik] Euphonious vs. cacophonic Pleasing or agreeable to the ear vs. “As when upon a tranced summer night/Those [yoo-foh-nee-uh s] discordant, unpleasant sounding, green-robed senators of mighty woods,/Tall oaks, [kuh-kof-uh-nic] jarring. branch-charmed by the earnest stars,/Dream, and so dream all night without a stir….” A euphonious excerpt from Keats’s Hyperion “Dry clashed his harness in the icy caves/And barren chasms, and all to left and right/The bare black cliff clanged round him, as he based/His feet on juts of slippery crag that rang….” A cacophonic excerpt from Tennysons’ Morte D’Arthur Literal vs.figurative What you see vs. what you get “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by [lit-er-uh l] from language, tone, symbol, etc. Robert Frost is a good example of a piece that can [fig-yer-uh-tiv] be interpreted literally or figuratively. AKA Concrete vs. Abstract

1 Active vs. passive Subject of the sentence is Example (passive): The character is described as [ak-tiv] performing or causing the action foolish. [pas-iv] rather than a state of being vs. subject is the object of the action or Revision (active): Dorine describes Tartuffe as the effect of the verb. foolish.

Overstated vs. understated Exaggerated vs. expressed with Understatement: In Shakespeare's "Macbeth," [oh-ver-steyt] restraint, lack of emphasis. Macbeth, having murdered his friend Banquo, [uhn-der-steyt] understates the number of people who have been murdered since the beginning of time by saying "Blood hath been shed ere now." Colloquial vs. formal*** Informal, conversational vs. formal, “Books are a load of crap,” [kuh-loh-kwee-uh l] proper language. [fawr-muh l] Non-Standard-Slang/Jargon Not adhering to the standard, Legal Jargon: affiant, indigent, ex parte [Slang] usually associated with a language Internet Slang: BTW, LOL, k [jahr-guh n] variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups.

2 Syntax: The way in which linguistic elements (words and phrases) are arranged to form grammatical structure. Term Type and Definition Example Student Notes Pronunciation Order Basic Subject + verb + object Mary likes Dave. [bey-sik] Interrupted A sentence that is interrupted by a “To embrace your hero in his destruction, however— [in-tuh-ruhpt] parenthetical aside to let your hero’s life occur within you when everything is trying to diminish him, to imagine yourself into his bad luck, to implicate yourself not in his mindless ascendancy, when he is the fixed point of your adulation, but in the bewilderment of his tragic fall—well, that’s worth thinking about.” Philip Roth, American Pastoral Inverted Begin with a part of speech other “It was always pleasant “crossing bridges in Paris.” [in-vurt] than the subject. These inverted Ernest Hemingway sentence patterns are used sometimes to delay revealing what the sentence is about and sometimes to create tension or suspense. Still other times, these patterns can be used to connect ideas between sentences more clearly.

Listing A sentence with multiple phrases “Never in his entire life, not as a son, a husband, a that create a list. father, even as an employer, had he given way to anything so alien to the emotional rules by which he was governed, and later he wondered if this strange parental misstep was a not the lapse from responsibility for which he paid for the rest of his life.” Philip Roth, American Pastoral Cumulative/Loose Begins with subject and verb and She holds me in strong arms, arms that have [kyoo-myuh-luh-tiv] adds modifying elements at end. chopped cotton, dismembered trees, scattered corn Makes sense if brought to a close for chickens, cradled infants, shaken the daylights out before the actual ending. of half-grown upstart teenagers.

Periodic Opens with modifiers, withholds Unlike World Wars I and II, which ended decisively [peer-ee-od-ik] subject and verb until the end. with the unconditional surrender of the United States’ enemies, the war in Vietnam did not end when American troops withdrew.

3 Parallelism- Establishing a clear, contrasting “That’s one small step for man, Antithesis relationship between two ideas by one giant leap for mankind.” [an-tith-uh-sis] joining them together or Neil Armstrong juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure. Parallelism- A crossing parallelism, where the Hint: label the subject “a” and verb “b” Chiasmus second part of a grammatical “Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts in each part of the sentence to make [kahy-az-muh s] construction is balanced or the “cross” more obvious. paralleled by the first part, only in and in my prayers always.” reverse order. TWO or more

clauses related to each other MacArthur through reversal of structures in order to make a larger point. Parallelism- Expressing parallel or like ideas-- The government of the people, for the people, by the Balanced often compound. Improves clarity; people shall not perish from the earth. [par-uh-le-liz-uh m] parallelism of predicate means subject doesn’t have to be repeated Sentence Declarative A declarative sentence does Tonight, the Lakers will play the Knicks. Types-Purpose [di-klar-uh-tiv] exactly what its name implies: It “declares” or states something.

Imperative commands, requests, or instructs. Come here right now. [im-per-uh-tiv] The subject is most often you— unstated, but understood.

Exclamatory expresses strong emotion. I hope we will never again undergo such an ordeal! [ik-sklam-uh-tawr-ee]

Interrogative “interrogates”—it asks a question. Who was the contestant most recently fired by The [in-tuh-rog-uh-tiv] Donald? Sentence Simple contains a least one subject and at Tom and Phil made the pizza. Types-Structure [sim-puh l] least one predicate; it can stand alone because it expresses a complete thought.

Compound Contains two or more independent We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my [kom-pound] clauses father's birthday party.

Complex Contains one independent clause Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be [kom-pleks] and one or more dependent 65. clauses Compound- Contains two or more independent After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we Complex clauses and one or more were planning something, but we think he was really dependent clauses. surprised.

4 Omission Ellipsis A rhetorical figure in which one or “The First Amendment provides that "Congress shall [i-lip-sis] more words are omitted. make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech . . . ." U.S. Const. amend. I. Asyndeton The omission of a conjunction from *We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any [uh-sin-di-ton] a list. In a list of items, asyndeton hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to gives the effect of unpremeditated assure the survival and the success of liberty.” J. F. multiplicity, of an extemporaneous Kennedy, Inaugural rather than a labored account. Addition/ Anadiplosis A rhetorical trope formed by “Pleasure might cause her read, reading might make Repetition [an-uh-di-ploh-sis] repeating the last word of one her know,/Knowledge might pity win, and pity grace Done for phrase, clause or sentence at or obtain.” --Philip Sydney effect very near the beginning of the next. It can be generate in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense of logical progression. Anaphora Repetition of a word or phrase at “To think on death it is a misery,/ To think on life it is [uh-naf-er-uh] the beginning of successive a vanity;/ To think on the world verily it is,/ To think phrases, clauses, or sentences. that here man hath no perfect bliss.” --Peacham

Epistrophe The repetition of the same word or “Where affections bear rule, there reason is subdued, [i-pis-truh-fee] words at the end of successive honesty is subdued, good will is subdued, and all phrases, clauses, or sentences. things else that withstand evil, for ever are subdued.” Counterpart to anaphora. Wilson Polysyndeton The use of a conjunction between “[He] pursues his way, / And swims, or sinks, or can increase the rhythm of prose, [pol-ee-sin-di-ton] each word, phrase, or clause, and wades, or creeps, or flies.” --John Milton speed or slow its pace, convey is thus structurally the opposite of solemnity or ecstasy and childlike asyndeton. The rhetorical effect of exuberance. polysyndeton, however, often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up. Punctuation Parenthetical Consists of a word, phrase, or Our leader—a fearless man whom we all respect-- Added/ Aside whole sentence inserted as an was hiding in the library. Repeated for [par-uh n-thet-ikal] aside in the middle of another effect [uh-sahyd] sentence Colon The punctuation mark (:) used to “I walked close to the left wall when I entered, but it [koh-luh n] divide distinct but related sentence was a empty: just the stairs curving up into components such as clauses in shadows.” William Faulkner’s The Sound and the which the second elaborates on the Fury first, or to introduce a list, quotation, or speech. Semi-Colon a punctuation mark (;) which The sun lit up the wall; I shielded my eyes from the [sem-i-koh-luh n] connects two independent parts of glare. a sentence.

5 Dashes A punctuation mark (—) used to “Except for the Marabar Caves—and they are twenty [dash] indicate a sudden break in thought, miles off—the city of Chandrapore presents nothing to set off parenthetical material extraordinary.” E.M. Forster’s, A Passage to India

6 Genre: A literary genre is a recognizable and established category of written work employing such common conventions as will prevent readers or audiences from mistaking it with another kind. Term and Definition Example Student Notes Pronunciation Allegory A form of extended metaphor in which objects and Edmund Spencer, The Faerie [al-uh-gohr-ee] persons in a narrative, either in prose or verse, are Queene equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. Many works contain allegories or are allegorical in part, but not many are entirely allegorical. Autobiography The biography of a person written by that person. The Autobiography of Malcolm X, [aw-tuh-bahy-og-ruh- Malcolm X fee] Biography An account of a person’s life as written or told by John Adams, David McCullough [bahy-og-ruh-fee] another. Chronicle An extended account of historical events without Anglo-Saxon Chronicle [kron-i-kuh l] interpretation or comment.

Diary A daily written record of (usually personal) experiences The Diary of Anne Frank, Anne [dahy-uh-ree] and observations. Frank. Essay A short literary composition on a single subject, usually Francis Bacon’s essays [es-ey] presenting the personal view of the author; analytic or interpretive. Fiction A literary work based on the imagination and not Harry Potter, J.K. Rowling [fik-shuh n] necessarily on fact Non-fiction A work that draws its information from history or fact, John Adams, David McCullough [Non-fik-shuh n] rather than the imagination. Parody A literary form in which the style of an author or The clowns in Dr. Faustus [par-uh-dee] particular work is mocked in its style for the sake of comic effect. Prose Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety Any fiction or nonfiction is prose [Prohz] of rhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech. Satire A literary work which exposes and ridicules human Jonathan swift's "Gulliver's [sat-ahyuh r] vices or folly. Historically perceived as tending toward Travels" satirizes the English didacticism, it is usually intended as a moral criticism people, making them seem directed against the injustice of social wrongs. dwarfish in their ability to deal with large thoughts, issues, or deeds. A literary mode based on criticism of people and society through ridicule. Sermon An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. “Sinners in the Hands of an [sur-muh n] Angry God” Jonathon Edwards Stream-Of- A technique that records the multifarious thoughts and “A piece of dangling driftwood Consciousness feelings of a character without regard to logical or caught his attention and his eyes [streem-uh v-kon-shuh narrative sequence. The writer attempts by the stream followed it down the current. s-nis] of consciousness to reflect all the forces, external and How slowly it appeared to move! internal, influencing the psychology of a character at a What a sluggish stream!” single moment. “Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” Ambrose Bierce 7 Rhetorical Strategies: Strategies that aid the attempt to sway the mind of the audience Term and Pronunciation Definition Example Student Notes Allusion An indirect or passing reference to some “You must borrow me Gargantua's mouth first. [uh-loo-zhuh n] event, person, place or artistic work, the 'Tis a word too great for any mouth of this age's nature and relevance of which is not size.” --Shakespeare explained by the writer but relies on the reader’s familiarity with what is thus mentioned. Ambiguity Something of doubtful meaning; an open-ended conclusion to Hawthorne’s Young [am-bi-gyoo-i-tee] expression whose meaning cannot be Goodman Brown determined from its context, may have more than one meaning

Anachronism The representation of someone as existing In Julius Caesar, a clock strikes though there [uh-nak-ruh-niz-uh m] or something as happening in other than were no clocks in Caesar’s day. chronological, proper, or historical order. Aphorism A brief statement which expresses an “The book of Nature is the book of Fate” [af-uh-riz-uh m] observation on life, usually intended as a “So far as a man thinks, he is free.” wise observation. Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Fate” Audience The people the author is speaking to A writer might use colloquial language when [aw-dee-uh ns] (listeners, readers, onlookers) composing for an audience made up of teenagers. Invective Abuse (tongue-lashing, diatribe, I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to [in-vek-tiv] condemnation) be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth. –Swift Juxtaposition Placing two things side by side, usually to A juxtaposition in Romeo and Juliet occurs [juhk-stuh-puh-zish-uh n] show contrast. between the realistic, informal Mercutio and the This is also a type of sentence in which love-sick, unrealistic Romeo. normally unassociated ideas, words, or “The apparition of these faces in the phrases are placed next to one another, crowd:/Petals on a wet, black bough.” “In a often creating an effect of surprise and wit. station of the Metro” Ezra Pound. Malapropism An incorrect usage of a word, usually with “He is the very pineapple of politeness.” [mal-uh-prop-iz-uh m] comic effect. “Then, sir, she should have a supercilious knowledge in accounts;--and as she grew up, I would have her instructed in geometry, that she might know something of the contagious countries…and likewise that she might reprehend the true meaning of what she is saying.” The Rivals, Sheridan Rhetorical Question A question posed b y the speaker or writer “. . . For if we lose the ability to perceive our [ri-tawr-i-kuh l not to seek an answer but instead to affirm faults, what is the good of living on? --Marcus kwes-chuh n] or deny a point simply by asking a question Aurelius about it.

Rhetorical Fragment A sentence fragment used deliberately for a “Something to consider.” [ri-tawr-i-kuh l persuasive purpose or to create a desired [ effect.

8 Sensory Detail An item used to appeal to the sense (sight, “Just then in the room over us/There was a [sen-suh-ree dee-teyl] taste, touch, etc) pushing back of chairs,/As some who had sat unawares/So late, now heard the hour, and rose.” "My Sister's Sleep," Dante Gabriel Rossetti Shift A general term in linguistics for any slight [Shift] alteration in a word’s meaning, or the creation of an entirely new word by changing the use of an expression Shift or Turn Refers to a change or movement ina piece [Shift] or [Turn] resulting from an epiphany, realization, or insight gained by the speaker, a character, or the reader Tone The writer’s attitude toward his reader and The tone of John Steinbeck's short novel [Tohn] his subject; his mood or moral view. A writer "Cannery Row" is non-judgemental. Mr. can be formal, informal, playful, ironic, and Steinbeck never expresses disapproval of the especially, optimistic or pessimistic. While antics of Mack and his band of bums. Rather, he both Swift and Pope are satirizing much the treats them with unflagging kindness same subjects, there is a profound difference in their tone. Point of View A way the events of a story are conveyed to First Person: I slowly pushed open the door. [Point- uhv- vyoo] the reader, it is the “vantage point” from Third Person Omniscient: The prince's servant which the narrative is passed from author to waited in the hallway, relieved at not having to the reader. In the omniscient point of view, take any risks. the person telling the story, or narrator, Third Person Limited: The prince slowly knows everything that’s going on in the pushed open the door story. In the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story. Using the pronoun “I,” the narrator tells us his or her own experiences but cannot reveal with certainty any other character’s private thoughts. In the limited third-person point of view, the narrator is outside the story—like an omniscient narrator—but tells the story from the vantage point of one character. Theme-Thesis The message conveyed by a literary work One major theme of The Color of Water is that [thee-sis] education plays a major role in success. Thesis Statement Takes a position, makes a claim which the writer will prove in the paper; gives the reader an idea where the paper will go, what the paper is about; a “road map”; often near the beginning of a paper, but can be at or near the end also. Voice The textual features, such as diction and The poet Sylvia Plath's voice, for example, might [Vois] sentence structure, that convey a writer’s or be called that of a victimized daughter, wife, and speaker’s persona mother.

9 Sound Devices: creating sound through the devices and language used in a piece Term and Pronunciation Definition Example Student Notes Alliteration The recurrence of initial consonant "I saw it there, but I saw nothing in it, [uh-lit-uh-rey-shuh n] sounds. The repetition is usually except the rising of the boiling limited to two words. bubbles" The Inferno, Dante Assonance The repetition of accented vowel The words “cry” and “side” have the sounds in a series of words. same vowel sound and s are said to be in assonance. Consonance The repetition of a consonant sound “And each slow dusk a drawing down within a series of words to produce a of blinds.” The “d” sound is in harmonious effect consonance. The “s” sound is also in consonance. Onomatopoeia The use of words which in their “When the train starts, and the [ on-uh-mat-uh-pee-uh] pronunciation suggest their meaning. passengers are settled/To fruit, “Hiss,” for example, when spoken is periodicals and business letter/(And intended to resemble to sound of those who saw them off have left the steam or of a snake. platform)/Their faces relax from grief into relief,/To the sleepy rhythm of a hundred hours.” Eliot, Dry Salvages

10 Figures of Speech Figurative language-means saying one thing but meaning another Literal language-means saying exactly what you mean. Term and Definition Example Student Notes Pronunciation Analogy The comparison of two things, which are alike in several “Knowledge always desires increase: it is like [uh-nal-uh-jee] respects, for the purpose of explaining or clarifying some fire, which must first be kindled by some unfamiliar or difficult idea or object by showing how the external agent, but which will afterwards idea or object is similar to some familiar one. While simile propagate itself.” Samuel Johnson and analogy often overlap, the simile is generally a more artistic likening, done briefly for effect and emphasis, while analogy serves the more practical purpose of explaining a thought process or a line of reasoning or the abstract in terms of the concrete, and may therefore by more extended. Apostrophe The direct address of a person or personified thing, either “O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with [uh-pos-truh-fee] present or absent. Its most common purpose in prose is time, virtue ever flourishing, that cleanseth its to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no possessor from all venom! O heavenly gift of longer be held back. the divine bounty, descending from the Father of lights, that thou mayest exalt the rational soul to the very heavens! Thou art the celestial nourishment of the intellect . . . .” --Richard de Bury

Cliché An expression so often used that its original power has “Where’er you find ‘the cooling western [klee-shey] been drained away. breeze’,/In the next line it ‘whispers through the trees’;/If crystal streams ‘with pleasing murmurs creep’./The reader’s threatened (not in vain) with ‘sleep’. Essay on Criticism, Pope Conceit An elaborate, usually intellectually ingenious poetic “See! How she leans her cheek upon her [kuh n-seet] comparison or image, such as an analogy or metaphor in hand:/O! That I were a glove upon that which, say a beloved is compared to a ship, planet, etc. hand/That I might touch that cheek.” Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet Epithet An adjective or adjective phrases appropriately qualifying Blind mouths! that scarce themselves know [ep-uh-thet] a subject (noun) by naming a key or important how to hold / A sheep hook . . . . --John Milton characteristic of the subject.

Euphemism The expression of an unpleasant or embarrassing notion “pass away" instead of "die." [yoo-fuh-miz-uh m] by a more inoffensive substitute.

Hyperbole Exaggeration used for emphasis. Hyperbole can be used “My vegetable love should grow/Vaster than [hahy-pur-buh-lee] to heighten effect, to catalyze recognition, or to create a empires, and more slow;/An hundred years humorous perception. should got to praise/ Thine eyes and on thine forehead gaze;/Two hundred to adore each breast,/But thirty thousand to the rest. Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"

11 Imagery The collection of images within a literary work. Used to Images of crowded, steaming sidewalks [im-ij-ree] evoke atmosphere, mood, tension. flanking streets choked with lines of shimmering, smoking cars suggests oppressive heat and all the psychological tensions that go with it. Verbal Irony the contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said A character may refer to a plan as brilliant, [vur-buh l ahy-ruh- and what is meant. while actually meaning that (s)he thinks the nee] plan is foolish. Situational Irony the result of an action is the reverse of what the actor Macbeth murders his king hoping that in [sich-oo-ey-shuh nal expected. becoming king he will achieve great ahy-ruh-nee] happiness. Actually, Macbeth never knows another moment of peace, and finally is beheaded for his murderous act. Extended Metaphor A metaphor which is drawn-out beyond the usual word or Tennyson's "Crossing the Bar," demonstrates [ik-sten-did ] phrase to extend throughout a stanza or an entire poem, the effectiveness of this device: [met-uh-fawr] usually by using multiple comparisons between the unlike metaphorically, he compares a sandbar in the objects or ideas. Thames River over which ships cannot pass until high tide, with the natural time for completion of his own life's journey from birth to death. Metonymy Another form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche, in The orders came from the White House. [mi-ton-uh-mee] which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread. – closely associated with (but not an actual part of) the Genesis 3:19 subject with which it is to be compared. This land belongs to the crown.

Oxymoron A paradox reduced to two words, usually in an adjective- “I do here make humbly bold to present them [ok-si-mohr-on] noun (“eloquent silence”) or adverb-adjective (“inertly with a short account of themselves and their strong”) relationship, and is used for effect, to emphasize art.” Jonathon Swift contrasts, incongruities, hypocrisy, or simply the complex “The bookful blockhead, ignorantly read, with nature of reality. loads of learned lumber in his head.” Alexander Pope Paradox A statement that seems untrue on the surface but is true “What a pity that youth must be wasted on the [par-uh-doks] nevertheless young. George Bernard Shaw Personification The metaphorical representation of an animal or The ship began to creak and protest as it [per-son-uh-fi-key- inanimate object as having human attributes—attributes struggled against the rising sea. shuh n] of form, character, feelings, behavior, and so on. As the Wisdom cries aloud in the streets; in the name implies, a thing or idea is treated as a person. markets she raises her voice . . . .--Psalm 1:20 Pun A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the “Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a [Puhn] same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound grave man.” Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet of different words. Simile A figure of speech in which two essentially unlike things “My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun. [sim-uh-lee] are compared, often in a phrase introduced by “like” or --Shakespeare “as.”

12 Synaesthesia A condition in which one type of stimulation evokes the Emily Dickinson, in "I Heard a Fly Buzz-When I [sin-is-thee-zhuh] sensation of another, as when the hearing of a sound Died," uses a color to describe a sound, the produces the visualization of a color. A sensation felt in buzz of a fly:/with blue, uncertain stumbling one part of the body as a result of stimulus applied to buzz. another, as in referred pain. The descriptions of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another. Synecdoche A figure of speech in which a part of something stands for Okay team. Get those blades back on the ice. [si-nek-duh-kee] the whole or the whole for a part [part for whole] Get in here this instant or I’ll spank your body. [whole for the part—i.e. “body” for “rear end” Put Beethoven in and turn up the volume. [Composer substituted for record]

Understatement Expressing an idea with less emphasis or in a lesser “Henry and Catherine were married, the bells [uhn-der-steyt] degree than is the actual case. The opposite of rang, and everybody smiled . . . . To begin hyperbole. Understatement is employed for ironic perfect happiness at the respective ages of (also: meiosis, emphasis. twenty-six and eighteen is to do pretty litotes) well . . . . --Jane Austen

13 Argument/Persuasion Terms: Methods and techniques that help the construction of an argument Term and Definition Example Student Notes Pronunciation Argument A way of reasoning where a subject is In Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, one of his arguments [ahr-gyuh-muh nt] proved correct/incorrect; discussion is that hysteria often initiates false accusations. involving different points of view; attempt to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons for accepting a particular conclusion as evident Ethos (ethical) A rhetorical appeal to an audience based I am a husband, a father, and a taxpayer. I’ve [ee-thos] on the speaker/writer's credibility. served faithfully for 20 years on the school board. I deserve your vote for city council.

Pathos (emotion) A rhetorical appeal - the emotional appeal Bob Dole wants to hurt the elderly by cutting [pey-thos] to an audience in an argument. Medicare Logos (rational) Rhetorical appeals based on logic or We do not have enough money to pay for [loh-gos] reasoning. improvements to our railroads. And without improvements, this transportation system will falter and thus hinder our economy. Therefore, we should raise taxes to pay for better railroads. Claim To make an assertion; to state as true Everyone should buy a computer [Kleym]

Concession Yielding to another’s argument. The name for the point that is yielded. Counterargument An objection to an objection; Argument opposed to your thesis or part of your thesis; can be used to rebut an objection; may require finding a counterexample Deductive Reasoning Reasoning that utilizes elements of All humans are mortal [major premise], I am a (syllogism) persuasion by asserting a claim; consists human [minor premise], therefore, I am mortal [the [di-duhk-tiv] of a major premise, a minor premise, and conclusion]. [ree-zuh-ning] a conclusion (sil-uh-jiz-uh m) Inductive Reasoning Reasoning that begins by citing a number Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life [in-duhk-tiv ree-zuh- of specific instances or examples and for coffee producers, so fair trade agreements could ning] then shows how collectively they be used to help other farmers as well. constitute a general principle. Evidence/Data Support for a claim/assertion Good jobs require technological proficiency [ev-i-duh ns]

Premise Proposition supporting or helping to support a conclusion Warrant An assumption that there is a connection Getting left behind by the technological revolution is [wawr-uh nt] between evidence and claim bad for everyone.

14 Logical Fallacies: Process of reasoning with an error that makes the argument invalid. Logical Fallacy and Definition Example Pronunciation Ad hominem Argument An attack on another person instead of their Green Peace's strategies aren't [ahd hoh-mi-nem] point of view effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies. Begging the question The situation that results when a writer or The Bible is the word of God. The speaker constructs an argument on an word of God cannot be doubted, assumption that the audience does not accept. and the Bible states that the Bible is true. Therefore the Bible must be true Doubtful authority The authority is not an expert, their colleagues disagree, or the reference to the authority is out of context of the situation Either/or reasoning An argument that something complex can be We can either stop using cars or looked at in only two different ways destroy the earth.

False analogy Comparing two things that are irrelevant, do not pose a valid comparison Hasty generalization Not enough support for the inductive reasoning Even though it's only the first day, used I can tell this is going to be a boring course. Circular Argument This restates the argument rather than actually George Bush is a good proving it. communicator because he speaks effectively.

Slippery Slope This is a conclusion based on the premise that if If we ban Hummers because they A happens, then eventually through a series of are bad for the environment small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will eventually the government will ban happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if all cars, so we should not ban we don't want Z to occur A must not be allowed Hummers. to occur either. Example:

Non-sequitur A conclusion that had no visible connection to Since Egyptians did so much [non sek-wi-ter] the support for the claim excavation to construct the pyramids, they were well versed in paleontology Oversimplification Reducing an idea too much so it loses the point Political slogans such as "Taxation [oh-ver-sim-pluh-fah-ka- trying to be made is theft" fall in this category shun]

Modes of Rhetoric/Patterns of Development: Manner of expressing language 15 Type of Writing Terms Definition Example Student Notes Informs, instructs or presents ideas and general truths Classification Identifies the subject as part of a An essay describing how Edgar [klas-uh-fi-key-shuh n] larger group with shared features Allan Poe’s writing could be classified as Dark Romantic. Cause and Effect Arguing from the presence/absence An essay evaluating how the Expository [kawz-uh nd-i-fekt] of the cause to the (non) existence of historical context affected the [ik-spoz-i-tawr- the result writing style of a particular ee] author. Comparison/contrast The subject is shown more clearly by An essay comparing and [kuh m-par-uh-suh n] point out similarities or differences contrasting the writing style of [kon-trast] two authors. Definition Places the subject in a group and Defining the writing style of an [def-uh-nish-uh n] then differentiates the subject from author. other sections of the group Analysis The discussion of a subject based on An essay that analyzes an [uh-nal-uh-sis] content and style excerpt or piece from a particular author. Description Depicts images verbally in space and An essay describing the [di-skrip-shuh n]] time arranges those images in a appearance of something. logical pattern Narration Organizes the events or actions in An actual story with plot, climax [na-rey-shuh n] time or relates them in space. Tells and resolution. what happened, when it happened, and where it happened. Persuasion/Argument Convinces an audience by proving or A piece (pamphlet, article, etc) refuting a point of view using persuading the reader to vote induction or deduction for a particular candidate.

Portions of the above definitions, pronunciations and examples came from the following websites: http://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.html ; www.wikipedia.org ; www.wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn ; http://dictionary.reference.com ; www.educationplanner.com/education_planner/essaya_article.asp;www.uttyler.edu/meidenmuller/commtheory/studentwork/amandasmith.htm ; http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htm ; http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/3terms.html#Tone ; http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html ; http://writingcenter.unc.eduhttp://www.poeticbyway.com/gl-e.html ; http://www-as.phy.ohiou.edu/~rouzie/fall151/analysis.html