Introduction To The ELA Teacher Handbook

Introduction to the ELA Teacher Handbook

The Troup County ELA Handbook and PLU course for third through fifth grades is designed to assist teachers in knowing what strategies, skills, and conceptual understandings students need in order to become independent readers and writers. Literacy requires the ability to think and reason critically and creatively as they use oral language, written language, and other media and technology. When students can read, write, listen, and view material independently and apply these literacy strategies for their own purposes, they become literate members of society.

These questions arise for the classroom teacher: 1. What can a teacher do that will have the greatest impact on students’ learning? 2. How can a teacher fit everything in over the year, throughout the day, and during the literacy block? 3. How can a teacher be sure that the students are mastering the CCGPS objectives?

This Handbook and PLU Course will address these questions while providing information teachers need to effectively teach the CCGPS Standards for grades three through five. The answers to these questions will provide practical suggestions to help students move toward reading and writing proficiency. Our ultimate goal is that students will demonstrate proficiency on the CRCT and the 5th Grade Writing Assessment and that they will also develop a love for reading and writing that will remain with them throughout their lives.

What can a teacher do that will have the greatest impact on student learning? 2

How does the research define the proficient reader and writer? What factors support and nurture student learning? How can we develop students’ ability to think critically, creatively, and analytically?

By wrestling with these guiding questions, a teacher will be able to have a greater impact on his or her students’ learning.

HOW DOES THE RESEARCH DEFINE THE PROFICIENT READER AND WRITER? CCGPS reflects research based evidence of what proficient readers and writers do. Word identification and vocabulary development are critical components of successful reading and are reflected in the RF3 standard. As readers become more fluent (RF4 standard) and independent, focus on word identification is less critical and there is an increased emphasis on comprehension. It is this facility with the meaning-making process that distinguishes proficient readers from less proficient readers. Proficient readers can identify their purposes for reading and identify the demands placed on them by a particular text. They can identify when and why the meaning of the text is unclear (self-monitoring) and can use a variety of strategies to solve comprehension problems or deepen their understanding of a text (Duffy et al. 1987; Paris, Cross, and Lipson, 1984).

Listed below is a summary of research on cognitive strategies that characterize the proficient reader. There is a strong correlation between the research summary of proficient readers and the CCGPS curriculum.

What do proficient readers do? (Research sited in Mosaic of Thought by Ellen Keene)

• Activate relevant, prior knowledge before, during, and after reading text. Proficient readers “use meaning they have developed” and store newly learned information with related memories (Pearson et al. 1992; Gordon and Pearson, 1983; Hansen, 1981). • Determine the most important ideas and themes in a text. Proficient readers use their conclusions about important ideas to focus their reading and to ignore unimportant details from memory (Afflerbach and Johnston, 1986; Baumann, 1986; Tierney and Cunningham, 1984; Winograd and Bridge, 1986). • Ask questions of themselves, the authors, and the texts they read. Proficient readers use their questions to clarify and to focus their reading (Andre and Anderson, 1979; Brown and Palinscar, 1985).

• Create visual and other sensory images from text during and after reading. These images may include visual, auditory, and other sensory connections to the text. Proficient readers use these images to deepen their understanding of the text.  Draw inferences from text. Proficient readers use their prior knowledge and textual information to draw conclusions, make critical judgments, and form interpretations from the text. Inferences may occur in the form of conclusions, predictions, or new ideas (Anderson and Pearson, 1984). 3

• Retell or synthesize what they have read. Proficient readers attend to the most important information and to the clarity of the synthesis itself. Readers synthesize in order to better understand what they have read (Brown and Day, 1983). • Use a variety of fix-up strategies to repair comprehension when it breaks down. Proficient readers select appropriate fix-up strategies to best solve a given problem in a given reading situation (e.g., skip ahead or reread, use the context and syntax, or sound it out) (Garner, 1987).

What do proficient writers do? (Faigley, Cherry, Jolliffee, Skinner, Assessing Writers’ Knowledge and Processes of Composing, 1985)

• View writing as developing ideas. Proficient writers see writing as a tool for communicating ideas, whereas less capable writers often view writing as just putting words on paper. • Are aware of audience, purpose, and appropriate form. Since proficient writers view writing as a tool for communicating, they are much more aware of their purpose for any writing task. Is it to inform others? Is it to persuade? Is it to entertain? Is it to help the writer deepen his own understanding of a topic? Likewise, proficient writers recognize the audience to whom they write. Knowing their audience influences the tone or voice the writing takes. Lastly, the proficient writer combines that understanding of purpose and audience to select the most appropriate form or genre of writing. • Pause as they draft to think or reread what they have written. Proficient writers focus on making meaning, and to that end, they often stop, think, and reread what they have written. They ask themselves, “Does this say what I want it to say? Can I say it better?” Their reflection is ongoing throughout the entire writing process. • Are more concerned with ideas than with conventions. Proficient writers use appropriate conventions of language, but they recognize that what is important is the message they are trying to communicate. They focus their attention on their ideas and the content. They attend to conventions in the editing phase of the writing process, but acknowledge that having something to say is more important than producing writing that just looks good. The final product reflects careful attention to conventions. • Vary the length of the writing depending on its purpose. Less capable writers assume that longer pieces of writing are better than shorter pieces. However, proficient writers do not equate quality with volume. Some of their writing will be brief and concise while other writing will be longer and more involved. The length of each writing piece matches its purpose. • Collaborate with classmates to write or revise their writing. Proficient writers recognize the social nature of writing. They turn to others when they revise and edit. They also collaborate with others to produce joint writing projects. • Assess their own writing. Proficient writers are reflective. They reread their own work and are able and willing to assess the quality of what they have written. They will use rubrics or checklists as guides to determine strengths and weaknesses in their writing. 4

• Make changes or revise to communicate meaning more effectively. Proficient writers reread and revise their writing focusing on the content and message. Less capable writers usually make only cosmetic changes during revision.  Use many strategies and vary them according to the writing task. Proficient writers have a wide range of writing strategies and apply them selectively and flexibly to any writing task. Less proficient writers have fewer strategies and apply them mechanically or only when directed.

WHAT FACTORS SUPPORT AND NURTURE STUDENT LEARNING? Robert Marzano’s Dimensions of Learning (Marzano, 1992) provides a framework for examining how learning occurs. This framework presents five dimensions for learning that help the teacher reflect on the multiple factors that influence the learning process.

• DIMENSION ONE: POSITIVE ATTITUDES Learning is greatly influenced by both classroom climate and students’ attitudes concerning classroom tasks. If a student does not feel safe, either physically or emotionally, learning is compromised. The goal is to create a classroom climate in which students feel accepted by both their teacher and their peers. Students should feel respected and valued in order to maximize their learning. The other component of this dimension focuses on the students’ perceptions of the tasks they are asked to complete. If students are not interested in the tasks or find them to be irrelevant, it is unlikely that they will put much effort into their completion. If the students do not believe that they are capable of being successful, they limit their own potential. And finally, if the directions for the task are not clear, students' learning is diminished.

• DIMENSION TWO: ACQUIRING AND INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE It is said that learning occurs at the fringe of what we already know. If students already know the content of what we teach, no new learning occurs. If what we teach is too unfamiliar to the students, they have great difficulty in constructing meaning and understanding. It is up to teachers to determine what students already know and then present concepts that may be new, but familiar enough so that students can make connections to their prior knowledge.

DIMENSION THREE: EXTENDING AND REFINING KNOWLEDGE This is the information age, when we have access to more information than ever before. So what is the challenge for learners in the twenty-first century? The critical factor that separates those who are successful and those who are not is the ability to apply knowledge in a variety of unique situations. Teachers must challenge their students to stretch their thinking as they develop a range of higher order thinking skills.

• DIMENSION FOUR: USING KNOWLEDGE MEANINGFULLY The most effective learning occurs when we use knowledge to perform meaningful tasks. For example, we may have initially learned to drive a car in a parking lot or deserted street. However, driving becomes real when we are able to use that skill in order to drive ourselves to the mall or to the beach. Making sure that students have the 5 opportunity to use knowledge meaningfully is one of the most important parts of planning a unit of instruction.

 DIMENSION FIVE: HABITS OF MIND The most effective learners have developed powerful habits of mind that enable them to think critically, think creatively, and regulate their behavior. As students take responsibility for their own learning, they are able to set goals and monitor their own progress. Students engage in self-evaluation and view learning as a goal in itself, ensuring that they are on the path to lifelong learning.

Mariale M. Hardiman examined these dimensions and connected them to recent brain research to propose classroom practices that will have the greatest impact on student learning (Educational Leadership, November 2001).

A summary of that article is presented on the next page.

Dimensions of Learning What factors support and nurture student learning? Factors that Influence Learning Best instructional Practices for Supporting Student Learning Dimension One: Positive Attitudes  Provide a challenging, yet supportive Student attitudes and perceptions can either environment by reducing the stress that may enhance or inhibit learning. There are physiological come from embarrassment because of links between the brain’s emotional center and the academic difficulties or peer rejection. parts of the brain that are involved in learning. • Explicitly teach students tolerance, acceptance of Memory and learning are impaired when a person differences, and support of the learning community. is under stress. • Engage students’ emotions by using techniques such as humor, dramatization, movement, or arts integration. Dimension Two: Acquiring and Present new information within the context of prior Integrating Knowledge knowledge. Learning occurs on the fringe of what the learner • Allow students to repeat learning tasks to cement already knows. Activating prior knowledge, making them in memory. connections, and enhancing memory will increase • Use mnemonics to increase student memory of student learning. content. • Activate both the left and right sides of the 6

brain by presenting visual text and through the use of manipulatives when learning new information. • Integrate art, music, and movement into learning activities to activate multiple parts of the brain and enhance learning. Dimension Three: Extending and Provide multiple opportunities to compare and Refining Knowledge contrast text, information, concepts, and ideas. Higher order thinking skills are important to the • Lead students to construct their own refinement of knowledge and learning. These understanding of concepts through hands-on, thinking skills include: inquiry based learning. • Knowing • Provide exemplars and encourage students • Organizing to compare their work with these exemplars and to • Applying analyze their own errors. • Analyzing • Teach students to identify general patterns that • Generating underlie concepts. • Integrating • Expect students to explain their reasoning or • Evaluating support their ideas by citing evidence from multiple sources. • Ask students to review texts from different points- of-view. 7

Dimension Four: Using Knowledge Assign active, hands-on tasks that require Meaningfully students to investigate, analyze, and solve Students learn best when they have real reasons problems using real-world applications. for learning the new information. When the • Allow students to use multiple ways to students apply what they learn in activities demonstrate learning. that require them to make decisions, investigate, conduct experiments, and solve real-world problems, the learning is relevant and meaningful. Dimension Five: Habits of Mind Provide ways for students to engage in Students’ learning is improved by their metacognitive reflection through the use of think metacognition, by setting goals for themselves, by logs, reflection journals, and group discussions. evaluating their work based on self-regulated • Include reflective discussions of lessons to foster standards, and by applying their unique learning the habit of reflection on learning. styles to future learning situations. Summarized from “Connecting Brain Research with Dimensions of Learning” by Mariale M. Hardiman; Educational Leadership November 2001

"It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well." - Rene Descartes

HOW CAN WE DEVELOP STUDENTS’ ABILITIES TO THINK CRITICALLY, CREATIVELY, AND ANALYTICALLY? 8

Much of Marzano’s work highlighted the need to extend students’ learning by developing higher level thinking skills. Students at all performance levels deserve instruction in what each thinking skill means and opportunities to respond to tasks that call for a wide range of thinking skills. In order to provide that instruction, teachers must have a clear understanding of what each thinking skill requires. A classification of the thinking skills is presented below.

Classification of Thinking Skills  Defining problems: clarifying needs, discrepancies, or puzzling situations  Setting goals: establishing direction and purpose  Observing: obtaining information thorugh one Knowing or more senses  Formulating questions: seeing new Basic Thinking Skills information through inquiry  Encoding: storing information in long-term memory  Recalling: retrieving information from long- term memory  Categorizing: arranging information so that it can be used effectively  Comparing: noting similarities and differences between or among things Organizing  Classifying: grouping, and labeling things n the basis of their attributes  Ordering: sequencing things according to a given criterion  Representing: changing the form but not the substance of information  Demonstrating prior knowledge within a new Applying situation  Bringing together appropriate information, generalizations, or principles required to solve problems Mid to Upper Level Clarifying existing information by examining Thinking Skills parts and relationships  Identifying attributes and components: determining characteristics or parts of Analyzing something  Identifying relationships and patterns: recognizing ways in which elements are related  Identifying main idea: identifying the central element: for example the hierarchy of key ideas in a message or line of reasoning Producing new information, meaning, or ideas  Inferring: going beyond available information to identify what reasonably may be true Generating  Predicting: anticipating next events, or the outcome of a situation 9

 Elaborating: explaining by adding details, examples, or other relevant information Connecting and combining information  Summarizing: combining information Integrating efficiently into a cohesive statement  Restructuring: changing existing knowledge structures to incorporate new information Upper Level Thinking Skills Assessing the reasonableness and quality of ideas Evaluating  Establishing criteria: Setting standards and making judgments  Verifying: confirming the accuracy of claims

Another way to develop a clear understanding of the CCGPS is to apply them to a common text. In the table below, questions at all seven levels of thinking have been created to help students think critically, creatively, and analytically about the Pledge of Allegiance.

I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God with liberty and justice for all.

Thinking Skill Verbs Questions Knowing List What does the word allegiance mean? Defining, recalling Name Label Recall Identify 10

Match Choose Organizing Categorize What does this pledge have in common Arranging information Group with other pledges, like the Boy Scout Classify Compare pledge? Contrast Applying Apply What does “justice for all” look like on the Demonstrating prior knowledge Make playground? within new situations Show Record Construct Demonstrate Illustrate Analyzing Outline What does the flag represent? Examining parts and relationships Diagram Differentiate Analyze Generating Conclude Write a class pledge that everyone is willing Producing new information, meaning, Predict to sign. or ideas Explain Elaborate Infer Integrating Combine List ways that a pledge can be used. Connecting and combining Summarize information Design Imagine Generalize Evaluating Judge How could our pledge of allegiance be Assessing quality or reasonableness Evaluate improved? Explain your answer. Rate Verify Assess Define criteria

Thinking Skills are often applied when reflecting on a piece of text, but they could also represent the complexity or depth at which standards in the CCGPS are mastered. Listed below are seven questions or tasks to assess the various levels of understanding for reading comprehension.

• Knowing: Name the strategies good readers use when they are confused in order to understand what they read. • Organizing: Which fix-up strategies do good readers use if they don’t know what a word means? • Applying: What did you do in this text when you got confused? • Analyzing: What kind of text requires the most frequent use of fix-up strategies for you as a reader? 11

• Generating: What would happen if a reader never used the fix-up strategy of rereading?  Integrating: Imagine that you were reading a text that had ketchup spilled on it. Imagine that there were a couple of lines that you could not read because of the stain. What strategies would you need to use to make sense of this text? • Evaluating: Which fix-up strategy is the most important to learn? Explain why you think so.

The objectives in CCGPS demand the rigor and challenge reflected by these thinking skills. Most teachers accept the value of using higher order questioning to promote critical and creative thinking by their students. However, without practice and planning, the questions most often asked are basic or lower level. The following planning guide (see next page) provides a tool that can assist teachers in ensuring that they are posing all levels of questions to their students in any particular lesson. Taking the time to create questions at all levels for a passage or for a standard that has been taught will increase the teacher’s use of various levels of questioning.

Planning Guide for Including Thinking Skills in Classroom Questioning

Text/Lesson ______or Standard/Element: ______

Based on the text or the standard, create tasks or questions that will require student to respond at all levels of thinking. Knowledge: (list, recall, name, label, identify, match)

Organizing: (categorize, classify, compare, contrast, group, sort, sequence, explain why)

Applying: (apply, make, shore, record, construct, demonstrate, illustrate, show how) 12

Analyzing: (outline, diagram, differentiate, analyze, explaining relationships)

Generating: (conclude, predict, explain, infer, elaborate)

Integrating: (summarize, combine, design, imagine, generalize)

Evaluating: (judge, evaluate, rate, verify, assess, define criteria)