Section 5 the Social Contexts of Development

Section 5 The Social Contexts of Development

CHAPTER 15 FAMILIES CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

I. Family Processes A. Reciprocal socialization and the family as a system 1. The family is a social system with reciprocal influences of direct and indirect effects among its members and subsystems. 2. Family systems that practice reciprocal socialization and scaffolding are thought to positively influence children’s social competence. 3. Enhanced marital satisfaction often leads to good parenting and healthier children. B. The developmental construction of relationships 1. How children construct relationships influences their development. 2. Developmentalists believe that relationships are constructed and that individuals acquire modes of relating to others. 3. Two variations of the developmental construction view are the continuity and discontinuity views. a) The continuity view emphasizes stability in relationships. b) The discontinuity view emphasizes change in relationships. C. Adapting parenting to developmental changes in the child: A competent parent adapts to the child’s developmental changes throughout infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. D. Sociocultural and historical changes 1. Subtle changes in our culture influence families. 2. Historical upheavals significantly influence the family process. E. The roles of cognition and emotion in family relationships 1. Cognition and emotion are important socialization processes in families. 2. Parents’ cognition, beliefs, and values about their parental role are important in the socialization process. 3. Helping children learn to manage their emotions is important in effective parenting and the socialization process. II. Parenting A. The parental role 1. There is little formal education to prepare for the tasks of parenting. 2. Most parenting methods are passed through generations and both appropriate and inappropriate practices are perpetuated. 3. Myths about parenting sometimes perpetuate inaccurate information. B. Parents are managers of children's lives. They play an important role in nurturing children’s competent social development. Management strategies include: 1. Initiating and providing opportunities for children to develop relationships 2. Monitoring children's relationships 3. Facilitating children's social contacts C. Parenting styles 1. Authoritarian parents are strict and place firm limits and controls on children. There is little verbal interchange and a punitive style is implemented. Children are often unhappy, fearful, and anxious about comparing themselves to others, fail to initiate activity, and have weak communication skills.

39 2. Authoritative parents encourage children to be independent but provide limits. Parents are warm and nurturing and encourage extensive give-and-take in conversations. Children are often cheerful, self-controlled and self-reliant, achievement-oriented, maintain friendly relations with peers, cooperate with adults, and cope well with stress. 3. Neglectful parents are uninvolved with children and this style is associated with children being socially incompetent and lacking self-control. 4. Indulgent parents are highly involved with few demands or limits. Children usually have little self-control and little respect for others. D. Punishment 1. While corporal (physical) punishment by parents is associated with children’s higher levels of compliance and aggression, and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health, it is still legal in every state in America and is considered by some a desirable and needed method of disciplining children. 2. Most child psychologists recommend reasoning with the child and explaining the consequences of a child’s actions. Authoritarian parents are strict and place rm limits and controls on children. There is little verbal interchange and a punitive style is implemented. Children usually have poor communication skills, are socially incompetent, and are aggres

E. Child maltreatment 1. Maltreatment is a multifaceted problem and includes physical and sexual abuse; fostering delinquency; lack of supervision; medical, educational and nutritional neglect; and substance abuse. 2. Violence in culture and families influences maltreatment. 3. Maltreated children are at risk for developmental problems, such as poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, difficulties in peer and adult relationships, and problems in school. 4. During the adult years, maltreated children show increased violence toward other adults, dating and marital partners, increased substance abuse, anxiety, and depression.

III. Siblings A. Sibling relationships 1. Sibling relationships have positive and negative moments. 2. Other factors that influence behavior are temperament of siblings; treatment of siblings by parents; heredity; models of competence or incompetence presented by parents; school and peer influences; socioeconomic and sociohistorical factors; and cultural variations. B. Birth order 1. Some researchers believe that birth order has been overemphasized. 2. Birth order alone is not a good indicator of behavior.

IV. Families and adolescents A. Autonomy and attachment: 1. Secure attachment with parents fosters social competence in adolescence. 2. Adolescents are able to gain autonomy when adults relinquish control in areas the adolescent can make reasonable decisions. a) Parents need to support adolescents by guiding them and allowing autonomy. b) Some parents exert additional controls when their child pushes for autonomy. 3. Three insecure classifications of attachment are dismissing or avoidant attachment, preoccupied or ambivalent attachment, and unresolved or disorganized attachment. B. Parent-adolescent conflict

40 1. Parent-adolescent conflict usually increases in early adolescence, remains stable during high school, and decreases in the late teens. 2. The conflict often involves everyday occurrences, such as talking on the phone or curfews. 3. Prolonged and intense conflict between parents and adolescents is linked with juvenile delinquency, dropping out of school, moving away from home, pregnancy, chemical abuse, and religious cults. 4. Parents who are active in monitoring and guiding their adolescents’ development are more likely to have adolescents with positive peer relations and lower drug use. V. The Changing Family In A Changing Social World A. Working mothers 1. Due to efficiencies of today and smaller family size, it is not certain that working mothers spend less time with or give less attention to their children. 2. Some nonworking mothers may "overparent" their children. 3. Latchkey children are children that use a key to let themselves into their homes while their parents are still working. 4. Some research indicates that latchkey experiences are negative due to abuse of siblings, stealing, vandalism, chemical abuse, and too much responsibility. 5. Parental monitoring and authoritative parenting style helps latchkey children cope more effectively.

B. Effects of divorce on children 1. More children from divorced families have adjustment problems than do children from nondivorced families. 2. Often divorce removes children from conflicts of unhealthy marriages. 3. It is important to focus on supporting children in appropriate areas to help them adjust. 4. When divorced parents have a harmonious relationship and authoritative parenting is used, children adjust better. C. Stepfamilies 1. Children from stepfamilies have similar adjustment problems to children from divorced families. Problems include academic problems, lower self-esteem, delinquency, anxiety, depression and sexual activity. 2. Younger children seem to adjust more easily to stepparents than do adolescents, perhaps because of the adolescent concerns of autonomy, identity, and sexuality. D. Gay and Lesbian Parents 1. Increasingly, gay and lesbian couples are creating families that include children. Many children with lesbian and gay parents were born in heterosexual relationships with a parent later identifying him or herself as gay or lesbian. 2. Researchers have found few differences in children growing up with gay or lesbian parents and children growing up with heterosexual parents. 3. The majority of children growing up in a gay or lesbian family have a heterosexual orientation. Younger children seem to adjust more easily to stepparents than do adolescents, perhaps because of the adolescent concerns of autonomy, identity, and sexuality.

E. Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families 1. The majority of cultures are similar in that they strive for relationships with children that include love, support, and some parental control. 2. Different cultures have varied practices that involve family and childrearing processes. 3. Minority groups are more likely to have single parent, large, and extended families. a) Low SES parents are more concerned that their children conform to society’s expectations, use physical punishment more, and are more directive and less conversational with their children.

41 b) Higher SES parents are concerned that their children develop initiative and delay gratification, believe that rules should be discussed in a non-authoritarian manner, are less likely to use physical punishment, and are less directive and more conversational with their children. F. Gender and Parenting 1. The majority of the childrearing practices remain the mother's responsibility. 2. Fathers take a more active role and there is an increase in shared parenting. 3. Paternal warmth and involvement with children has been linked to later adults experiencing better social relationships, including better marriage and friendships. 4. Parental solidarity, cooperation, and warmth contribute to children’s development of prosocial behavior and competence in peer relations. 5. Parents are better able to cope when both share in the family responsibilities.

42 SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE TOPICS

1. A Two-Dimensional Framework for Parenting Styles The discussion of parenting styles can be enhanced by providing a two-dimensional framework adapted from the work of Slater (1962). Where a parent falls on the permissive-restrictive dimension in concert with where they fall on the warm-cold dimension may result in different types of behavior from their children. In a crude approximation to Slater's work, the following two-dimensional description is offered.

Permissive indifferent democratic neglectful permissive nonconformist Cold Warm demanding indulgent authoritarian protective abusive authoritative Restrictive

A description of the four parenting styles defined in the text can come out of Slater's more comprehensive approach. Examples of the type of behaviors parents engage in should be numerous, and an emphasis on the behaviors of the children they parent might help bring the points home.

Disciplinary approaches are tied fairly closely to parenting styles, and could be presented at the same time. Parents using inductive techniques to discipline attempt to reason with their children and most often adopt an authoritative parenting style. This disciplinary style fosters compliance, encourages the development of empathy, and enhances self-control. Parents who use a power-assertive disciplinary style make use of physical rewards and punishment. They are most apt to adopt an authoritarian parenting style, and their children are likely to behave when the contingencies are right but may not know how to behave when the reinforcements and punishments are not clear. Parents who use loss of love as a disciplinary style isolate or ignore their children when they misbehave. They are more likely to adopt a permissive-indifferent parenting style. The two styles together produce children who are anxious and uncertain.

2. Adolescent Identity Crisis versus Parental Midlife Crisis The text does a good job of describing the difficult balance of achieving independence in the turbulent period of adolescence when attachment to parents and relationships with peers are important. One important consideration in the success of surviving adolescence is the developmental stage the parents are in when their children hit their teenage years.

The typical teenager's parent is between the ages of 35 and 45. While their children are dealing with issues of identity and independence, parents are dealing with the very first stages of a midlife transition. The parents may be struggling with career problems, marital problems, the beginning of some health problems, and emotional turmoil associated with reaching the halfway point to the end of their lives. How the parents cope with their concerns may contribute to the success or failure of their adolescent's adjustment.

43 Parents in their late 40s and early 50s may actually be better prepared for the turmoil caused by the changes in their children. By 50, most parents have put to rest many of the issues surrounding the mid-life transition. The physiological changes in women are beginning to disappear or are becoming part of their identity. The psychological changes men undergo have just about run their course and the troubles associated with the onset of old age have not yet begun to take their toll. Parents may have the time and energy to be open to the needs of their adolescents during this period without having to deal with similar issues of identity and physical changes.

With more and more people waiting until their mid- to late 30s to have children, more and more people will be having teenagers when they are in their late fifties and even early 60s. While parents are dealing with the difficulties of chronic illness, the ends of their careers, and thoughts of retirement, they may not have the energy to guide their teens through the many changes they are experiencing. Teenagers will also have the added burden of dealing with the aging of their parents before they fully understand what it means to be an adult. The combination can make for a difficult transition; however, with open communication and an understanding of the developmental needs of both the teen and older adults, families can remain attached, and still encourage the development of independence.

3. Childhood Traumas

Three types of childhood traumas are victimization, loss, and family pathology. Here is a brief introduction to each of these types.

I. Victimization. This category includes bullying, assault, robbery, rape, incest (which can be put under family pathology), and serious accidents.

A. Stages 1. Impact a) Usually high intensity and short duration b) Emotional shock symptoms such as numbness, feelings of vulnerability, and helplessness c) Bodily symptoms might include tight throat, shortness of breath, abdominal distress, physical weakness, sleep disturbances, and loss of appetite. d) Might experience shame, guilt, and blame 2. Recoil includes periods when they attempt to just go on with their lives. This might alternate with periods of obsessively going over the event with fantasies, planning, or phobic reactions. It may also include blaming oneself, friends, family, or police. 3. Reorganization includes a return to psychological equilibrium as well as occasional flashbacks or extreme agitation. II. Loss A. Losses include apparent losses, changes, and unnoticed loss (marriage, achievements, and successes can be loss of an earlier life style). Losses include death, involuntary separation, or injury, as well as divorce, moving, changing schools, leaving home, weaning, and puberty. B. Kübler-Ross' stages of loss are (1) denial; (2) anger; (3) bargaining; (4) depression, and (5) acceptance.

44 C. Children may not have capacity to recognize, understand, and resolve loss. Moreover, they may develop apathy and withdrawal behaviors because their basic needs are not being met. III. Family pathology A. Four broad categories of family dysfunction 1. Inadequate families: lack physical or psychological resources for coping with normal stressors 2. Anti-social families: their values might encourage dishonesty or deceit 3. Discordant and disturbed families: have poor interpersonal contacts and disturbance 4. Disrupted families: inadequate adjustment to loss by death, divorce, or separation B. Patterns of parental influence in children showing emotional disturbance: Rejection, overprotection, unrealistic demands, overpermissiveness, faulty discipline, inadequate and irrational communication, and undesirable parental modeling

Source: Adapted from: Johnson, K. (1989). Trauma in the Lives of Children. Benton Harbor, MI: Hunter House.

4. You- and I-Messages How parents make requests of their children and how they tell them about their behaviors has a big influence on parent-child communication. When we give "you-messages,'' others feel "put-down.'' Examine these "you-messages'': "You are naughty.'' "You are giving me a headache.'' "You know better.'' "You are doing way too much shouting.'' "You better stop that.'' "You are interrupting me.'' "Why didn't you put your clothes away?'' "You-statements'' come off as critical, powerful, and accusatory.

On the other hand, "I-messages'' are acceptable ways to simply and honestly talk about unacceptable behavior. Parents who use "I-messages'' communicate their feelings, criticize behavior and not the whole person, and allow their children space and responsibility to change the situation. Here's how "I-messages'' work: "I would like you to quiet down because I have a headache.'' "I would like you to stop running in the house.'' "I would like to finish this statement before you speak.'' "I get upset when you climb on the furniture.'' "I would appreciate your cleaning your room this afternoon.'' Authoritative parents tend to use a lot of "I-messages''; these statements allow parents to model expression of honest feelings, give reasons for requests, and limit criticisms to specific behaviors rather than focusing on you.

Source: Gordon, T. E. (1975). P.E.T.—Parent effectiveness training. New York: Peter H. Wyden, Inc.

5. Family Characteristics Associated with Lower Drug Use

The following family characteristics have been found to be associated with lower substance usage (Coombs & Lansverk, 1988):

 Warm feelings between parents and teenagers. Although most youths felt closer to their mothers, it was warm relationships with fathers that were associated with less drug usage.  Teenagers who emulated their parents and who thought it was important to get along with them were less likely to use substances.  Teenagers who felt that their parents trusted them were unlikely to use drugs.  Teenagers who got favorable parental feedback were not likely to use drugs.

45  Parents, especially fathers, who helped their teenagers with personal problems and decisions had offspring who did not use many drugs.  Parents who set clear and consistent limits were more successful in raising drug-free offspring. These parents were not more punitive. Parents who required their teenagers to do homework and who limited television viewing were likely to have teenagers who did not use drugs.

Source: Coombs, R. H., & Lansverk, A. (1988). Parenting styles and substance use during childhood and adolescence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 473-482. 6. In his book Toys and Reasons, Erik Erikson (1977) described how each stage of psychosocial development is marked by ritualizations that are transformed across the lifespan. For example, in infancy the game of peek-a-boo involves a ritualized greeting after a brief disappearance. The repetition of the game lays the groundwork for other types of ritualized greetings such as handshakes or hugs, or exclamations upon seeing someone from the past. Families typically have rituals in which their belief systems are embedded. We often take the rituals for granted until there is a challenge to the order. For example, upon marrying, individuals often encounter new rituals from the family of procreation that were not a part of the family of origin. Let students discuss the adaptation involved in participating in family rituals when visiting a friend, in-laws, or other family members. Discuss how family rituals changed from their childhood through adolescence.

7. In Chapter 15 Santrock discusses the changing family in a changing social world. He identifies that changes in working mothers, divorce, stepfamilies, gay and lesbian parents, cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic status, and gender parenting roles affect children’s development, families, and our world. Use the following research to introduce a discussion on the changing family in a changing social world:  There were no detrimental effects of maternal employment on children’s development (Gottfried, Gottfried, & Bathurst, 2002; Hoffman & Youngblade, 1999).  Mothers working during their child’s first year of life can have a negative effect on the child’s later development (Belsky & Eggebeen, 1991; Hill & others, 2001; Brooks-Gunn, Han, & Waldfogel, 2002).  Children from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in nondivorced families (Amato & Keith, 1991; Hetherington and Stanley-Hagen, 2002).  The adjustment of children improves when the divorced parents have a harmonious relationship with each other and use authoritative parenting (Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998).  Children in families with a stepmother or stepfather demonstrate better adjustment than children in blended families (Anderson & other, 1999; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).  Few differences have been found in children growing up with lesbian mothers or gay fathers and children growing up with heterosexual parents (Patterson, 2002; Hyde & DeLamater, 2002).  Low socioeconomic status parents are more concerned that their children conform to society’s expectations, use physical punishment more, and are more directive and less conversational with their children. Higher socioeconomic status parents are more concerned with developing children’s initiative, are less likely to use physical punishment, and are less directive and more conversational with their children. (Hoff, Laursen, & Tardif, 2002).  Paternal warmth and involvement with children has been linked to later adults experiencing better social relationships, including marriages and friendships (Franz, McClelland, & Weinberger, 1991).  Parental solidarity, cooperation, and warmth contribute to children’s development of prosocial behavior and competence in peer relations (McHale, Johnson, & Sinclair, 1999).

46 TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Use the following annotated outline to determine how to best use the Total Teaching Package, including the text features and ancillary materials, provided to you by McGraw-Hill to accompany Santrock’s Child Development, 10th Edition.

Lecture Outline Resources Reference Chapter 15: Families PPT: PowerPoint Presentation # 15 CTQ: 1: Building the Social Capacity of Communities IFG: 5: Change the World I. Family Processes A. Reciprocal socialization and the family as a system: 1. Reciprocal socialization CAD:1: Parenting Scenarios a) Bidirectional influences b) Scaffolding 2. The family as a system a) System of interacting individuals with subsystems b) Belsky's model: Direct and indirect effects 3. Marital satisfaction IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior a) Effective parenting CAD: 9: The Family I Want to Be b) Healthier children

B. Developmental construction of Jarvis: 16.B: Transitions in Family relationships: Relationships 1. With development, individuals acquire modes of relating to others 2. Two main views a) Continuity b) Discontinuity C. Adapting parenting to developmental changes in the child: 1. As children develop, parents CTQ: 7: Psychosocial Development adapt. 2. As children develop, parents spend CAD: 3: Reflections On Own Parents' less time parenting. Adaptations 3. Control becomes coregulatory in IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior middle childhood. D. Sociocultural and historical changes SLT: 3: Childhood Traumas 1. Changes in families may be due to a) Great upheavals (e.g., war) b) Subtle changes (e.g., TV) E. Cognition and emotion in relationships 1. Cognition a) Includes thoughts, beliefs, and values b) Includes perceiving and understanding children's

47 behaviors and beliefs SLT:4: You-and-I messages 2. Emotion SLT : 6: Modeling Behavior a) Regulation of emotion Jarvis: 8.F: Observation of Infant Emotional b) Understanding emotion States c) Emotion in parenting role Jarvis: 8.H: Infant Crying: A Communicative Act Jarvis: 10.E: Assessing Socioemotional Developmental Milestones in Preschoolers

II. Parenting, sibling relationships, and family SLT: 5: Family Characteristics Associated processes in adolescence With Lower Drug Use A. Parenting role CAD: 4: Problem Solving Scenarios 1. Little formal parenting education IFG: 1: Post-Modern Parenting 2. Myths IFG: 2: Plan a Family Vacation B. Parents as managers IFG: 4: Scaffolding Children's Social 1. Initiating relationships Development 2. Monitoring relationships CCD: Parent Educator 3. Facilitating social contacts Jarvis: 11.H: Promoting Self-Control in Children C. Parenting styles OHT/IG: 103 Classification Of Parenting 1. Authoritarian Styles 2. Authoritative EQ: 7: Define parenting styles and child 3. Neglectful outcomes 4. Indulgent SLT: 1: Two-Dimensional Framework for Parenting Styles SLT 5: Family Characteristics Associated with Lower Drug Use SRP: 1: Comparing Parenting Guides Jarvis: 12.B: Child Rearing Styles

D. Punishment CAD: 9: The Family I Want to Be 1. Corporal (physical) punishment IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior 2. Reasoning and consequences Jarvis: 11.H: Promoting Self-Control in Children E. Child maltreatment CAD: 7: Guest Speaker- Child Maltreatment 1. Multifaceted FVR: Child Maltreatment: Physical and a) Physical and sexual abuse Emotional Neglect b) Fostering delinquency EQ: 8: Distinguish Between Abuse & c) Lack of supervision Maltreatment d) Medical, educational, and EQ: 9: Consequences of Maltreatment nutritional neglect SLT: 3: Childhood Traumas e) Substance Abuse SLT: 5: Family Characteristics Associated with 2. Violence Lower Drug Use a) Culture IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior b) Family 3. Children are at risk a) Poor emotion regulation b) Attachment problems c) Difficulties in peer Jarvis: 8.D: Continuity of Attachment relationships d) Problems in school

48 4. Effects in adult years a) Increased violence b) Increased substance abuse Jarvis: 15.C: Alcohol Issues: A Panel c) Anxiety Discussion with Bar Owners d) Depression

F. Parenting takes time and effort CAD: 9: The Family I Want to Be IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior Jarvis: 18.F: Observations of Adults at Child Sporting Events Jarvis: 4.G: Parenting Multiples Jarvis: 6.E: Interviewing New Parents Jarvis: 9.A: Panel Discussion with Parents of Children with Special Needs III. Siblings EQ: 10: Influences of Siblings A. Sibling relationships Jarvis: 6.E: Parenting Multiples B. Birth order Jarvis: 12.F: Sibling Relationships

IV. Families and adolescents OHT/IG:104: Models Of Parent-Adolescent 1. Autonomy and attachment Relationships 2. Parent-adolescent conflict SRP 2: Interviewing Teens About Their Parents SLT: 2: Adolescent Identity vs. Parental Midlife Crisis CAD: 5: "Empty-Nest" Syndrome CTE: Assumptions, Observations, and Inferences SLT: 4:You-and-I Messages CAD: 5: Self-Reflection: Conflicts with Parents IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior CCD: Marriage and Family Therapist V. The Changing Family in a Changing Social OHT/IG: 152: Employment Of Mothers With World School-Aged Children A. Working mothers OHT/IG: 61: Primary Child-Care 1. Nature of effects Arrangements Used By Employed 2. Latchkey children Mothers SLT: 7: Changing Families Research

Jarvis: 11.G: After School Care

B. Effects of divorce on children FVR: Divorce And Child Development OHT/IG: 84: Children Under 18 Living With One Parent

49 OHT/IG: 151: The Divorce Rate CAD: 6: Grandparent Visitation OHT/IG: 178: Single-Parent Families With Children Under 18 SLT: 7: Changing Families Research Jarvis: 16.B: Transitions in Family Relationships C. Stepfamilies SLT: 7: Changing Families Research D. Gay and lesbian parents IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior E. Cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic SLT: 6: Family Rituals variations in families SRP: 3: Interviewing Two Generations About 1. Cultures Family Rituals 2. Ethnic variations IFG: 2: Plan a Family Vacation 3. Socioeconomic status

F. Gender and parenting SLT: 7: Changing Families Research CAD: 9: The Family I Want to Be CTQ: 1: Building the Social Capacity of Communities IFG: 5: Change the World IFG: 6: Modeling Behavior Suggested Assignments – Review of Chapter 15: Families

 Review the “Learning Goals” for Chapter 15.  “Review and Reflect” exercises for Chapter 15.  TTN: Consult the on-line learning center for links to Web sites that provide additional information on topics presented in Chapter 15. Suggested Assignments – Preparation for Chapter 16: Peers  Preview the “Learning Goals” for Chapter 16.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES OR DEMONSTRATIONS

1. Discuss the critical thinking exercise. This exercise requires students to analyze the material on attachment, autonomy, and conflict to identify the statement that represents an area not explored in the discussion but that is relevant to it. Suggest to students that they look for the statement that Santrock does not directly address, and to test how changing the statement would change their view of the advice Santrock appears to give about letting adolescents make some of their own decisions. 2. Discuss the students' research projects as suggested below. 3. Have students describe their relationships with a parent at 6 years of age and currently. How has the relationship changed? What factors in development might account for the changes? How would the different theories - psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, and biological  account for the differences? Source: King, M.B. & Clark, D.E. 1990. Instructor's Manual to accompany Children. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. 4. Scenarios for Discussion Divide the class into groups of four or five students. In small groups study each of the following scenarios, one related to each age group including infants, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Using the process of reciprocal socialization including mutual synchrony and

50 scaffolding identify possible interactions and behaviors that adults may use to nurture the children's social competence. Have each group share one possible interaction including behaviors and conversations. Through discussion and sharing generate as many appropriate suggestions as possible. Students can study all four of the scenarios or each group can examine only one.

 Joseph, 7 months old, was playing with a ball when his mother picked him up and said, "Let's change your diaper." Joseph cried.

 Elizabeth and Angela, each 4 years old, were each pushing small cars on the floor while also playing with blocks. Angela put a small block under a board. She said, "This is a bridge."

 Brett and Corey, both age 9, were playing a racing video game. Corey was excited because he was winning. Brett turned off the game and said, "I told you I want to change to a new car. Mine is not running right." Corey and Brett continued to yell at each other about winning versus the defective car.

 Bryan, age 15, came home from school and said, "Mrs. Parks will not let us go to the restroom, but she leaves the class all the time to go."

5. When the term empty nest syndrome was first used, it was used to describe the negative experience of the mother when her children were grown and left home—the women had to grieve the loss of their mothering role. As middle-aged women saw options to have careers, the empty nest syndrome began to be viewed as an experience to anticipate joyfully (upswing hypothesis). Some psychologists also thought that fathers who missed out on active fathering when the children were young and then got "into'' being fathers might now have the most negative empty nest syndrome. Obviously, there are many possible reactions to the experience of offspring leaving the home—for the mother, for the father, and for the offspring. In your classroom, have students discuss aspects of this experience in their own families. You might want to compare birth-order effects or gender effects. In how many families did children leave in the order of their age? Did boys and girls leave in the same way? Were parents reluctant to have you leave, or did they want you to leave before you were ready? Did anyone have the experience of leaving and then having to temporarily move back? How does going away to college modify the empty nest syndrome? Was leaving a different experience for those who entered the military, went off to college, got married, or left for employment?

Source: Simons, J. A. (1987.) Empty nest syndrome discussion notes. Ankeny, IA: Des Moines Area Community College.

6. As family structures have changed due to increases in divorces and single parenting, grandparents' roles have also changed. As a result, more decisions about grandparents' visitation rights are being made by courts and state legislatures. Since the mid-1970s, all 50 states have passed laws granting grandparents the right to petition the courts for legally-enforced visitation privileges. Before this time period, grandparents had no rights to their grandchildren except by consent of the children's parents. Early court decisions (e.g., Odell vs. Lutz, 1947) emphasized parental autonomy and ruled that grandparent visitation rights would undermine parental authority. In fact, grandparent visitation rights could subject children to intergenerational conflict (e.g., Noll vs. Noll, 1950). These rulings also went along with the long tradition that the legal system should only intervene in the family in extreme circumstances. Early granting of grandparents visitation rights (e.g., Benner vs. Benner, 1952) came

51 in cases in which the grandchildren had lived with the grandparents for extended periods, or in cases in which the parents were deemed "unfit'' and the grandparents were given custody. Recent rulings are more likely to view grandparent visitation as a way of preserving the child's continued contact with a family line and as a way of providing an alternative source for family support. These decisions are most likely made when children have experienced the death of a parent, or long-term separation from one parent due to divorce. Even then, courts make the determination of grandparent visitation rights based on the children's "best interests.'' Thus, to some degree, courts are recognizing the importance of the extended family, the possible psychological support of the older generation to children, and, in general, the political clout of older Americans. Have students discuss the pros and cons of regulated and enforced grandparent visitation rights. Part of the discussion can involve the roles that grandparents play in grandchildren's lives (e.g., alternative caregivers, playmates, family historians and transmitters of family values and traditions, advice- givers to parents). Part of the discussion should deal with how to resolve intergenerational conflict, how to determine the "children's best interests,'' the consequences of grandparent visitation rights on family functioning, and how to resolve the grandparent policy. Source: Thompson, R. A., Tinsley, B. R., Scalora, M. J., & Parke, R. D. (1989). Grandparents' visitation rights: Legalizing the ties that bind. American Psychologist, 44, 1217-1222.

52 7. Invite a guest speaker from the community (social services representative, child advocate, women's resource center, and mental health counselor). Following are suggested topics the speaker might include in his or her presentation:

 Define child abuse and neglect  Laws governing their work in the field of maltreatment  Laws governing the reporting of abuse and protection for the person reporting  Procedures their agency must follow  Founded versus unfounded cases  Local, state, and national statistics on abuse and neglect 8. Draw on the Arts The arts, broadly defined, include drawing, painting, sculpture, music, dance, poetry, and writing, to name but a few. Both art products and arts processes can be used in university teaching in the following ways: Also, consider children’s literature and the concepts illustrated therein.

1. Existing artistic products can be used to illustrate concepts and ideas. 2. The process of creating can be used to express feelings or reactions to information presented. 3. Creative expression activities can be used to envision possible worlds, including possible research, possible public policies, possible, human service projects, and possible changes in social institutions.

9. The Family I Want to Be Reflect back over the following information:

 Research from Grych (2002) and Gable, Belsky, & Crnic (1992) leads us to believe that enhanced marital satisfaction often contributes to effective parenting and thus healthier children.  While some researchers warn that the evidence is not yet sound enough to warrant a blanket injunction against corporal punishment (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002), Gershoff (2002) concludes that corporal punishment by parents is associated with children’s higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression, and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health.  Diana Baumrind, a psychologist from the University of California –Berkeley, encourages that children from authoritative families are competent and prosocial, cheerful, self-controlled, and self-reliant, and they cooperate with adults, relate well with peers, and cope well with stress.  Santrock suggests that in our hurried world, quick-fix approaches to parenting are not effective and that good parenting takes a lot of time and effort.  Paternal warmth and involvement with children has been linked to later adults experiencing better social relationships, marriages and friendships (Franz, McClelland, & Weinberger, 1991).

Now think about the parent/family you want to be during the following demonstration:

 Hold an empty jar up in front of the class. Have students picture the empty jar as representing an empty day in their life waiting to be filled.  Now hold up three or four large rocks (select ones that will fit into the jar). Have students think about the phrase, “Don’t sweat the small stuff.” Now think about the rocks as representing the

53 big stuff in life related to the information studied in Chapter 15. Direct students to list the three or four major ideas from Chapter 15 that are really important to them, that represent the values of the parent they want to be, and have that represent “the parenting/family big stuff.”  Now hold up another clear jar (the same size as the jar with rocks), almost filled with sand. Describe to the students that the sand - extremely small granules or rocks - represents “the small stuff” in a day of your life as a parent. Direct students to list the things that are not important that they know parents/families spend a lot of time on. If you spend your day “sweating the small stuff” and fill your day with less important things (showing the jar full of sand first) then the import things will not fit. Show that the large rocks will not all fit in the jar already filled with small rocks.  Now fill the empty jar with the three or four big rocks, demonstrating that if you fill your day first with the important values of the parent/family that you want to be, there is time and space to fit it all in, even in a hurried world or rushed day. Demonstrate and end by pouring the sand into the jar with the large rocks that represents important values of the parent you want to be. All of the important stuff fits in and most of the small stuff takes care of itself and fits in the day, too, when you know your priorities and what is important for children and families.

CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE Contrary to what was previously thought, the human needs for autonomy and attachment appear to be complementary influences on adolescent social development. Needs for autonomy push adolescents to discover their strengths and limitations, whereas the need for attachment keeps them connected to adults who nurture and support their explorations. It is therefore appropriate to allow adolescents to have control over some aspects of their lives. Which of the following is an assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, that underlies advice based on these conclusions? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as good.

A. The key limitation on adolescents' ability to make good decisions is lack of knowledge. B. Attachment to parents contributes to social adjustment. C. Adolescents who are securely attached to their parents experience little depression. D. Attachment to parents promotes positive relationships with peers. E. Parents who recognize the attachment-autonomy connection will not experience conflict with their teenage children.

ANSWER KEY FOR CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE

A. This is the assumption. The specific advice is to allow teenagers to make decisions when they have enough knowledge about the choices they have; that is, to relinquish control over these decisions. This appears to assume that knowledge is the main factor in determining the quality of decisions because it does not mention that other factors could influence decision making. However, Chapters 4 and 5 describe several other factors (e.g., logical thinking, specific limitations on adolescents' decision-making capacities associated with age) that probably have a strong influence on adolescent decision making and probably should be included in decisions about granting autonomy. B. This is an inference. It is one interpretation of the correlational data that have established a connection between quality of attachment and quality of social adjustment. C. This is an observation. Research has documented this association. D. This is an inference, for the same reason that B is: The supporting evidence is correlational.

54 E. This is an inference. It is an extension of information presented in the text about optimal ways to parent adolescents, a hypothesis about the effects of recommended parenting practices. It is also an incorrect extension of the information because work done to date appears to suggest that some degree of conflict is probably both necessary and desirable. For example, some kinds of conflict appear to promote identity development.

STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS

RESEARCH PROJECT 1: COMPARING PARENTING GUIDES Acquire two recent parenting guides from a library or bookstore. The guides should (1) be directed toward the same age group (e.g., infancy, preschool, school-aged, adolescent) and (2) address at least one common issue in parenting. Your task is to compare the ideas in the book and critique the worth of the two guides. Include specific examples from the books, discuss the theoretical positions of the authors, and address the ways in which the authors define parenting and parent-child relationships. Write a critique of the two books in which you choose one book as better than the other and provide reasons for your choices. Within the context of your critique, address the questions below.

Questions

1. What kinds of parents would benefit from each of the two books? Who is the targeted audience? 2. What kinds of parenting issues do the books cover? Are the books comprehensive in approach or do they focus on just a couple of parenting concerns? 3. What is the theoretical persuasion of the authors? For example, do they use behavioral or psychoanalytic terminology? Moreover, what is the tone of each book: sympathizing, encouraging, preaching? 4. Is each book practical? Is either book too idealistic? 5. Do the books use actual research findings to back the authors' positions? Do the authors provide useful case study examples? Do the books include practical exercises or activities for parents or for parents and children? 6. Are the books structured in a way that makes it easy for parents to use the books? 7. Which book did you prefer? Why? Are there things in either book that you view as inaccurate or poor advice? What was the best advice or concept that you came across?

Use in Classroom One variation of this project is to assign specific books to students so that you receive a variety of critiques. You might want to duplicate all reports so that students can have a collection for future reference. Or, you could have students present oral reports on their books. Another variation would be to have students choose parenting books from different eras—how does a current selection compare with one published in the 1950s?

RESEARCH PROJECT 2: INTERVIEWING TEENS ABOUT THEIR PARENTS

55 This is a project that you will especially want to clear with your IRB, so if you decide to use it, be sure to have it reviewed before your school term begins! On the surface it appears innocuous, but asking children about their parents has perhaps a larger potential to reveal troubling information than in times past.

Students should locate three children: a preteen, an early adolescent, and a late adolescent. The basic task is to do a brief interview with each, getting answers to the following basic questions:

1. What do you like most about your parents? 2. What do you like least about your parents? 3. What do you fight about most with your parents? 4. What do you fight about least with your parents? 5. Could you "make it" without your parents? Why or why not?

If possible, students should tape-record participants’ answers for later transcription. If this is not possible, perhaps they could work in pairs, one person doing the interview and the other recording the answers. Once they have a written copy of the interview, students should answer the following questions:

Questions

1. How do the answers from the three respondents compare? How were they similar? How different? 2. Given what you know about styles of parenting, how would you classify each respondent’s parents’ parenting style (from your respondents' perspectives)? 3. How do your respondents' answers compare to information given in your text? Do they confirm or disconfirm information there? 4. How confident are you that your respondents answered truthfully? Was there any evidence that they had difficulty answering? Or deliberately misled you? 5. How do you feel about research on parenting that relies on interviews, now that you've had a small experience of it yourself?

Use in Classroom You can use students' answers to all or just some of the above questions in classroom discussion about parenting. Some things that would be interesting to do: (a) Compare and contrast the experience of the three age groups based on the students' data. Then compare their findings to information in Child Development. (b) Count the frequencies of each parenting style, broken down by age group. If there are interesting age trends, discuss what they might mean. For example, it is possible that younger adolescents will perceive their parents as more authoritarian? If that is true, what does it mean? If it is false, how do we interpret it? (c) Use the answers to questions 4 and 5 to fuel a discussion of research methodology. Students should have acquired all sorts of insights into problems and pitfalls of interviews, as well as an appreciation of the compelling and rich wealth of information this technique can produce.

56 RESEARCH PROJECT 3: INTERVIEW TWO GENERATIONS ABOUT FAMILY RITUALS

 Interview two persons in the same family but of different generations about family rituals such as holiday celebrations, birthdays, transitions from one life stage to another (christening, graduation, wedding, funeral). What differences were noted between the two generations? Were these attributed to changing times or to negotiated differences between the family of origin and the family of procreation?

ESSAY QUESTIONS Comprehension and Application Essay Questions We recommend that you provide students with our guidelines for “Answering Essay and Critical Thinking Questions” when you have them respond to these questions. Their answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.

1. How are the concepts of reciprocal socialization and the family as a system related to each other? How are they different?

2. Compare and contrast the continuity and discontinuity view of the developmental construction of relationships.

3. Explain the relationship between marital satisfaction and healthier children. Give examples of both positive and negative outcomes.

4. How can parents adapt their childrearing practices to the developmental status of their children? Give examples.

5. What are the main parenting issues during the family life cycle?

6. Sketch the sociocultural and historical changes that define the context of parenting today.

7. Choose one of the myths of parenting indicated in chapter 15 and explain why it is a myth. Use information from the chapter to support your explanation.

8. Define the four parenting styles, and describe the personalities of children who experience them.

9. Describe the children’s behavioral outcomes that are associated with corporal punishment. What do most child psychologists recommend instead of punishment?

57 10. Distinguish between child abuse and maltreatment, summarize the factors that contribute to abuse and maltreatment, and discuss how to intervene in cases of abuse and maltreatment.

11. Describe the developmental consequences of child maltreatment. Give specific examples.

Describe the developmental consequences of child maltreatment. Give specific examples

12. Effective parenting takes time and effort, and quick-fix approaches are not effective parenting. Give examples of effective parenting.

13. Compare and contrast the influence of siblings, peers, and parents on adolescents.

14. Is birth order an important causal influence in child development? Support your answer with research.

15. Indicate and explain the relationship between attachment and autonomy, and evaluate the claim that secure attachment promotes personal adjustment.

16. Describe some of the factors that contribute to the escalation of parent-adolescent conflict that typically occurs during early adolescence. In your view, do these lead you to favor a continuity or a discontinuity view of the developmental construction of relationships? Why?

17. Describe the effects of divorce and remarriage on adolescents. In view of these, would it be better for parents to avoid divorce "for the sake of the children"? Why or why not?

18. Suppose one of your friends is about to marry a person who has children from a previous marriage. What advice can you give him or her about what to expect?

19. Using information from your text, evaluate the idea that mothers should not work because doing so harms their children's development.

20. What is a latchkey child, and how does being one affect the developing self?

21. Reflect on your own family experience. Discuss how well information about latchkey children, relocation, and unemployment presented in Chapter 15 relates to your own life (or the lives of people you know).

23. Explain the results of the research on gay and lesbian parents and their children.

24. Compare and contrast the families of European Americans, African Americans, and Latino Americans.

25. Compare and contrast mothers’ and fathers’ parenting roles. Is there anything in what we know about these roles that suggests that only women can play the mother’s role, and only men can play the father’s role? Explain your answer.

26. Briefly describe a relationship that you have had and indicate whether it was with a person that is an authority figure or an equal, such as a peer or coworker. Reflect on the relationship to determine if your mode of interaction was constructed based on the continuity or discontinuity view. Variation: Identify in your mind three specific relationships that you have with friends,

58 coworkers, or romantic partners. Evaluate and describe whether these mutual and egalitarian relationships are influenced by the continuity or discontinuity view of relationship construction.

Related Content to Use in Analyzing Answers for Essay Questions

1.  The family is a social system with reciprocal influences of direct and indirect effects among its members and subsystems.  Family systems that practice reciprocal socialization and scaffolding are thought to positively influence children’s social competence.  In the family social system each family member participates in many relationships or subsystems. Each subsystem impacts the family unit as a whole.  Reciprocal socialization indicates interaction with both parents and children. A family subsystem could be only children as well as parents without children.

2.  Two variations of the developmental construction view are the continuity and discontinuity views.  The continuity view emphasizes that the early parent-child relationships serve as a model for relating to people throughout the life span.  The discontinuity view emphasizes that people construct different modes of relating as they grow up. The parent-child mode influences later relationships and is used when relating to authority figures. However, new relationships require the development of different modes of relating to others. A more egalitarian or mutual mode is used in relationships with friends, coworkers, and romantic partners. Each period of development contributes to the understanding of creating relationships.

3.  Enhanced marital satisfaction often leads to effective parenting and thus healthier children.  Happily married parents are more sensitive, responsive, warm, and affectionate toward their children.  A benefit of marriage enrichment programs is the improvement of parenting and consequently healthier children.  Programs that focus on developing parenting skills might benefit from including information on marriage enrichment.

4.  In early childhood parenting focuses on routine caretaking.  During middle childhood parents can use more reasoning with children, and more control is transferred to the child.  The coregulatory middle years are a transition period between strong parental control during early childhood and even more relinquishing of control in adolescence.

5.  Throughout the life span we are at different points in the family life cycle.  Launching or leaving home and becoming an adult is the first stage in the cycle. Youth become more independent and self-sufficient before moving into the next stage.  The second stage involves joining of families through marriage.

59  The third stage involves the new family becoming parents. Requires commitment, understanding, and adaptations on the part of both parents. Parents must learn to balance roles of parenting and partnering.  The fourth stage is the family with adolescents. Children need more autonomy. Parents must adjust parenting to support children's need for self-identity.  The fifth stage is the midlife family. Parents have some time to pursue personal interests because children have moved away. Relationships with children are different.  The final stage is the family in later life. Usually includes retirement and grandparenting. Partners must adjust to their new roles.

6.  Sociocultural and historical changes influence the family process.  Historical upheavals such as war, the depression, and immigration had some negative effects on families.  Subtle changes in our culture such as longevity of the elderly, increased mobility, media and technology, and changes in family structure significantly influence the family.

7.  The birth of a child will save a failing marriage.  Children will take care of parents in old age.  Parents can expect respect and get obedience from their children.  It's the parents' fault when children fail.  Mothers are naturally better parents than fathers.  Parenting is an instinct and requires no training.

8.  Authoritarian parenting is destructive and punitive with firm limits, parental control, and little discussion. Children of authoritarian parents are generally socially incompetent, and potentially aggressive. They are often unhappy, fearful, and anxious about comparing themselves to others. They fail to initiate activity and have weak communication skills.  Authoritative parenting is warm and nurturing, encouraging children to be independent. Limits are set but much discussion takes place between parents and children about expectations. Children of authoritative parents are generally socially competent, self-reliant, and socially responsible. They are often cheerful, self-controlled and self-reliant, achievement oriented, maintain friendly relations with peers, cooperate with adults, and cope well with stress.  Neglectful parenting is a style in which the parents are uninvolved in the child’s life. Children of neglectful parents are generally socially incompetent, lack self-control, and are unable to handle independence. In adolescence they may show patterns of truancy and delinquency.  Indulgent parenting includes few demands or restrictions on children, but parents are very involved. Children of indulgent parents are generally socially incompetent, lack self-control, and have little respect for others.

9.  Corporal punishment by parents is associated with children’s higher levels of compliance and aggression and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health.  Most child psychologists recommend reasoning with the child and explaining the consequences of a child’s actions for others.

60  Child maltreatment is a multifaceted problem that ranges from child abuse to neglect and from death, long-term psychological harm, and life threatening injuries to temporary physical injuries.  Violence in our culture and families influences maltreatment.  A reduction in child abuse occurs when adequate family resources and community systems are available.  Often parents who abuse their children come from families where physical punishment was used frequently.  Child maltreatment is an increasing problem in the United States, with many states requiring by law that doctors and teachers report suspected child abuse.

11.  Maltreated children are at risk for developmental problems, such as poor emotion regulation, attachment problem, difficulties in peer and adult relationships, and problems in school.  During the adult years, maltreated children show increased violence toward other adults, dating and marital partners, increased substance abuse, anxiety, and depression.

12.  Playing with children (ball, games, music, etc.)  Attending children’s activities (academic and extra-curricular)  Spending quality time listening and talking with children  Reading to children and listening to children read

13.  Siblings and parents are less important, whereas peers are increasingly more important during early adolescence. Parents need to support adolescents by guiding them, but also allowing autonomy and relinquishing control when possible. Parent-child conflict increases in early adolescence, remains stable during high school, and lessens in late teens.

14.  Birth order alone is not a good indicator of behavior. Some researchers believe that birth order has been overemphasized. Other factors that influence behavior are temperament of siblings; treatment of siblings by parents; heredity; models of competence or incompetence presented by parents; school and peer influences; socioeconomic and sociohistorical factors; and cultural variations.

15.  Children that have secure attachment relationships generally have high confidence and self- esteem. They feel secure in taking risks and feel assured they will receive support when needed. Parents, because of the secure relationship, also feel more comfortable allowing autonomy.

16.  Factors that contribute to parent-adolescent conflict are the adolescent’s need for independence and autonomy; the parents' need to protect and control the child; parents’ being inconsistently available to the child; and experiences such as death, divorce, and abuse.

17.   Some adjustments are needed to prevent academic problems, delinquency, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, chemical abuse, sexual activity, quitting school, and social irresponsibility.

61  Often divorce removes children from conflicts of unhealthy marriages. It is important to focus on supporting children in appropriate areas to help them adjust.  When divorced parents have a harmonious relationship and authoritative parenting is used, children adjust better.

18.  Children have more difficulty with complex blended families, where both marriage partners bring children to the new family, than simple stepfamilies, where only one parent brings children.  Children from stepfamilies have similar adjustment problems to children from divorced families. Some problems include academic problems, lower self-esteem, delinquency, anxiety, depression, and sexual activity.  Younger children seem to adjust more easily to stepparents than adolescent, perhaps because of the adolescent concerns of autonomy, identity, and sexuality.  Some blended families experience boundary ambiguity, confusion about who is responsible for specific tasks within the family.

19.  It is not certain that children with working mothers receive less attention than did children in the past. This is due, in part, to labor saving devices that make home management more efficient.  If the mother does not work, it cannot be assured that children will benefit from the time that is freed up.  Educated mothers may over-invest time in the child and reduce the child's independence.  Having a working mother may increase opportunities for socializing children for adult roles.

20.  Children that are unsupervised 2 to 4 hours per day after school until their parents come home from work are referred to as latchkey children.  Some research indicates that latchkey experiences are negative due to abuse of siblings, stealing, vandalism, chemical abuse, and too much responsibility. However, parental monitoring and authoritative parenting style help children cope more effectively.

21.  Individual responses

22.   

23.  Many children with gay and lesbian parents were born in heterosexual relationships with a parent later identifying himself or herself as gay or lesbian.  Some gay and lesbian parents have children through donor insemination.  Researchers have found few differences in children growing up with gay or lesbian parents and children growing up with heterosexual parents.  The majority of children growing up in gay or lesbian families have a heterosexual orientation.

24.  The majority of cultures strive for relationships with children that include love, support, and some parental control.

62  Minority groups are more likely to have single-parent, large, and extended families.  Sometimes ethnic minority families are less educated and more likely to be in the low income bracket, often affecting their parenting styles.

25.  The majority of the child-rearing practices remain the mother's responsibility, even with the attitude of shared parenting. The responsibilities are both rewarding and limiting, but are identified as the most meaningful experiences in their lives.  The father’s role has undergone many changes. Fathers are expected to provide the economic base, discipline, serve as role models, and nurture.  Cooperation in parenting models positive relations to children. Parents are better able to cope when both share in the family responsibilities.

26.  Individual responses

63 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS Answers to these critical thinking questions reflect an ability to apply critical thinking skills to a novel problem or situation that is not specifically discussed in the chapter. These items most appropriately may be used as take-home essay questions (e.g., due on exam day) or as homework exercises that can be answered either by individuals or groups. Collaboratively answered questions encourage cooperative learning by students and reduce the number of papers that must be graded.

1. Most of you will go on to achieve great careers and be quite influential in your job, perhaps even bring great wealth to your family and support to the economic growth of the community, state, or nation in which you live. While this financial capacity and growth will bring great satisfaction to you, what about the issues related to building the social or human capacity of our communities – strengthening families? It takes economic and social capacity to build strong communities.

We know from the history of Head Start in America that when we carefully invest in disadvantaged children and youth we get remarkable results, social and economic. Furthermore, we know that many programs and opportunities that could be successful are diluted to the point that they are ineffective or disbanded completely because of insufficient funds or more often where they are placed on the list of priorities. Where are our economic and social priorities, and what are the economic and social impacts of substance abuse, school drop out rates, teenage pregnancy, divorce, single-parent families, violence, education, and child abuse to mention just a few?

Develop a thorough list of the social issues identified in Chapter 15. Identify how can you use your knowledge gained about families to enhance, nurture, or strengthen the social/human capacity of your community and neighborhood, which will in turn support it economically?

2. According to Chapter 1, three fundamental developmental issues concern: (a) maturation (nature) versus experience (nurture), (b) continuity versus discontinuity, and (c) early versus later experience. Indicate your ability to think critically by identifying material in this chapter that illustrates each of the three fundamental developmental issues. If there is little or no information in this chapter about fundamental developmental issues, identify and explain how these issues could be used to guide the analysis of any topic in the chapter. 3. One aspect of thinking critically is to read, listen, and observe carefully and then ask questions about what is missing from a text, discussion, or situation. For example, we might expect from earlier treatments in Child Development that the ideas of Freud and Erikson would have played a large role in our understanding of family influences on adolescence. Yet, neither theorist makes an appearance in this chapter. Indicate your ability to think critically by (a) listing as many questions as you can about how Freudian concepts relate to family influences on adolescence, and (b) speculating why Santrock does not discuss this topic more fully. 4. Santrock sets off several quotations in this chapter. Indicate your ability to think critically by selecting one of the quotes and (a) learning about the author and indicating why this individual is eminently quotable (i.e., what was this individual’s contribution to human knowledge and understanding); (b) interpreting and restating the quote in your own terms; and (c) explaining what concept, issue, perspective, or term in this chapter that Santrock intended this quote to illuminate. In other words, about what aspect or issue in development does this quote make you pause and reflect? 5. This chapter discusses the relationship between parenting style and personality development. Apply your knowledge about the scientific method by designing a study to determine the relationship between parenting styles and children's present or future personalities: (a) What specific problem or

64 question do you want to study? (b) What predictions would you make and test in your study? (c) What measures would you use (i.e., controlled observation in a laboratory, naturalistic observation, interviews and questionnaires, case studies, standardized tests, cross-cultural studies, physiological research, research with animals, or multimeasure, multisource, and multicontext approach) and how would you define each measure clearly and unambiguously? (d) What strategy would you follow— correlational or experimental—and what would be the time span of your inquiry—cross-sectional or longitudinal? (e) What ethical considerations must be addressed before you conduct your study?

65 6. According to Chapter 2, your author wants you to become a wise consumer of information about child development by: (a) being cautious about media reports, (b) distinguishing between nomothetic research and idiographic needs, (c) recognizing how easy it is to overgeneralize from a small or clinical sample, (d) knowing that a single study is usually not the defining word about some aspect of child development, (e) remembering that causal conclusions cannot be made from correlation studies, and (f) always considering the source of the information and evaluating its credibility. Indicate your ability to think critically by, first, selecting an article from either a journal, magazine, or newspaper about any topic regarding families, and, second, evaluating it in terms of these six objectives. If the information in the article is insufficient to evaluate one of these objectives, then specify what kind of information you would need to evaluate the objective. 7. Review Erikson's psychosocial stages of development in Chapter 2. Select a journal article on parenting. Write an abstract on the article including (a) the bibliography, (b) summary of the article, (c) your reaction and response to the article, and finally (d) an analysis of how the article information relates to Erikson's developmental stages. Keep in mind that, although Erikson’s theory points to a critical issue at each stage, these issues are present in some form throughout the life span. For example, issues related to trust are present at every age. The same is true for autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity. 8. In Chapter 1 Santrock describes the work of Marian Wright Edelman, President of the Children’s Defense Fund. Edelman has been a leading advocate of children’s rights. The Children’s Defense Fund has reported on indicators that place the United States at or near the bottom of industrialized nations in the social neglect of its children. Edelman advocates for better health care, safer schools and neighborhoods, parent education, and family support systems. Santrock discusses the following benefits of studying child development: (1) to nurture children because they are society's future, (2) to gain understanding of self and others, (3) to prepare for career and/or parenting responsibilities, and (4) to influence education/schools to be more effective. After reading and studying the information from Santrock’s chapter on families, speculate on ways to further support and nurture children in meeting Marian Wright Edelman’s challenge to us to make the world a better place for us all.

66 IMPLICATIONS FOR GUIDANCE 1. The postmodern family has been described by David Elkind in Ties That Stress (1994) as permeable as opposed to the nuclear family of the modern age. The permeable family is affected by massive change and high demands made upon parents. Postmodern parents often must choose between meeting their own needs for success versus meeting needs of their children. Thus, he proposes that children in the postmodern society are vulnerable. Using the "parenting" information that Santrock describes (a) analyze the "parenting" information, (b) identify concerns or issues that the postmodern family might experience based on the "parenting" research, and (c) create a list of suggestions for guidance to help improve the postmodern family.

2. Research indicates that the authoritative parenting style generally results in the best outcomes for children’s development. Review the characteristics of parenting styles in Chapter 15. Generate a list of considerations for planning a family vacation. Keep in mind the change in individual routines and the different settings that will be encountered, such as the change in schedule, eating, sleeping, toileting, disruptive sleep habits, sibling interaction, and car travel. Compare and contrast how the family vacation will differ among the parenting styles.

3. Research indicates that the authoritative parenting style generally results in the best outcomes for children’s development. Review the characteristics of parenting styles in Chapter 15. Then in Chapter 18 review the socioeconomic variations in families, neighborhoods, and schools. Santrock references that the parenting practices of low-SES individuals usually include a punishment and criticizing approach and middle, while upper-SES parents discipline by reasoning with their children. (a) Reflect and analyze your family’s SES and your parents’ style of parenting and guidance. (b) Compare and contrast how your family’s socioeconomic level and parenting style is similar to and different from the findings in this research. (c) Generate a list of parental guidance suggestions that will nurture an appreciation for cultural diversity.

4. In Chapter 7 Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development are explained as constructivist approaches to thinking. In Chapter 15 Santrock discusses the nature of family processes including the notion that families that practice reciprocal socialization and scaffolding are thought to positively influence children’s social competence. (a) Analyze the relationship between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development and the nature of family processes. (b) Based on Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s constructivist approach to thinking and the family processes and relationships information, purpose constructivist guidance practices that would nurture strong family systems and children’s social competence. Focus on ways adults can “scaffold” children’s social development.

5. A motivational speaker for a group of young adult students once said, “If you see a good fight get in it, if not move on!” What does this mean to you as a young adult after reading the information in Chapter 15? Based on your knowledge gained about families, what “fight” are you going to take on and why? Identify all the topics from this chapter on families that sparked an interest for you to be passionate about in helping to fight for a better world. Pick the one topic from your list that you think can make a difference in the development of children and families and develop a plan of action that you can take over the next five years to improve the quality of life for yourself and others.

“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.” -----Margaret Mead

67 6. Many child development experts agree that one of the best ways to encourage appropriate behaviors in children is for adults to model what you want or think children should do. The old saying, “Do as I say, not as I do,” is often not trustworthy, and frequently children will eventually grow up to model the adult’s behavior anyway. Reflect back to when you were younger and think about how the significant adults in your life handled the following family situations:  Marital or partner conflict  Making everyday family decisions  Disciplining children and adolescents  Sibling conflict  Gender, race, cultural, ethnic, socioeconomic, or sexual orientation differences

Pick one real life scenario for you and record the details as you remember them.

After reading the information about families in Chapter 15, would you determine that this would lead to the healthy growth and development of children or not? Explain your response. Is this behavior that you would want to model by repeating or that you would want to extinguish? If this is inappropriate behavior to model for children, what changes would you make?