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Chapter 4 CONSUMERS' PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE AND INVOLVEMENT

AUTHORS' OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER

In this chapter we shift from an overall discussion of affect and cognition and knowledge stored in memory (presented in Chapter 3) to a more focused discussion of (a) consumers' knowledge, meanings, and beliefs about products and brands and (b) consumers' involvement with products and brands.

Types of Product Knowledge. We begin the chapter by discussing three basic ways in which consumers perceive products and brands--as bundles of attributes, as bundles of benefits, or in terms of their potential for satisfying basic values (see Exhibit 4.2). These three types of product meanings are at three levels of abstraction. Marketers have conducted a substantial amount of marketing research on each type, but seldom have they considered all three levels at once. We believe that combining these three levels of meaning into a single schema provides a deeper level of understanding of consumers' knowledge structures for products and brands.

Attributes. We discuss two types or levels of product attributes. Concrete attributes represent tangible, physical characteristics of a product (the color of a shirt). Abstract attributes represent intangible, subjective characteristics of a product (the stylishness of a shirt).

Benefits. We discuss two types or levels of product consequences--functional and psychosocial. Functional consequences are functional performance outcomes of product use. These are relatively tangible, measurable outcomes such as a coffee maker that is convenient to use or a sunscreen lotion that blocks burning rays of the sun evenly. Psychosocial consequences refer to more abstract, more subjective outcomes of product use. Psychological outcomes refer to how a product makes you feel. Social consequences refer to how others react to you.

These consequences may be positive or negative, called benefits or perceived risks, respectively. Benefits are desirable consequences, while perceived risks are undesirable consequences. Marketers have tended to focus on benefits, rather than perceived risks.

Values. Values are the mental representations of important life goals that consumers are trying to achieve. Values are more abstract and subjective than functional and psychosocial consequences. We discuss two levels of values-- instrumental and terminal. Instrumental values are cognitive representations of preferred modes of behavior. Terminal values are preferred end states of being. Exhibit 4.3 presents several values of both types. These cognitive representations are part of the consumers' self-concept or self-schema.

Means-End Chains. These three types of meanings can be linked together by consumers to form a knowledge structure of propositions called a means-end chain. The means-end chain concept is used throughout the text as a basic tool for analyzing consumer behavior. Therefore, students need to gain a good understanding of means-end chains now.

A means-end chain is a simple knowledge structure that contains meanings at different levels of abstraction. Some of these meanings are about products and brands, other meanings concern the consumer. In the simplest means-end chain, product attributes are linked to their consequences or benefits and, in turn, those consequences are connected to the values and basic goals that are important to the consumer.

Attributes Functional Psychosocial Values Consequences Consequences

Means-end chains are highly variable (see examples in Exhibit 4.5). Not every level of meaning is necessarily present in every means-end chain. Also, consumers may have means-end chains for products (automobiles), product forms (sports cars, sedans, SUVs), and/or brands (Ford Taurus, Honda Accord). The knowledge represented in means-end chain structures is formed over time as consumers are exposed to marketing and other types of information and have direct use experience with products and brands.

Measuring Means-End Chains of Product Knowledge. We briefly describe a method called laddering for measuring consumers' means-end chains of product knowledge. Basically, laddering is a one-on-one, semi-structured, depth interview. The researcher asks a series of simple, probing, "why?" questions to which consumers respond in their own words (Exhibit 4.7 presents an example). Consumers' responses are presumed to reflect their personal meanings activated from memory. The laddering task is intended to force consumers to reveal the key meanings associated with the dominant product or brand attributes they consider during decision making. The laddering procedure orders these meanings in terms of their level of abstraction, from less abstract meanings about product attributes, to more abstract consequences, to very abstract, self-relevant values. In addition, the laddering procedure identifies the linkages or connections between these meanings.

Consumers' product knowledge is likely to be quite sensitive to situational context. That is, different meanings are likely to be activated in different contexts, situations, and environments. Thus, researchers must be sure to establish the situational context for the laddering task.

Finally, each consumer's responses, of course, are unique. To be useful for marketing strategy development, the idiosyncratic responses from many different consumers must be combined into an overall knowledge structure that represents the common meanings held by a group (or segment) of consumers.

Digging for Deeper Consumer Understanding. While laddering allows researchers to probe for deeper consumer- product relationships, it is of limited value. An alternative tool, the ZMET approach to consumer knowledge, is presented. ZMET is a qualitative research tool that elicits metaphors from consumers and then probes for their meanings, allowing researchers to dig very deeply into consumers’ conscious and unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Involvement. Consumers have different levels of interest and concern for products and brands. Some products are important to consumers while others are not. This refers to involvement. The concept of involvement has both cognitive and affective dimensions and is extremely important in the analysis of consumer behavior. In this section, we define involvement and present a conceptual model that will be used in later chapters.

Essentially, involvement is self-relevance. Self-relevance is the extent to which consumers perceive objects and events to be related to their self concept. Involvement or self-relevance can be considered in terms of means-end chains. Thus, self-relevance is represented by the means-end links between product attributes and self-relevant consequences (see p. 90). That is, product attributes and the functional consequences of those attributes may be linked to psychosocial consequences and the value states, which are part of one's self-concept.

Involvement With What? It is critically important that marketers clearly identify the object or focus of consumers' involvement. In a broad sense, consumers may be involved with many things including physical or social objects in their environments (products, brands, stores, advertisements, family members, co-workers) or with behaviors or activities (shopping for, deciding to buy, or using a product or brand). Marketers need to find out exactly what it is that consumers find to be personally relevant. For instance, a consumer might be involved with playing tennis or bowling, yet care little about the objects of tennis rackets or bowling balls. Other consumers might be highly involved with both the activity and related products.

For many products and brands, the links between product meanings and self meanings are weak and rather indirect. These so-called "low involvement products" are not very important or interesting to most consumers. In contrast, consumers may have strong and direct ties between product meanings and self meanings for a few, so-called "high involvement products." Thus, a person who is highly involved with such a product or brand usually perceives clear connections between the product meanings and higher-ordered meanings about self (values and basic goals). Such products are perceived by most consumers to be important or self-relevant.

Felt Involvement. Some authors (including us in earlier editions; we have dropped this term in the current edition) use the term felt involvement to refer to the psychological experience of being involved with something. Felt involvement is the degree of personal relevance that the consumer feels at a moment. The degree of felt involvement is determined by the means-end chains of knowledge that are activated at that moment. The activated means-end chains are a function of enduring and situational sources of self-relevance. The degree of felt involvement motivates the cognitive processes of interpretation and integration.

Sources of Involvement. We distinguish between two sources of involvement--enduring and situational self- relevance. Both intrinsic and situational self-relevance combine to determine the level of involvement-- (see Exhibit 4.8, page 92 in the text). Intrinsic self-relevance refers to the stable cognitive associations between the product and self-stored in memory. These means-end chain connections usually have been acquired through past product use experiences (behaviors). Situational self-relevance is more transitory and is largely determined by aspects of the consumers' immediate environment. Often these are temporary factors or events that cause a change in the connection between the product and the consumer's self-concept. For instance, some consumers become involved with cologne only when considering the product for a gift (a special situation); otherwise they do not feel much involvement.

Marketing Implications. The concept of involvement has many implications for understanding the consumers, some of which are detailed in subsequent chapters. Involvement is especially useful for analyzing the consumer-product relationship, a key factor for developing effective marketing strategies. Thus, students need to understand the involvement concept and begin to see its relevance for marketing strategies. Marketers can try to influence felt involvement by trying to change consumers' intrinsic self-relevance (use advertising strategies to make the product seem more self-relevant). Alternatively, marketers can try to manipulate situational self-relevance to create temporary shifts in consumers' felt involvement (McDonald's might sponsor a sweepstakes contest to make going to a McDonald's store more self-relevant).

KEY CONCEPTS AND IDEAS

 Product attributes exist at different levels of abstraction (concrete and abstract)

 Functional versus psychosocial consequences of product use

 Instrumental and terminal values and their role in consumers' self-concepts

 Means-end chains of product knowledge linking attribute, consequence and value meanings

 Laddering interviews and the ZMET interview are used to measure means-end chains

 Involvement with products, brands, and activities/behaviors

 Intrinsic and situational (sources of) self-relevance

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Chapter Four. CONSUMERS' PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE AND INVOLVEMENT

A. How Gillette Knows About Shaving

B. Levels of Product Knowledge

C. Consumers' Product Knowledge 1. Products as bundles of attributes 2. Products as bundles of benefits 3. Products as value satisfiers

D. Means-end Chains of Product Knowledge 1. Examples of means-end chains 2. Identifying consumers’ means-end chains 3. Marketing implications

E. Digging for Deeper Consumer Understanding 1. The ZMET Approach to Consumer Knowledge 2. The ZMET Interview 3. Marketing Implications

F. Involvement 1. Focus of involvement 2. The means-end basis for involvement 3. Factors influencing involvement

G. Marketing Implications 1. Understanding the key reasons for purchase 2. Understanding the consumer/product relationship 3. Influencing intrinsic self-relevance 4. Influencing situational self-relevance

H. Back to … Gillette

I. Marketing Strategy in Action: Nike

TEACHING OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

 distinguish between attributes, consequences (functional and psychosocial), and values.

 identify types of attributes, consequences, and values.

 understand that means-end chains are knowledge structures that connect product meanings with self meanings.

 describe how laddering interviews are used to measure consumers' means-end chains of product and brand knowledge.

 define consumers' involvement with products and brands.

 distinguish between intrinsic and situational self-relevance and their effects on involvement.

 describe the sources of intrinsic and situational self-relevance.

TEACHING IDEAS AND SUGGESTIONS

Means-end chains and involvement are key concepts in consumer analysis. Both concepts are used throughout the text. Thus, this chapter lays an important foundation for later chapters. Two class periods may be necessary to cover the important concepts in this chapter. In the first class, you can discuss product and brand knowledge and means-end chains, and you can cover involvement in the second lecture.

Although this material is fairly conceptual, students seem to grasp the ideas rather easily, especially if given some "hands on" experience through in-class exercises, discussions, and/or projects. You could approach class in a couple of different ways: (a) lecture from the text, explaining the material in more detail, giving different examples, and answering questions of clarification, or (b) assume that students have read the material prior to class, and use class time to elaborate the key ideas in the chapter and explore the implications through examples and class discussions.

We recommend assigning a project to be done outside of class. Projects can really help students understand the concepts of means-end chains and involvement as well as appreciate their usefulness in developing marketing strategies. If you are using two days to cover this chapter, you could assign two projects--one on measuring means- end chains in general and the other on examining means-end chains for higher and lower involvement products.

Levels of Abstraction. The concept of levels of abstraction (of product knowledge) is one of the most important ideas in the cognitive section. It is worthwhile explaining and elaborating the concept of abstraction in class. Students should have some practice in dealing with meanings at different levels of abstraction.

 Begin by pointing out the different levels of abstraction in the symbolic meaning concepts that students have generated in other in-class exercises. You should note that no single meaning at any single level can fully represent an object such as a product class, brand, or store.  Show how (by drawing associative networks of interrelated meanings) concepts at higher levels of abstraction subsume or "stand for" several concepts at lower levels.

For instance, consider the meaning of good handling, one characteristic that a car might have. Handling, of course, is not an actual physical feature of a car. Rather, handling is an abstract meaning that subsumes or incorporates several less abstract meaning concepts, such as tires, suspension system, and wheelbase. Yet handling itself is a part of a larger, more abstract meaning concept--performance--along with acceleration, comfort, and braking ability.

 Ask students to discuss some implications of the levels-of-abstraction notion.

More experienced, more sophisticated, more expert consumers are likely to have knowledge, meanings and beliefs at rather different levels of abstraction compared to inexperienced, novice consumers. Marketing strategies should be consistent with the knowledge structures of the customers. As another example, marketers could define markets (and market segments) from the consumers' perspective. What a wine cooler is depends on how consumers categorize this drink, what other beverages they see it as competing with, and so on.

Attributes, Consequences, and Values. Students need to appreciate the very important distinctions between product attributes, consequences of product use, and personal values. These distinctions will be used many times throughout the text. Try the following in-class exercise.

 Select virtually any product category and ask a simple question about it. For instance, "What is a soft drink?” or "What things come to mind about cell phones?” or "What do compact disc players mean to consumers?"

 Write the concepts students mention on the chalkboard. As you write them, roughly separate the concepts into three groups--attributes, consequences, and values.

 When the discussion dies down, point out that certain concepts are attributes of the product, while other concepts concern consequences of using the product. Still other concepts (such as values) are more distant, more abstract consequences of the product. Note that these groupings constitute three levels of meanings associated with a product. Attributes are the most concrete, while values are the most abstract.

 Ask students to consider how marketing strategies can influence consumers' construction of these meanings. Have a concrete example or two of a current advertising campaign on hand to stimulate discussion.

For instance, the “Milk: It Does a Body Good” ad campaign attempted to change consumers' meanings about milk attributes (cold, tasty), the functional consequences of milk (refreshing), and milk's ability to satisfy higher order values (good health).

 Also, point out that while many product attributes and consequences are positive, some are negative. In general, consumers strive to attain desirable, positive attributes and consequences and avoid negative, aversive attributes and consequences. Encourage students to identify both pro and con attributes and consequences and think about their implications for developing marketing strategies.

Consequences. We believe that most consumers tend to think of product attributes in terms of their personal consequences. A fundamental assumption of means-end thinking is that an attribute is meaningful or important to a consumer only if it has personally relevant consequences. Consequences are the basis for linking products to customers, a major goal of most marketing strategies.

 Point out the differences between functional consequences and psychosocial consequences. Functional consequences refer to fairly tangible outcomes associated with product functioning (a flashlight lights up, a microwave heats food, a chair is comfortable). Psychosocial consequences refer to the psychological outcomes associated with product use (I feel good when I wear these jeans) and the social consequences (people admire my stereo system).  Have students identify products that have important functional consequences and other products that have highly self-relevant psychosocial consequences.

 Ask students to discuss the implications of these differences for developing effective marketing strategies. The marketing strategies should focus on the dominant level of meanings that consumers use to think about the product.

For instance, some consumers may consider a product at a functional consequence level--ink pens write, and that's it. Other consumers may think about the product at a much higher level--an ink pen symbolizes one's status.

Example: What are the Relevant Consequences? Working with consumer benefits is not always easy. Here is an example of some of the problems that marketers can face. In the mid-1980s, Colgate tried to introduce a new shampoo product with a unique product benefit. After numerous product tests, consumer research, and a national introduction, they withdrew from the market. The problem? Partly, the "product concept" (i.e., the benefit) was too complicated to convey to consumers.

In the 1950s, Colgate had a 50 percent share of the shampoo market, with top-selling brands like Lustre Creme and Halo. But by the late 1960s, their share had dwindled to almost nothing. To get back into the haircare market, Colgate formed an alliance with Kao, a large Japanese company. They had a shampoo that was a technological breakthrough--it defended the hair shaft and cuticle against damage, and made hair more healthy and shiny.

Now, Colgate had to figure out how to promote the product, called Hair Defense, to its potential customers. Managers argued about whether the product offered users a cosmetic benefit or a therapeutic one. In the end, they concluded that the shampoo was a therapeutic product with a cosmetic end benefit. In retrospect, this may have been a mistake. Consumers seemed to sense the indecisiveness about Hair Defense. After a period of indecision and turmoil in the marketing department, the technical approach was softened a bit and the product was introduced in 10 percent of the country under the name, Splendor. But, due to heavy competition and lack of consumer enthusiasm, the company eventually withdrew Splendor from the market.

A competitor felt that consumers were confused and unimpressed by positioning Hair Defense/Spendor as a therapeutic product. Even if consumers had a cuticle problem, most would not be aware of it. One analyst felt that consumers choose shampoos and like products solely on their end benefits. He believed that Colgate lost sight of the end benefit of Hair Defense with its emphasis on the cuticle story. In other words, consumers did not form a clear and compelling means-end chain. (Source: Nancy Giges, "Splendor: Colgate's Hardy Haircare Washout," Advertising Age, May 30, 1985, p. 32.)

Another Example: Taking A Benefit Orientation. Many marketers understand the usefulness of taking a benefit orientation--trying to understand the benefits that consumers seek and perceive in products. Here is a brief example of that perspective.

In 1980, Frazier Purdy, then Chairman of the Board of Young & Rubicam, once the largest advertising agency in the world, made a speech entitled "Attributes of Benefits." His main point was the same as Ted Levitt's--consumers don't buy attributes, they buy benefits. According to Purdy, consumers "don't buy technology or engineering. They buy products to make them healthier, more esteemed, more attractive, thinner, prettier, wiser, manlier, shrewder, younger, richer, more desirable, happier, etc., etc., etc. Consumers don't give a damn how a car works. What they want to know is how it will work for them (emphasis added). Consumers don't care what's in cat food or dog food. They want to be loved by their pets."

Then, Purdy told a little story about Samuel Johnson, the great British critic and lexicographer of the 1700s, who was put in charge of auctioning off the old Anchor Brewery in London more than 200 years ago. In introducing the auction, Johnson showed his intuitive understanding of the power of benefits. He ignored the attributes of the brewery, such as its location, equipment, fixtures, and capacity. Instead he used this appeal: "We are not here to sell boilers and vats, but the potentiality of growing rich beyond the dreams of avarice." According to Purdy, "That's what advertising is all about. Holding out to the consumers the potentiality of gain, of advantage, of benefit." (Source: Frazier Purdy, "Attributes of Benefits," a speech given to the General Foods Creative Seminar, Harrison Inn, September, 1980.)

Yet Another Example: Consequences of Plastic-bodied Cars. Sometimes, it is difficult for consumers to understand the benefits provided by new or unfamiliar product attributes. For instance, in 1989, General Motors introduced a front-wheel drive minivan, the Lumina APV (all purpose vehicle). A unique attribute of this vehicle was its all plastic body. One of GM's biggest challenges was to communicate the benefits of the plastic car body to consumers. (For more information, see Joseph B. White, "GM Hopes Plastic Drubs Vans of Steel," The Wall Street Journal, August 24, 1989, p. B1)

 Ask students to think about the advantages and disadvantages (perceived benefits and risks) of using plastic body parts on cars. Their responses will, of course, be idiosyncratic and personal.

Weight reduction (and lower fuel costs) is one benefit touted by GM. The plastic vans should weigh about 200 pounds less than Chrysler's steel-bodied counterparts. Also, plastic can be molded into more complex shapes, which allows space-age styling difficult to achieve with steel panels. Plastic doesn't get dings nor does it rust like steel. If damaged, plastic parts are heated (to melt the glue that holds them on), peeled off and replaced.

Among the disadvantages (risks) of plastic is that panels could not be recycled. If damaged, the entire panel must be replaced, whereas a steel panel can often be fixed. Apparently, plastic does not have a cost advantage, because plastic that looks as good as steel costs about as much.

Possible Mini-Lecture: Perceived Risk. Perceived risk is an extremely important concept in consumer analysis, yet it receives little attention in the scholarly literature. You might present a brief elaboration of the perceived risk concept, beyond the treatment in the text.

Most products have both desirable and undesirable consequences. Positive consequences are benefits that consumers seek out and strive to achieve. Negative consequences are product outcome that people want to avoid. They are the perceived risks of product use. Perceived risks may concern physical consequences, financial consequences, functional consequences, or psychosocial consequences.

Fear can be a powerful selling tool. Marketers who use fear appeals in their marketing strategy attempt to create perceived risk or activate perceptions of risks the consumer already knows about.

 Ask your students to think of products where the primary purchase motivation is avoiding perceived risk.

Example: Here is some information about such a product category--sun screen products (adapted from Toddi Gutner, "Protection Racket," Forbes, August 17, 1992, p. 90).

The last few years saw many horror tales of holes in the ozone layer and increases in skin cancer. Sales of sun care products rose from $280 million in 1985 to $530 million in 1991. But then sales growth slowed as sunbathers reached the saturation point. People need only so much protection from the sun, right? Actually, marketers continued to use fear appeals about the risks of sun exposure and offer their products as a way to reduce perceived risks.

One strategy was to emphasize the SPF, or skin protection factor of sunscreen products. A product with a SPF of 15 should allow a person who normally burns in 20 minutes to stay out in the sun 15 times longer than that--or 300 minutes--before burning occurs. Americans tend to go overboard on things, so many of them think that the bigger the SPF number the better. Ten years ago most sunscreens had SPF numbers of 2 to 8. Now 60% have numbers of 15 or higher.

This extra protection from perceived risks costs extra. Schering-Plough has about 40% of the market with three brands--Copper-tone, Water Babies, and Shade. Four ounces of these sunscreens with SPF of 4 can sell for $4.99, an SPF of 8 might sell for $6.79, while an SPF of 15 could cost $7.99. How much extra protection (reduction in actual risk) do consumers get for their money? Not very much. An SPF of 15 blocks out 93% of the sun's ultra violet rays, while a 34 SPF eliminates just 4 percent more. An SPF of 50 provides only 6% more protection than does 15. Most dermatologists admit that most people don't need a sunscreen with more than 15 SPF. But apparently consumers perceive (believe) that these products with high SPF factors do reduce the risks of sun exposure, and they are willing to pay to reduce these risk perceptions.

Other products have been introduced to address the perceived risks associated with sun exposure. For example, marketers of a chemically-treated fabric, Solarweave, claim it can stop 99% of the sun's harmful rays. Another company markets a tightly woven fabric called Frogskin that it claims gives protection equal to 34 SPF. Both types of fabrics are used in hats and shirts. Another company makes Sun Alert badges that stick on your skin and turn bright orange when you have had enough sun.

Probably the safest thing is to stay out of the sun completely. Apparently many people are doing just that, and some of these people are getting their tan from chemicals. Sales of self-tanning products rose 60% in 1991.

Values. Values constitute the most abstract level of product meaning. Values are highly personal, intangible consequences of product use (being happy). Values include modes of conduct (instrumental values) and states of being (terminal values). The concept of values becomes clearer to students if they are forced to think about values for themselves.

 One approach is to ask students to discuss the broad differences in values between different market segments--such as geographical or income segments.

Comparing age generations is an easy one. For instance, students could discuss the differences in broad values between their generation and their parents, or even their grandparents.

 Move to a more concrete level by asking students to consider the dominant types of values that these age groups (or other segmentation schemes) find relevant for buying and using particular types of products.

Automobiles are an easy category to consider; clothing is another good example; restaurants also will work. Identify different segments within age groups that have different types of values to satisfy.

 Be sure to make students identify some of the marketing implications of understanding consumers' values systems.

Values and Self. From a means-end perspective, values can be thought of as desired ends--basic life goals--which consumers are trying to achieve. Also, values are a basic part of consumers' self-concepts. The cognitive representations of values are elements in a knowledge structure about self. These self meanings constitute a self- schema. These very abstract meanings about self are quite important for understanding consumers.

 Encourage students to think about their own self-concepts. For instance, ask them to jot down the two or three most dominant values they are striving to achieve in general.

 Ask students to describe how their personal values influence their consumption behavior.

These abstract values can be seen as goals to be achieved, partially through the purchase and consumption of products and brands. This is an essential feature of a consumption society like the U.S. where many people seek to achieve their basic values partially through buying products and services. Of course, marketing strategies often try to make this connection between self values and the products they sell, which further contributes to the overall consumption mentality of the society.

 Have students identify products that are currently being marketed with strong appeals to consumers' values. Breakfast cereals, such as Cheerios, and many other food products certainly qualify with their strong appeals to health values. But lots of other food products have also tried to tie their brands to important health-related values that were important to increasing numbers of Americans (as people age, health usually becomes more important), such as low carbohydrate products.

Another example is the many products that are being marketed as appealing to American's growing environmental values. For instance, Ben & Jerry's, a Vermont-based, marketer of high quality ice cream, sells Rain Forest Crunch, using nuts presumably grown in the jungle rain forest regions of Brazil (the goal is to encourage economically viable and environmentally sound uses of the rain forest). The giant discount retailer, Wal-Mart, highlights environmentally responsible products with special shelf tags and thus encourages its suppliers to become more environmentally conscious.

 Ask students to identify marketing strategies that are directed at such values.

In the health arena, for instance, there are hundreds of new products that attempt to link to consumers' health values. Service companies are attempting to satisfy these values too--health and fitness clubs, yoga clinics, spas and health-oriented resorts are examples. Restaurants and airlines are trying to offer more healthy meals, containing less fat, salt, and cholesterol.

Possible Mini-Lecture: Important Aspects of Consumers' Values. Following are several important aspects of values that you can briefly discuss in class.

 Values are subjective, not objective "truth." They are idiosyncratic to each consumer.

 Values are person centered, not object centered. Values have intrinsic worth or "value." Terminal values, at least, lead nowhere else. They are basic life goals with no further consequences. They are ends.

 The worth or importance of a value may be personal (salvation or happiness for the person holding the value), or the person may see the importance of a value as broader, perhaps even for society as a whole (peace and harmony).

 Values are formed from personal experiences, many of them occurring very early in life during infancy and early childhood. Family and reference groups have a major socializing role in creating values in consumers.

 Values tend to be enduring and stable. However, values can change, sometimes gradually over time, and sometimes more dramatically, as a function of a major life event.

 Some values may be widely held by persons in a group or a subculture. Most people in a society may even share certain values. For instance, most human beings in the world share values such as family security.

 Values have a critically important function in many cognitive tasks, such as attitude formation or decision making about a brand purchase.

 Values serve to organize the meaning representations about products and brands in consumers' knowledge structures.

Means-End Chains. Means-end chains are a major concept in Section 2 and are referred to many times throughout the text. We recommend that you spend time in class elaborating means-end chains and giving additional examples. You could start by reviewing the simple three-element means-end chain and then show how it can be elaborated to the six-element chain.

 Select any product category (cars, ice cream bars, or textbooks) and ask students to provide examples of each of the three means-end chain levels. Point out misconceptions and errors in identifying attributes, consequences and values. This exercise will also reveal that some categorizations are fuzzy. For instance, the differences between functional consequences and abstract attributes are not always unambiguous and clear cut. Seldom does this cause a problem in developing marketing strategies since the simple three- level means-end chain is usually sufficient for most applications.

 Point out that means-end chains are a particular way of conceptualizing consumers' product or brand knowledge.

A means-end chain is a simple, associative network of knowledge, a hierarchical knowledge structure that links meanings at different levels of abstraction--attributes to consequences to values.

 Point out that means-end chains are better at reflecting more utilitarian, functional meanings, rather than highly affective, emotional, image types of meanings.

Means-end knowledge concerns the functional or instrumental aspects of products--the ability of the product to achieve important, self-relevant objectives, goals, and values.

Exercise: Measuring Means-End Chains. Students form a deeper understanding of the concept of means-end chains if they are given the opportunity to actually measure means-end chains for themselves (on a small scale, of course). Therefore, we usually assign a simple project to be conducted outside of class and handed in (see example below).

 Ask one or two students to present their projects on the day they are to be handed in.

 Discuss the content of consumers' product knowledge as revealed in their means-end chain data.

 Then, discuss the measurement problems students had in identifying consumers' product meanings. They definitely will have had some difficulties and will be interested in describing and discussing these problems. Point out that conducting effective laddering interviews is an acquired ability. This skill takes time and effort to develop.

An excellent paper full of hints on conducting better laddering interviews is by Tom Reynolds and Jon Gutman (1988), "Laddering Theory, Method, Analysis, and Interpretation," Journal of Advertising Research, February/March, pp. 11-31.

Understanding the Meaning of a Product Attribute. A key idea to emphasize is that the meaning of a product attribute depends on the other concepts to which it is linked. That is, the meaning for a product or brand attribute is a function of the consequences that consumers associate with the attribute.

The following in-class exercise using just about any attribute of any product can be used to illustrate this point. Perhaps some new product has just been introduced on the market that has a new or improved product attribute. For example, Anheuser-Bush introduced the low carbohydrate Michelob Ultra, responding to the popularity of low carbohydrate diets, such as Atkins.

A trendy attribute for some products in 1992 was a "clear" color (actually no color). Several manufacturers came out with clear versions of their products. Green Palmolive dishwashing liquid as reformulated to be clear and was sold in a transparent bottle under the name, "Palmolive Sensitive Skin." Proctor & Gamble was at work replacing white Liquid Ivory as a clear liquid. Pepsi-Cola created a colorless cola called Crystal Pepsi, touted as low sodium, all-natural flavorings and no preservatives. What are the meanings of such attributes?

 Briefly describe the product attribute, and ask students what this (or some other trendy) attribute means to them. Write these answers on the board.

"What does this tell you about the product?" "What impressions do you get about this product?" Clear formulation might have some good and negative connotations. A clear bottle means that consumers can see for themselves how much product it contains. But consumers also want to think they are buying more than water, and color sometimes conveys that meaning.

 Force students to justify their answers by asking questions like:

"Why is that important to you?" "What do you mean by that?" "Why do you say that?"

Link their answers to the product attributes on the chalkboard. This procedure approximates the basic laddering interview.

 Discuss these rudimentary means-end chains for each product attribute.

The resulting network should demonstrate that the meaning of any attribute is given by the other concepts (especially the consequences) to which it is linked. These means-end chains are simple associative networks of knowledge, as discussed in the previous chapter.

 Emphasize that product attributes have little or no meaning per se.

Virtually all their meaning (from the consumer's perspective) depends on the consequences to which they lead (see Exhibit 4.4, p. 82 in the text for an example).

 Ask students to discuss the marketing implications of these "linked meanings" in a means-end chain.

The relevance for market segmentation and developing marketing strategies (advertising appeals) is obvious. Different segments of consumers may perceive a new attribute quite differently (it leads to different consequences and ends). Thus, the product can be said to mean different things to different people.

This exercise also should reveal the deeper meanings of benefits or functional consequences. For instance, the meaning of a functional consequence (durability) is given by the higher-ordered (more abstract) consequences to which it is linked in peoples' minds (saving money, last a long time, impress friends).

Possible Mini-Lecture: The Three- versus the Six-Level Means-End Chain Model. We present two means-end chains models in the text. One is the simple, "generic" means-end chain containing three levels--attributes, consequences, and values. This three level model is sufficiently detailed for most marketing purposes.

We also discuss a finer-grained means-end chain model, with six levels. These are produced by further dividing each of the original three levels into two levels--concrete and abstract attributes, functional and psychosocial consequences, instrumental and terminal values.

Some students may feel frustrated and confused about (unambiguously) assigning a particular concept to one of the levels in the six-level means-end chain model. Fortunately, such precise categorization is not necessary or even very useful for most marketing purposes. Determining whether a concept is a psychosocial consequence or an instrumental value is seldom critical for developing a marketing strategy.

The important point is that a means-end chain is a schema in which relatively less abstract meanings are linked to higher-ordered meanings. As students will see in subsequent chapters, these means-end chain structures of product knowledge have important impacts on consumers' cognitive processes, affective responses, and overt behavior.

Therefore, we recommend a fairly "loose" approach to the "fuzzy" distinctions between adjacent levels in the complete means-end chain model. Some distinctions are reasonably clear-cut, such as between functional and psychosocial consequences and between concrete and abstract attributes. Other distinctions, however, are more vague. Consider the subtle differences between instrumental and terminal values or the differences between abstract attributes and functional consequences (is "comfortable seats" an abstract attribute of a car or a functional consequence?).

Example; Some Unusual Means-End Chains. Following is an example of a somewhat "unusual" means-end chain that one of the authors identified in a laddering study. A female college student, who was a heavy candy user, mentioned that the small, bite-sized candies (like M&Ms and Reeses' Pieces) she liked were "good for the growlies." But what does that abstract attribute mean? The laddering interview identified the following means-end chain, which clarifies how she thought about these forms of candies.

 (These candies are) GOOD FOR THE GROWLIES

 (They are) stretchable and sneakable in class (small size makes it possible to eat during class)

 I'm not on the defensive (because my stomach isn't growling and drawing attention to me)

 I'm nicer to others

 They (other people) are nicer to me in return

 I feel good about myself

 I can get more things done

This same subject produced another means-end chain that began with the functional consequence, "gives me a burst." When we laddered from this concept, the following means-end chain emerged.

 (These candies) GIVE ME A BURST (of energy)

 Gets me through the next class

 I'm in a better frame of mind

 I'm nicer to others

 They are nicer to me in return

 I feel good about myself

 I can get more things done

 In presenting and reviewing these data, point out that both means-end chains lead to the same end values--essentially self-esteem and achievement.

Self-esteem and achievement are common, dominant values (desired ends) for young people in the U.S. and elsewhere. Such values are especially strong for many American college students.

 Also, point out that laddering procedures usually reveal increasingly abstract meanings in the means- end chains. This is consistent with the assumption that means-end chains connect less abstract to more abstract meanings.

 Finally, point out that consumers can have means-end chains for a product class (candy in general), a product form (small candy pieces), or a brand (M&Ms). Exhibit 4.5 in the text illustrates this point. Even within a single general product domain (such as candy, cars, stereo equipment, or shoes), the relevant attributes, consequences, and values can be quite different for the product class, product forms, and brands. Consumers may have quite different means-end chains at these levels.  Challenge students to think of possible marketing strategies that are suggested by such data (assuming it reflects the important meanings of a large market segment).

An obvious implication of such data is for advertising strategies. Students should be able to imagine creating a TV commercial based on one of these means-end chains.

Possible Mini-Lecture: Early "Means-End" Models of Consumers' Product Knowledge

Several means-end chains models were proposed in marketing during the mid to late 1970s. An early model was described in 1975 by two advertising researchers--Shirley Young and Barbara Feigen. They described the Grey Benefit Chain, developed and used by Grey Advertising. The Grey Benefit Chain models how consumers link a product to an end concept called the emotional payoff, through a series of perceived benefits:

Product Functional Practical Emotional benefit benefit payoff

James Myers and Alan Shocker (two well-known marketing professors) described a similar sequence of linked concepts, which connect products to the consumer/user:

Physical Pseudo-physical Task or outcome User attributes characteristics referent (benefit) referent (imagery)

Following the lead of Professor John Howard, Tom Reynolds and Jon Gutman (two marketing professors most responsible for the means-end chain approach) proposed a cognitive structure called a means-end chain, which they discussed in a series of articles and talks:

Product Choice Instrumental Terminal attributes criteria values values

Joel Cohen (a marketing professor) proposed a similar, hierarchical model containing three levels of "product attributes:"

Defining or Instrumental Valued Descriptive Attributes Outcome Attributes (Benefits) States

The published sources for these means-end chain models are: Young, Shirley and Barbara Feigen (1975), "Using the Benefit Chain for Improved Strategy Formulation," Journal of Marketing, 39(July), 72-74; Myers, James H. and Alan D. Shocker (1981), "The Nature of Product-Related Attributes, in Research in Marketing, J.N. Sheth, ed., JAI Press, 211-236; Gutman, Jon and Thomas J. Reynolds, "An Investigation of the Levels of Cognitive Abstraction Utilized by Consumers in Product Differentiation, in Attitude Research Under the Sun, J. Eighmey, ed., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 128-150; Cohen, Joel B. (1979), "The Structure of Product Attributes: Defining Attribute Dimensions for Planning and Evaluation, in Analytic Approaches to Product and Marketing Planning, A.D. Shocker, ed., Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute, 54-86.

Involvement. Typically, we devote an entire class period to the very important topic of consumer involvement. This seems necessary to cover all the material about this very important construct for understanding consumer behavior. Because involvement is used throughout the text as a key aspect of consumer analysis, students need to acquire a good understanding of the basic concept.

Students need to understand the distinction between the experience of being involved, sometimes called felt involvement, and two antecedents of that psychological state--intrinsic self-relevance (termed enduring involvement by some researchers) and situational self-relevance (situational involvement to some researchers).

Classroom exercises can help students understand the key aspect of involvement--namely, perceived importance or perceived self-relevance. This first exercise concerns the general concept of involvement with a product or service.  Ask students to identify two or three products that are important to them, personally. (If that is too personal, ask what products are important to college students, in general.)

Marketers often use the term "high involvement products" to refer to products that many people find to be quite important. Common examples of "high involvement products" for students might be stereo systems, cars, personal CD players, sporting equipment (tennis racquets, skis), and clothing.

Unfortunately, this terminology leads some to think that involvement is "in" the product, like a characteristic of the product. Of course, involvement is the result of an "interaction" between a consumer and a product.

 Probe for the reasons why these products are important.

The class will nearly always come to realize that a product is important because owning and using the product provides one or more important consequences.

Broadly speaking, the fundamental reason why consumers may consider a product to be important or self-relevant is that it is perceived to be instrumental for achieving some important consequence. That is, owning and/or using the product is seen (by the consumer) as providing self-relevant consequences.

These self-relevant consequences may be abstract, perhaps highly abstract. For instance, the product may have symbolic meanings that convey important self-meanings (aids in establishing self-concept).

 You may have to probe ("What does that mean to you?") to get students to discuss these "deeper," more symbolic consequences.

Items of clothing, for instance, often satisfy abstract needs in addition to just providing the basic functional consequences of covering the body or staying warm. The psychological and social consequences of clothing are usually important to many consumers. Some types of clothing satisfy higher-order consequences such as values (self-esteem) that are self-relevant to consumers.

Another reason why a product may be seen as self-relevant is that it has some potentially severe negative consequences (high perceived risk). Be sure to ask students if there are any negative, or unfavorable consequences associated with using the product.

Expensive products have the negative consequence of having to give up a lot of money in order to buy them. Other products may have adverse physical consequences (cigarettes; over-the-counter drugs; motorcycles) or social risks (clothing; automobiles; living room furniture) associated with them.

 As a contrast, ask students to identify some low involvement products and explain why they are unimportant.

Consider the consequences associated with some of our favorite "low involvement" products-- clothes pins, paper clips, writing tablets, ink pens, facial tissues, potato chips, soap, chewing gum, sodas. Most consumers perceive these so-called "low involvement products" to provide little more than functional consequences, which are not highly self-relevant. Relatively few customers link such products to central values.

 Point out, however, that despite the relative lack of importance for "low involvement" products, marketers can usually find some consumers who associate such products with more abstract and self- relevant ends.

For instance, we have known some consumers who actually pay attention to the paper clips they use and feel they have some degree of personal relevance. They might like the coated paper clips in bright colors, because it makes their work stand out or seems more appropriate for important papers. Ink pens and writing paper are not low involvement products for everyone (e.g., a professional writer or a calligrapher).

 You could initiate an interesting discussion concerning whether or not there really are universally high and low involvement products.

Strictly speaking, it is not accurate to identify high or low involvement products. After all, involvement does not reside in the product. Involvement is the outcome of a consumer's interaction with a product. However, for practical purposes, marketers might treat some products as high or low involvement, because most consumers have a similarly high or low involvement reaction to them.

Focus of Involvement. At some point in these discussions, you should stress the importance of marketers knowing the focus and level of consumers' involvement. What is it, exactly, that consumers are involved with? Just what do they find to be self-relevant? For instance, consumers may be involved in the product class (cookies), or a particular product form (sandwich-type cookies), or a specific brand (Oreo's), or any combination of these.

 Ask students for examples of products with which they are involved. Probe to identify the source or focus of their involvement. Are they involved with the product class, the product form, or the brand?

 Discuss the implications for marketing strategies of differences in the focus of involvement.

What does it mean that consumers are involved with the product class or product form, but not the brand, or vice versa? What are the marketing implications of reduced brand involvement? For instance, such consumers may be vulnerable to strategies intended to induce brand switching.

Some consumers are involved mostly with the product use activity.

 Ask students to come up with examples of consumers who are involved with activities regarding the product, which involve using the product or brand, but are not concerned with the product or brand itself.

In such cases, aspects of the usage activities have consequences that are related to self meanings, but the attributes of the product or brand used in the activity are not directly self-relevant.

An example might be the person who enjoys skiing, tennis, or working out at a health club largely because of the social interactions involved in the activity. Such a person is not particularly interested or involved in the products or brands used to perform the activity. The focus of involvement depends on exactly what the consumer finds to be personally relevant.

It is possible that some consumers are mostly involved with owning a product, not using it.

Collectors, for example, often have high levels of felt involvement, but derive most of their satisfaction from owning the product. They don't actually use the product in a consumption sense. An example would be a person who collects thimbles, beer cans, or matchbooks. Even collectors of art (paintings, prints, sculpture) or classic automobiles may derive most of their satisfaction from ownership, not product use.

Example: A Study in High Involvement--Triatheletes. Here is a brief example of very high involvement with a specific activity--namely, participating in triathlons. Among the many Americans who have come to value physical fitness over the past 15 years or so, triatheletes are among the most extreme. In 1985, some 1.1 million Americans are expected to sweat their way through about 2,100 grueling three-way competitions, usually involving swimming, bicycling, and running. According to Triathlon Magazine, the average triathelete is a 34-year-old college graduate earning about $45,000 a year. Many of these participants train up to 30 hours per week, in addition to their regular, often time-consuming jobs. Moreover, they spend millions to acquire specialized equipment for the sport--fancy swimming goggles, high-priced bicycles, and state-of-the-art running gear. (see Teresa Carson, "The Spartan Sport That Draws Big Spenders," Business Week, February 18, 1985, p. 148).  Ask students to discuss the values that seem to influence these driven consumers.

Most triatheletes seem to value fitness (in the extreme), and perhaps good health. At the instrumental value level, they probably seek exciting activities, courage, and adventure. At the terminal value level, triatheletes may be seeking achievement and self-esteem. Of course, a key instrumental value seems to be competition itself, whether against other people or with oneself. Pushing oneself to the limits seems to be a desirable value for many triatheletes.

Intrinsic and Situational Self-Relevance. The distinction between intrinsic self-relevance (enduring involvement) and situational self-relevance (situational involvement) is important for both theoretical and for practical purposes.

In the text, we use the terms intrinsic and situational self-relevance to refer to these two concepts. As described above, we reserve the term involvement to refer only to the psychological state of being involved (at a moment).

Our model of involvement (Exhibit 4.8, page 92) identifies intrinsic and situational self-relevance as two antecedent factors that lead to or cause a state of involvement. As illustrated in Exhibit 4.8, the level of involvement experienced by a consumer is determined by the combination of intrinsic and situational self-relevance.

 After briefly reviewing the differences between intrinsic and situational self-relevance, ask students to provide examples of each. This will reveal if students understand the concepts.

Intrinsic self-relevance refers to the means-end representations of the product/self relationship. Consumers derive this knowledge from their past experience and store it in memory. When this intrinsic, self-relevant knowledge is activated in a situation, it contributes to the person's state of felt involvement. Because intrinsic self-relevance refers to relatively permanent knowledge structures in memory, some researchers have called it enduring involvement.

People who are into sports activities or hobbies often have high levels of intrinsic self- relevance for the equipment and products used in those activities. Avid bowlers, for example, may have high levels of intrinsic self-relevance for their bowling ball, shoes, and special clothing.

Situational self-relevance refers to specific social and physical stimuli in the environment that may create temporary feelings of self-relevance. These situational factors activate self-relevant goals and values that become temporarily associated with objects and/or activities in that situation. Thus, these situational sources of self-relevance create temporary feelings of involvement.

Virtually any aspect of a situation could be a source of situational self-relevance, in that it creates a temporary association between some product and self-relevant values and goals. Consider that a very hot summer day can increase consumers' felt involvement with ice cream cones, swimming pools, and air-conditioned movie theaters.

Of course, the purchase situation is a common source of situational self-relevance. Many, perhaps most purchase occasions create some temporary perceptions of self- relevance. One main reason is that consumers are spending their hard-earned money (which has clear self-relevant consequences). However, the level of self-relevance can be quite low for inexpensive, mundane purchases (butter, eggs, dishwashing detergent).

You should emphasize that situational sources of self-relevance are temporary and transient. When the situation changes, the self-relevance changes too.

 Point out that changes in the environment (refer back to the Wheel of Consumer Analysis) can change the factors that influence involvement. Ask students to give examples.

Various aspects of the immediate environment, including marketing strategies, can activate the means-end knowledge structures that represent intrinsic self-relevance. Also, various aspects of the immediate environment, including marketing strategies, can be sources of situational self- relevance. These factors can increase (or sometimes decrease) the level of perceived self- relevance or involvement the consumer experiences.

 Ask students to think about products for which they have high intrinsic self-relevance. Why are these products perceived as self-relevant?

Most students will have no trouble identifying products and actions that are intrinsically self- relevant to them. These products will have close ties to important, self-relevant consequences, perhaps even values.

 Ask students to identify situations that might increase situational self-relevance.

Most students will readily understand this concept. For instance, a hot summer day will increase the self-relevance of going to air-conditioned movie theaters, buying an ice cream cone, and going to a swimming pool. Seeing a 50%-off sale sign may make consumers feel more involved with the act of buying a winter coat.

 Encourage students to explore the implications of the involvement model for developing marketing strategies.

For instance, how should marketers deal with differences in consumers' intrinsic self-relevance? Segmentation is an obvious implication.

What marketing strategies might affect consumers' situational involvement? Many marketing strategies attempt to influence consumer’s situational involvement--rebates, premiums, sweepstakes.

Although difficult to influence in the short-run, some advertising campaigns seem intended to increase consumers' intrinsic self-relevance with the product class (Campbell's slogan, "Soup is Good Food, and seems partially intended to increase people's involvement with soup). Other ad campaigns focus on creating more intrinsic self-relevance with the product form (early ads for no- alcohol beer had to first increase consumers' interest in that product form and then promote the brand name) or the brand (many relevant examples including Coca-Cola, Levi's ads, and virtually any car ads).

Levels of Involvement. Students should appreciate that involvement can exist at several levels ranging from very low (virtually no) involvement to very high involvement. We can think about intrinsic self-relevance as varying over this wide range.

This view of involvement as a continuum is a bit different from the typical marketing approach, which often has treated involvement as dichotomous--either low or high. The text points out that many consumers have low to moderate levels of intrinsic involvement with most products, brands and services. Most consumers probably do not have high intrinsic self-relevance for more than a handful of products and brands.

The text emphasizes that involvement is a function of both intrinsic self-relevance and situational self-relevance. Therefore, we should expect that consumers' involvement, say during a purchase occasion, can be, and often is, higher than their level of intrinsic self-relevance. If most levels of intrinsic self-relevance are low to moderate, we could expect that most consumers’ product involvement is also low to moderate, after "adding in" the modest increment due to situational self-relevance.

Involvement and Brand Loyalty. The analysis of consumer-product relationships is relevant to the issue of brand loyalty. Marketers have become increasingly concerned that, over the past 30 years or so, brand loyalty seems to be decreasing among American consumers.

A study by the Wall Street Journal found that the percent of users who were loyal to one brand varied considerably across product categories. Brand loyalty remains relatively high for certain products--cigarettes (71 percent of users were loyal to one brand), mayonnaise and toothpaste (65 and 61 percent). For other products, however, consumers obviously didn't care much about the brand--garbage bags brought up the rear (23 percent), along with canned vegetables (25%), athletic shoes (27%), batteries (29%), and blue jeans (33%). (Source: Ronald Alsop, "Brand Loyalty is Rarely Blind Loyalty," The Wall Street Journal, October 19, 1989, pp. B1-B8).

 Ask students to discuss some of the underlying reasons for brand loyal (repeat purchase) behavior.

Partly, increased brand switching is due to the dramatic proliferation of alternative brands in most product categories, as well as promotions (rebates, coupons, and sales) that encourage and reward buying a different brand.

Loyalty is relatively high for products with distinctive flavors such as cigarettes and ketchup. Consumers seem to have two types of reactions to soft drinks, shampoo and tuna fish (all with a 44 percent rating). About half of the consumers perceive significant differences between brands (and thus stick with a brand they like) while the other half do not (and switch around between brands).

Loyalty is also to be expected for products and brands that have a distinctive symbolic image. For instance, loyalty toward underwear (with a 36% loyalty score) may seem low, but analysts say this is pretty high for such a mundane product. Perhaps this relatively high score reflects the industry's attempts to make underwear more of a fashion item and, therefore, more self-relevant.

Good examples of brand loyalty based on the symbolic meanings of a product can be found in the beer and soft drink markets. Consider what happened when Coca-Cola changed their formula and introduced "new Coke" in 1985 (see Highlight 4.3). Apparently, the symbolic meanings and related emotional feelings that loyal customers associated with Coke were much more powerful than management imagined. When the company took away "their product/brand,' many customers rebelled.

We hope that an astute student will note that these relationships are relative and must be understood in context. It is unreasonable to expect brand loyalty scores to be extremely high (90% or more) for any product. Not all consumers will form the same type and level of customer-brand relationship. Some consumers will not find the product category important, and/or will not perceive significant differences between brands, while other consumers will. Marketers need to gauge the sizes of these segments and tailor their marketing strategies accordingly.

PROJECT -- MEASURING MEANS-END CHAINS

Most students enjoy doing this small scale "research" project. The experience gives them a clearer sense of what means-end chains are, how they can be measured, and the problems in measuring means-end chains. You might want to give students a choice of three or four products to study (e.g., running shoes/sneakers, fast food restaurants, jeans, ink pens, soft drinks) rather than force them to examine a single product. In class, you can combine students' data to construct an aggregate value structure map for each product, if desired.

Project: Measuring Means-End Chains

Find two consumers who you can talk to separately for about 5-10 minutes each. Try to find a quiet place where you won't be interrupted.

 Begin the interview by stating ...

"Assume that you are in the market for ______. What factors do you consider when you are deciding what brand of ______to buy for yourself?

 Then ask...

"What two factors are most important to you in making your decision?"

 Then, for each of these two factors, do the laddering... "Why is ______important to you?" Or, "Why is ______important? Or, "What does ______give you?"

 Continue this process for each factor until the consumer cannot go on.

 Then, draw out the two means-end chains you measured for each person.

 Discuss what you have learned about these consumers' product knowledge and what implications your analysis could have for developing marketing strategies.

 Finally, identify any problems that you had with the measurement procedures. Was this process easy or hard for the consumers? Why do you think so?

Suggestions for Class Discussion :

 Begin the discussion by pointing out that the methods used to measure means-end chains have two basic purposes.

First, the elicitation (or triad or free sort) tasks are to gain "entry" into the means-end chain structure. Then the laddering task is supposed to reveal the linkages between meanings at different levels of abstraction.

 Select one of the products students studied and ask several students to describe the responses they received. Jot these down on the chalkboard--placing attributes along the bottom, consequences in the middle, and values at the top.

 Then, start to build an aggregate cognitive structure map by having the students who researched the same products describe the dominant links in their means-end chains. Draw in the connections between attributes, consequences and values. Ask the class to discuss the implications of this (very rough) map for marketing strategy.

 Point out problems in creating aggregate maps, such as:

1. Difficulties in coding idiosyncratic language for common meanings.

2. Uncertainty about whether different words refer to the same meaning.

3. Uncertainty as to how many consumers must mention a concept or link before it should be included in an aggregate means-end map (sometimes researchers use a criterion of 10%, sometimes as few as three persons in a sample of 40 or 50 have to mention a link).

4. Difficulty in producing a "clean," easy-to-read map without crossing links.

Constructing the aggregate map "by hand" in class is a long and tedious process. Commercial applications, however, have begun to use sophisticated computer programs to identify common meanings and draw the aggregate maps easily and quickly.

 Encourage students to discuss the problems they had in measuring consumers' means-end chains, especially the laddering interviews. Students are likely to bring up issues like:

1. Social desirability (perhaps respondents were reluctant to mention sensitive or intimate factors).

2. Lack of linkages for some respondents (difficulty in getting them through the laddering task). This may indicate that their knowledge was minimal. 3. Getting "off track" and "going in circles" (sometimes a problem of the interviewer asking the wrong question, sometimes a function of the consumer not having higher level knowledge, sometimes an indication of a "sensitive" area).

4. Vague answers (perhaps due to respondents' inability to clearly verbalize certain meanings; sometimes due to respondent not having a higher-order meaning, but feeling compelled to give some answer).

5. The reactive nature and demands of the laddering procedure (may cause respondents to give answers that do not reflect their actual stored meanings).

 This discussion of measurement problems could include a consideration of:

1. The problems marketers encounter in trying to measure and understand consumers' meanings for their products and brands. Just studying perceived attributes or benefits is not enough to understand consumers. The links between these concepts should be understood, too.

2. The underlying cognitive processing assumptions that make the measurement procedures "work." These include automatic activation of meanings from memory, spreading activation from one meaning node to others, and associative networks of organized meanings.

PROJECT -- INVOLVEMENT

We usually assign this "involvement project" for the next class period after the means-end chains measurement project. Students' experiences and results usually generate a stimulating discussion about the basis for high and low involvement. Perhaps some of the data will indicate that even so-called low involvement products may have some degree of personal relevance (felt involvement) for some people or on some occasions, such as during a decision process.

The simple project below can be modified by assigning half the class to study an apparently high involvement product (stereo products, clothing, sports equipment) and the other half a low involvement product (paper clips, milk, or gasoline).

Product Involvement

Find someone (a friend is OK) who you can talk to for about 10 minutes in a quiet place where you won't be interrupted. Identify a product that you think is relatively highly involving for that person.

 Elicit the decision criteria that person would use if they were considering buying a brand in that product category. You might say...

"Imagine you were going to buy ______. What characteristics would you consider in selecting a brand of ______to buy for yourself?

 Then ask the person...

"What are the two (or three) most important characteristics you would consider?”

 Next, ladder off each of these characteristics.

"Why is ______important to you?"

"What does ______get for you?"

 Keep asking these "why" questions until the consumer "stops." Be sure to ask for an explanation if you do not understand what the person means by an answer.

 Draw out the means-end chains that you have identified for the "high" involvement product.  Now do the same thing for a "low" involvement product, like paper clips, milk, or gasoline.

 Discuss the differences you see in this consumer's meanings for the high and low involvement products. Did you notice any differences in the measurement process?

 Assume that a substantial number of consumers shared these meanings. What implications would your data have for developing marketing strategies?

Questions to Ask During the Class Discussion :

 What types and levels of distinctions did consumers use for the higher and lower involvement products?

 What was the main difference between the lower and higher involvement products? Did you expect to find this? Why or why not?

 What were the typical end levels for the higher and lower involvement products? Did the "high involvement products" seem more closely related to consumers' self-concepts?

 Was the beginning level meaning strongly connected to values for both the lower and higher involvement products?

 How many levels were produced in the laddering responses for the higher and lower involvement products?

 Did subjects respond differently to the laddering procedure for the higher and lower involvement products?

 What implications do you see for developing marketing strategies for the higher and lower involvement products? NOTES AND ANSWERS TO REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Select a product category and identify examples of product forms, brands and models. Describe some of the attribute, consequence, and value meanings for each of these levels.

This question forces students to review the four levels or types of product. Exhibit 4.1 (p. 72 of the text) is a good guide for categorizing meanings that students produce. With a little practice, most students will easily distinguish between levels of product meanings.

You can point out that marketers and consumers both influence how a society or large group organizes these four levels of product knowledge. Also, you can point out that these product structures are in constant flux, and some may change rapidly, particularly if a new product form is introduced (e.g., microwave food products).

The second part of the question concerns the three basic levels of meaning in a means-end chain. The text suggests that the simpler, three-level chain (attributes--consequences--values) is sufficiently detailed for most marketing purposes. The six-level means-end chain can help marketers think about consumers' meanings in a more detailed way that may be useful for developing advertising strategies (see Chapter 18).

The appropriate level of consumer meaning (attributes, consequences, or values) depends on how the target segment of consumers thinks about the product. If customers usually consider a product in terms of its attributes (or its functional consequences) then the marketing strategies should be directed at those levels of meaning. Appeals would be different if most customers think about a product in terms of its higher-order meanings (psychosocial consequences or values). Marketing strategies may be able to create new means- end chains or encourage new linkages within established chains, but these approaches are likely to be more difficult than accepting means-end chain relationships as they exist in a customer market.

2. Analyze the possible meanings of mouthwash or deodorant in terms of positive (perceived benefits) and negative (perceived risks) consequences of use. Why are both types of meaning important?

This question focuses on the consequences of product use--both pro and con. Positive consequences are desirable outcomes that lead to the achievement of important positive goals and values. Perceived risks are undesirable outcomes that lead either to negative consequences or block the achievement of positive values.

Often, it is easier to identify positive consequences of product use. Exhibit 4.5 show mostly positive consequences for the respective products, but students should be able to identify several negative consequences of using these products. For instance, Scope mouthwash may have a bad taste, or sting the mouth, or smell bad. Medicine mouth, altered food tastes, or the perception that you are covering up for something would be other possible negative consequences of mouthwash use. Deodorants may cause a rash, or sting, or be ineffective in eliminating perspiration or odor. Atra razors might cut too close and leave a razor rash. Hair spray might give an artificial or too-stiff look to the hair.

Marketers need to understand both the positive and negative consequences of product use. For one thing, pro and con outcomes represent the conflict often present in purchase decisions. Many purchase decisions require the consumer to make a tradeoff between the desirable and undesirable consequences of purchase and use.

3. Proctor & Gamble Company (P&G) is one of the most admired marketing companies in the United States. P&G is known as an innovator of high quality products with superior product attributes. Go to the P&G Website at www.pg.com/about_pg/science_tech/research_development/innovations.jhtml and check out the new product ideas P&G is researching. Choose a new product and identify the key elements in the means-end chain that P&G seems to have “designed into” the product. For instance, P&G recently introduced a new model of Crest toothpaste called MultiCare. A P&G spokesperson says, “In our research, consumers rated this the best Crest ever. Crest MultiCare delivers great protection, and the feeling it creates in your mouth, both during and after brushing, is really terrific.” Crest Multicare has a special foaming formula that delivers proven Crest protection against tartar and cavities and the acids that cause them, even in places that are hard to reach. Consumers also said that Crest MultiCare tastes great, freshens their breath, and leaves their mouth feeling clean long after brushing. (The main P&G website is www.pg.com. Explore the About P&G button for an overview of this interesting and innovative company.)

In this example, a means-end chain could be described as follows:

Attribute Functional Consequence Psychosocial Consequence Value Foaming Cavity protection “I make healthy choices” Taking care of formula my family

4. Define the concept of involvement and illustrate it by discussing products, which, for you, would fall at each extreme of an involvement continuum.

This is a review question with some application content. Involvement refers to a consumer's subjective perception of the personal relevance of some object, activity, or situation. Thus, involvement is perceived self-relevance. The text emphasizes the experiential aspects of involvement, the feeling of being involved. Sometimes, this is called felt involvement.

The text also identifies a type of stable or enduring involvement called intrinsic self-relevance. Intrinsic self-relevance is the knowledge in memory about how a product or activity is related to self-relevant goals and values, in general, across situations. For instance, some people are highly involved with cars; others are highly involved with a sports activity (playing tennis, swimming, or football). Some consumers feel involved with shopping.

Obviously, students' personal examples of products with low, moderate, and high levels of perceived self- relevance will differ. Each student may find different products to be personally relevant.

In a class discussion, this question can highlight the important fact that no product is either high or low involvement for all consumers. Discussing such examples can help students understand the idea of a continuum of involvement. You can point out that the involvement concept can be a useful segmentation variable. We will use it for this purpose throughout the text.

5. Consider the difference between consequences of possession and the consequences of consumption as the basis for intrinsic self-relevance. What products are relevant to you for each of these reasons? How does that change your purchasing behavior?

This rather deep review question should generate some insights and lively discussion about different types of consequences and how they relate to both intrinsic and situational involvement.

Many of the consequences of interest to marketers stem from product use or consumption. The taste of ice cream, the acceleration of a car, and the feeling of achievement in using a computer are all consumption consequences.

However, some of the most important consequences of some products may be a function of merely possessing them. For some products, ownership is extremely important. That is the consequences of ownership have high levels of intrinsic self-relevance. Clearly obvious examples are collectibles. Collectors of stamps, antique furniture, or political buttons find ownership of such objects to be intrinsically satisfying. However, even products that serve a useful function may be partly valued because of possession. Merely owning a luxury car may provide its owner with important consequences.

Perhaps some students will suggest that consequences of possessing collectable specialty items are self- relevant and therefore involving. Such products might entail longer commitments (I will keep this forever), stronger linkages to higher level values (feelings of accomplishment, uniqueness, sophistication) compared to items purchased largely for the functional consequences of consumption.

6. Do you agree that most products have low to moderate levels of intrinsic self-relevance for most consumers? Why or why not? In the text we argue for this position. It is important for marketing students to recognize two ideas about involvement. First, involvement (and intrinsic self-relevance) can vary from very low to very high levels. Second, most consumers probably do not perceive high levels of self-relevance for many products. You could ask students to develop a list of all the products and services they use in a single day as a way of making the point that few of them are highly involving.

These moderate levels of involvement have important implications for marketing strategy development. If most consumers do not find much intrinsic self-relevance in a product, they will probably expend relatively little time and effort in selecting the product. It may be difficult for marketers to attract consumers' attention to their product. The marketer will have to develop strategies to generate situational sources of personal relevance (sweepstakes, contests, free offers, etc.) and thereby increase consumers' involvement with buying the product.

7. Prepare one or two means-end chains for your choice of a major or an emphasis in marketing as part of your degree program. Do laddering of yourself to identify the means-end chains (see Exhibit 4.7). Label the attributes, consequences, and values that you identify.

The choice of a major is a highly involving one for most students. Nearly everyone will have considered the consequences of their choice alternative options. Of course, these means-end chains will reflect individual differences.

The six-level chain, for instance, should contain concrete attributes (course requirements, graduate placement record, specific instructors, courses offered, and classroom or laboratory facilities), abstract attributes (quality image of the school, college or department, prestige image of the jobs, reputations of courses or instructors), functional consequences (job placement, pay levels, ability to travel, other job benefits), psychosocial consequences (feelings of prestige or admiration of one's peers), instrumental values (being in control, being around other people, working on "important" projects), and terminal values (feelings of achievement, self-esteem, power, self-actualization, or security).

8. Using the concept of means-end chains, discuss why different people might shop for athletic shoes at department stores, specialty athletic footwear shops, and discount stores. Why might the same consumer shop these stores on different occasions?

This is a challenging application question. Students might begin by generally characterizing different customer segments in terms of their levels of intrinsic self-relevance with athletic shoes. They might then try to imagine the means-end chains of those consumers. Some consumers might link athletic shoes to important self-relevant consequences (I can run faster and win some races). Others may consider athletic shoes largely in terms of their functional consequences (i.e. these shoes have a durable sole that will last a long time).

After some experience in comparing different means-end chains, perhaps earlier in the class, it should be fairly obvious to students that different consumers might select different outlets to meet different objectives. Of course, these different retail outlets carry different lines and models of shoes at different price ranges. Usually, the more involved athlete will shop at a specialty footwear shop, which carry a wide range of technologically advanced shoes at higher prices and may have knowledgeable salespeople. Less involved consumers might shop in a discount store with narrow product range, but low prices, and salespeople who lack detailed product knowledge.

Perhaps some students will recognize that even a single consumer might own several types of athletic shoes that are used in different ways, in a variety of situations (running shoes, walking shoes, soccer shoes, and basketball shoes). Thus, even a single consumer may have multiple means-end chains (appropriate for different consumption situations). These consumers might even buy these shoes at different types of stores.

9. Discuss how a marketer of casual clothing for men and women can use consumers' product knowledge (means- end chains) and involvement to understand the consumer-product relationship. The casual clothing category is highly familiar to students and the discussion should reveal some differences among students. A very general answer is that marketers can identify and understand deeper meanings and values using means-end chains than they often would without this technique.

Students should be able to identify key attributes, consequences, and values for casual clothing (e.g., jeans). This should help them identify consumers who feel such products are personally relevant and involving and those consumers who do not feel this way. Students should have a better appreciation that people who differ in involvement also vary in their product knowledge (they have amounts of product knowledge).

10. Identify three ways that marketers can influence consumers' situational self-relevance and discuss how this will affect consumers' overall level of involvement. For what types of products are these strategies most suitable?

This application question forces students to consider ways of influencing consumers' self-relevance in the short run, in particular situations. Students will probably review points made in the text, but should be encouraged to come up with examples of their own.

The marketing objective of temporarily increasing the self-relevance of a product or activity is to increase consumers' feelings of involvement in that situation. Marketers can influence situational self-relevance in a number of ways. Basically, all of these strategies involve creating temporary self-relevant consequences and linking them to the product. For instance, a contest or sweepstakes that one enters by mailing in a proof-of-purchase adds self-relevant consequences to buying the product. Sales, coupons, two-for-one offers, etc. increase the personal relevance of the situation. Marketers may try to create new involving situations, increase the relevance of current situations, or work to maintain the self-relevance of a situation.

Suggested applications include products with low levels of intrinsic self-relevance where marketers want to create some moderate level of involvement in order to get consumers to switch brands, for instance. Most recommendations will focus on promotion and distribution strategies, but product and price strategies are relevant too.

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