Traditional Turkish Textile Art

TRADITIONAL TURKISH TEXTILE ART Assoc. Prof. Yüksel ŞAHİN1

Anatolia was the home of ancient civilizations that created the cultural elements of the Neolithic age with respect to its prosperous geography and climatic conditions. For instance, the weaving fragments discovered in the remains of Çatalhöyük (6000 BC), which contains findings of the Neolithic age, revealed that the history of weaving in Anatolia dated back to ancient times. These discoveries led the world history of weaving beyond predictions (Yağan, 1978: 52). In addition, the spindle found in Tokat, Erbaa belonging to the Bronze age and the silver spindles discovered in Alacahöyük dating back to 3000 – 2000 BC are the finds that indicate the development of weaving in the Anatolian region since the ancient times. “Soumak” and “cicim” weaving fragments were discovered in the Phrygian region spanning Eskişehir, Kütahya, Ankara and partially Afyon. These weavings, which are extremely technical, could be traced back to 7 th century BC (Acar, 1975: 25). When the Turks arrived Anatolia (1071 AD), they came across an advanced level of weaving, of which the foundations were laid by their ancestors who settled in these lands centuries ago and which was augmented by various civilizations (Yağan, 1978; 52).

Hand weaving was one of the leading arts in the former home of the Turks. In the Altay mountains, BC 3. The carpet that belongs to the 3rd century and is called the Pazyryk carpet discovered in the fifth Pazyryk kurgan demonstrates how advanced the Turks were in weaving. Pazyryk carpet is the world’s oldest hand-woven carpet and is a very valuable example that characteristically reflects the Central Asian carpet art (Diyarbekirli, as cited in Mandaloğlu, 2014: 84). The Turks, who migrated from Central Asia with such advanced weaving knowledge, worked their own weaving styles and techniques with the past civilizations of the prehistoric Anatolia (Yağan, 1978: 63). The degree of the advancements in weaving in ancient Turks depends on animal husbandry. The Turks, who had a nomadic culture, developed highly practical tools and clothing patterns with respect to such lifestyle. Using animal wool, they produced various tents,

1 Anadolu University, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of Fashion Design, Eskişehir, Turkey. [email protected]

1 floor and wall spreads, pillows, cushions, mattresses, clothing items and animal covers using weaving, knitting, sewing and embroidery techniques. Subsequent to the permanent settlement, they made use of plant fibers such as cotton and linen and used these in weaving. FELT MAKING In technical perspective, all the techniques applied to obtain the textile surface are used in Turkish textile arts as well. Therefore, it is essential to focus on the felt art, in which wool is used directly, prior to weaving. The most classical method used today to obtain felt is to compress wool with hot water and soap. In the traditional discipline, the felt was obtained by pounding on the chest in hot and humid environments, or by crushing by feet to enlace the wool. Although this method is still utilized, felt machines replaced human exertion. Felt, which emerged as a necessity in rural life, is a favorable textile surface in terms of transmitting heat and cold. It is acknowledged that felt was used as floor and wall spreads, in tent covers, in shepherd’s cloak, hood types, men's and women's traditional clothing, in caps such as coif and fez, caps used by religious communities, and in animal harnesses and saddles. Molding was conducted on the felts produced for tent covers and shepherd’s cloaks. Tent covers and cloaks were similar textile items in terms of their functions. As a kind of garment, cloak was the shelter of a shepherd, who grazed animals. It could be observed that felt production continued in regions where animal husbandry remained. However, currently, increasingly reduced animal husbandry led to the import of felt wool. Felt making, which existed in almost every region in the past, became the subject of projects that aim to sustain the crafts as a rising value and of touristic purposes in regions such as İzmir Tire, Afyon, Konya, Şanlıurfa, Kahramanmaraş, Manisa, and Ankara (HAGEM2 Field Survey results- 1989-2000).

In addition, masters who developed skills by observing their ancestors constitute a significant production line. For instance, Arif Cön, who lives in İzmir, Tire, creates felts both with traditional patterns and motifs and with patterns that comply with contemporary fashion in his own atelier. In addition to the craftsmen who continue their ancestral profession, felt making

2 Author has been studied as a Folklore Researcher at the Ministry of Culture The Directorate of Folk Cultures Reseaarches and Development that short name as HAGEM, between the 1989- 2000 years.

2 continues in various courses. At this point, it is inevitable to place an emphasis on the degeneration problem, which became an inextricable situation.

Picture 1: Felt with a traditional motif finished yet, Topçu Keçe shepherd felt studio, Afyon. Yüksel, Bülent (2014), Kültürümüzde Keçe var, Ümit publish, Edited by: Özge Yüksel). Picture 2: Shepherd's felt cloak, Mehmet Girgiç, İkonium Studio, Yüksel, Bülent (ibid).

KNITTING Another group of textile handcrafts created without using a weaving loom is knitting. Knitting, which is made by tools such as hands-fingers, knitting needles, crochet needles, needles, or bodkins and is made of yarns such as wool, silk and cotton, has an important place among the textile handcrafts used to meet individual needs. Bed linen knotting, which is common in Western, Central and Eastern Black Sea regions and especially in Kastamonu and Amasya, is a hand-crafted art made of white cotton yarn. “Bed linen knotting”, which could be considered as a leisure activity, is a very authentic hand craft that is used on the edges of the bedclothes, as well as towels and curtains. It is produced with the purposes of dowry and through a special order. It is currently a sustained textile hand craft (HAGEM Field Research results- 1989-2000).

Picture 3-4: Kastamonu bed linen knotting (http://turklacemuseum.blogspot.com.tr/2012/02/anadolu-dantel-kastamonu-el-dugumu.html).

Embroidery is another hand craft within the group of knitting. This textile handcraft, which is used in the clothing items, in caps and in home textiles, is a continuing tradition for centuries among women in Anatolia as an extremely common leisure activity. The embroideries, which reflect the unique and elegant aesthetic sense of Anatolian women and which are admirable with harmony of colors and sense of humor, are classified according to the materials and techniques

3 they are created. Most are used in women’s caps and on the edges of head scarves. However, there exists very valuable coffee table covers made of elegant simple colors. (HAGEM Field Surveys results- 1989- 2000). As noticed in literature review studies, the word “oya (embroidery)” has a meaning derived from the act of “oyalanmak (idle around)”. The needlework, which involves technical difficulty, delicate workmanship, patience, attention and care, has a special place within the embroideries. Certain examples are still produced in İçel- Tarsus, İzmir- Menemen, Bitlis, Elazığ, Bolu- Mudurnu, Trabzon, Ankara- Nallıhan, Aydın, İstanbul, and Amasya, Bartın. The color harmony, simplicity and elegance in the two and three dimensional samples bear an advanced aesthetic language. Currently, it has an important production potential in the souvenir industry.

Picture 5: End of the 19th century- beginning of the 20th. SHM 10469 (Bilgi, H.- Zanbak . İ. (2012). Sadberk Hanım Müzesi Koleksiyonundan Osmanlı İşlemeleri… el emeği göz nuru, Vehbi Koç Vakfı, p.368- 370). Picture 6. Wedding socks, Bursa Etnographic Museum, (Türk El Sanatları, Kültür Bakanlığı, 1993, p. 163) Sock knitting is another area of knitting. It is necessary to assert that sock knitting, which is the indispensable gift of weddings with traditional symbolic meaning, entails an entire digest of literature. Exquisite examples of socks, which are knitted with great skill and which convey the culture and traditions through an extraordinary symbolic language, are currently exhibited in national museums. The socks that have importance in the ritual of marriage are knitted in different colors for the male and female and are placed in bride's dowries and groom’s packs. The color and pattern harmony of these socks were focused on by many researchers. Unfortunately, this textile art is one of the lost traditional handicrafts. Today, pret a porter socks are offered as presents in weddings. There exist knitted socks in the rural parts of almost every region that look like rug patterns. Fine-twisted wool yarn is used for these socks knitted with high sophistication and high- spirited colors. Socks knitted with five or two knitting needles via the multicolor yarn running technique are usually kept in the chests without being used. They have an important place among the displayed items of the bride’s dowry, during the marriage ceremony. The examples of socks that are transferred from dowry to dowry without being used became the subject to folk songs, ditties and proverbs in folk literature occasionally (HAGEM Field Research results, 1989- 2000). HAND WEAVING

4 There exists valuable research on hand weaving in Turkey. Majority of the research are related to weavings from the Palace, and another important part of research cover the centers of weaving in Anatolia and the weavings from rural areas. The research on Palace weavings were meticulously examined and published as the subjects of art history comprehensively by relying on related documentations. Weaving developed commercially in various important cities from west to south, east to north of Anatolia, through the centers of weaving in Anatolia that functioned for the palace. In the historical process, as important export items of the Ottoman palace, unique examples of hand weavings such as fabrics, carpets and rugs were produced.

In this context, it is possible to classify weavings as inkle weaving, kirkitli weaving, and shuttle weaving. Kirkitli weaving consists of plain and pile weavings. Plain weavings consist of cicim, rug, zili and soumak weavings. Pile weavings consist of carpets and plushes. Shuttle weaving could be classified as plain, dobby, and jacquard weavings.

1. “ Çarpana” weavings are narrow width weavings, such as belts, braces, and straps, woven through manually-oriented plates. 2. Kirkitli weavings are woven either in vertical or ground looms. The looms named ishtar3 are used vertically or leaning against a wall (Durul, 1977: 22). Such name was given due to the weaving style that the weft yarn, which is transversely passed over the warp yarn, is compressed by the kirkit. 2. In kirkitli weavings, the warp yarn size is calculated according to the dimensions of the item to be woven. The techniques involving the kirkitli weavings, such as carpets, plushes, cicim, rug, zili, and soumak weavings are different from each other. Woven rug fabrics constitute a distinctive group within the textile arts. They are woven from sheep’s wool, goat hair, horse hair, camel hair, cotton, and occasionally linen and silk. Carpet: Woven on the vertical loom via the three-yarn system and has a pile surface. Depending on the intended use, they are woven as floor, wall, sofa, saddle, pillow and cushion carpets. Carpet centers that are distinguished in characteristics in comparison to each other are cities of Hereke, Uşak, Muğla-Milas, Manisa-Kula, Samsun, Kars, Hakkari, Balıkesir-Yağcıbedir, Antalya-Korkuteli, Çanakkale-Ayvacık, Kayseri, Niğde, Konya, Karaman and their vicinities (HAGEM Field Research results, 1989- 2000).

3 Ishtar is associated with the goddess of fertility in Anatolia (Durul, 1977; 22).

Picture 7: Yağcıbedir Yuruks carpet, Balıkesir , Y. Şahin Collection. Picture 8: Plush, Niğde – Altunhisar, Y. Şahin Collection. Plush (Tülü) - Tülüce/ Geve/ Hırsek/ Filikli: Types of weaving with eave surfaces and appearance of a fleece. In Tülü-Tülüce/Geve/Hırsek weavings, eave part that constitutes the surface is composed of the coarse eave wool, in Filikli it is composed of angora wool (Görgünay, 2005: 16). Rug: Woven with two yarn systems. Rugs became the subject of various research due to their rich color, motif and composition characteristics. The rugs, which are evaluated as cultural properties, exhibited in most significant museums of the world in various collections. Rugs are only a kind of woven ground clothes except the knotted carpet (Acar, 1975: 9). Rug motifs, which are enhanced through colors or which adopt different meanings due to the composition they are in, bear the traces of an established culture. It is observed that remarks on everyday life, architectural and floral elements and even tools and utensils were depicted in rugs as well as the motifs that are linked to religious beliefs. Turkmens, in the villages they settled, nomad Yuruks in the north, south, east and west, continued the same traditions. Belkıs Acar (1975: 10) stated that the patterns and compositions developed through individual discoveries, in the natural progress without being exposed to external influences, and mentioned the amazing techniques and patterns observed in the rugs of the Yuruks settled in difficult geographical conditions existed in other weavings as well. A conscious mistake made at a small part of the rug is a noteworthy application for rugs. This attitude of the rug makers is due to the belief of evil eye. In addition, figures of snake and the scorpion are woven against being stung by them. Tree of life motifs, an archaic pattern, are woven in the rugs with 7, 8 or 9 levels (Acar, 1975: 10). The motifs in the rugs are subjects of independent investigation. This study keeps motif, color, material symbolism out of its scope. Yet, it is essential to mention that the use of metaphorical expressions under the influence of Islam turned into a graphical symbolism through time and found meaning in motifs and patterns in the weaving that presents the traces of the old Shaman faith and the tribal symbols of the 24 Oghuz Tribes (Acar, 1975: 12). There are several textile items necessitated in nomadic life as well as ground cover weavings. For instance, sacks, saddlebags, cushions, horse and camel straps, rugs, aprons are woven on floor looms or on vertical looms that could be mounted and dismounted.

6 Cicim: Warp, weft and pattern yarns are used. Plain weaving is done with warp and weft and between them runs the pattern yarn to give the impression that an embroidery was completed afterwards. The cicim weave is made on the vertical loom and on the reverse side. Occasionally another weaver is present behind the loom (Acar, 1975: 28). They are prepared with the aim to provide grain sacks, pillows, prayer rugs, sofa covers, ground spreads. Particularly, cicim weaving on the front faces of the sacks bear a high level of artistic value. At times, these front faces are ornamented with evil eye talismans, sea shells and tassels to protect the user from evil eye (Acar, 1975: 33), (HAGEM Field Surveys results, 1989- 2000). Cicim weaving is common in cities such as Yozgat, Malatya, Gaziantep, Konya and their vicinities.

Picture 9: Kilim, Yozgat (Türk El Sanatları, (ibid), p. 80) Picture 10: Soumak flour sack, Yozgat (Türk El Sanatları, (ibid), p. 108) Zili, weaving is made by three yarn system. They are woven by taking the colored pattern yarns behind the warp yarn to the front. Each colored pattern passes transversely by skipping thrice the top and once the bottom in its own pattern area (Acar, 1975: 35). The weaving technique did not change much since the weaving technique could not facilitate different type of patterns. They were acknowledged to be woven in Eskişehir- Kırka, Gaziantep, by the Yuruks of Adana, in Çanakkale, Balıkesir, İzmir-Bergama, Aydın, Manisa in the Western Anatolia, in Adana, Konya and in the Yuruk and Turkmen settlements in Kayseri (Acar, 1975: 39) (HAGEM Field Surveys results, 1989- 2000). Soumak: They are woven on vertical loom, on the back of the warp yarns. Therefore, they present an exclusive technique among other kirkitli weavings. The warp yarn is usually made of cotton and the pattern yarn is made of wool. Soumak weaving is a technique that is commonly used for weaving the sacks for carrying and storing flour and grain. In soumak weaving, embroidery is performed by picking the wool weft yarn over the cotton warp yarn. The workmanship in these sacks, which exhibit a complex pattern structure, is highly appealing. In addition, due to their complicated pattern workmanship, they get names such as “makes a bride weep” (HAGEM Field Surveys results, 1989- 2000). There are types of kirkitli weavings that received the names of “farda”, “palaz”, “haircloth”, “hopan” etc. However, this study would not provide details about these types. 3. Shuttle Weaving:

7 Although the developments in the weaving industry in Anatolia were distinguished during the Period of Seljuk and Beyliks, weaving advanced during the Ottoman era and became one of the important items of the income (İmer, 2001: 9). Among them are fabrics named as “velour (kemha)”, “cloth of gold (zerbaf)”, “seraser”, “sateen (atlas)”, “baldachin (diba)”, “marbling (hare-ebru)”, “velvet (kadife)” and “kerchief (çatma)”, which are admirable with their color and pattern characteristics, are as well important in terms of weaving techniques and the materials used.

Once the historical process is briefly examined, especially in Anatolia, it is noticeable that the history of silk weaving dates to the Byzantine period (Bilgi, 2007: 11). Weaving developed via such heritage during the arrival of Turks came to Anatolia could be detected from the advanced silk industry in the 13th century (İnalcık, 2008: 13). Such that, silk fabrics with gold strings were woven during the Seljuk period, and they were of very good quality to be sent to foreign rulers as a royal gift (Bilgi, 2007: 11). In the 15th century, Bursa was the center of a significant silk weaving industry. Fabrics such as velvet, kerchief, velour, sateen, brocade were woven here (İnalcık, 2008: 13). These thick fabrics were used in cushions, horse blankets, aprons as well as in the clothes worn as tops such as caftans, kilts, and dolmans. Silk fabrics were also used in making of carpets, turbans, night caps, headscarves, loincloths, towels, slippers, mufflers and button making. Previously, majority of the textile production in Anatolia consisted of silk fabrics and carpets and a smaller amount consisted of hemp and linen. Certainly, several of these types were brought to Anatolia by the Turks and others were techniques and species that were present previously in Anatolia (İnalcık, 2008: 14). The second important silk weaving center after Bursa was Istanbul in the 16th century. In addition, it is acknowledged that silk was woven in Amasya, Tokat, Sakız, Alaşehir and Aydos (Bilgi, 2007: 11). İnalcık states that woolen fabrics (mohair) in Ankara, silk in Bursa, carpets in Aksaray, Gördes, Kula and Usak, cotton fabrics in Borlu, Isparta, Karaman Tire, Menemen, Corum, Tokat and Kastamonu were woven and these locations were important textile centers until the advancements in industrial production in Europe during the 19th century (2008: 13).

8 Picture 11: Picture 16: “Rosette” scheme caftan with medallion and tulip motifs, “velour” (kemha) fabric, 16th century. TSM. İst. Inventory number 13/ 932. (Nurhan Atasoy, Walter B. Denny, Louise W. Mackie, Hülya Tezcan, İpek, Osmanlı Dokuma Sanatı, (Translated by R. Alp, A. Kardiçalı), TEB İletişim ve Yayıncılık A.O. İstanbul, p.79). Picture 12: Long sleeve caftan with pomegranate motif, “seraser” fabric, 16th century. TSM., İst. Inventory number 13/ 9. (Silk book, ibid, p.3). Majority of the caftan fabrics made from precious materials in the Ottoman empire were velour, seraser and cloth of gold (zerbaf). Fabrics such as seraser and cloth of gold (zerbaf) were woven in certain amounts on the looms in the palace in order to prevent the waste of precious metals. Warp yarn of the seraser was silk, and its weft yarn was gold or silver strings. Cloth of gold (zerbaf), of which several motifs were woven with gold, was a type of brocade and was a very valuable fabric. Both the warp and weft yarns of velour were silk, and the supplementary wefts were of silver or gold lapels (strings f gold or silver alloys wrapped around a yarn) (Bilgi, 2007: 11). These fabrics are those that represent the social status. Their production was rendered possible by the cooperation of silk designers, technical workmanship and craftsmen weavers.

Picture 13: Gülistani caftan, “velour” (kemha) fabric, non-repetitive pattern, TSM, Inventory number 13/ 37. (Silk book, ibid.p.68). Picture 14: Velvet (çatma) woven fabric, 17th century., Fitswilliam Muesum, Cambridge inventory number T. 154-1949. (Silk book, ibid.p. 151 ). Despite the rich motif repertoire in Ottoman fabrics, pattern arrangements were rather limited. Tulip, rose, hyacinth, carnation, holy hock, pomegranate, pine conch, spring branches, dagger leaves, plane leaves were the most commonly used motifs. Their composition was designed according to symmetry and eternity principles. They were placed shifted or in medallions under certain schemes. The most commonly used color on fabrics is a dark red, called “güvezi”. An outstanding harmony was created through contrasting colors. The edges of the motifs were generally registered (Bilgi, 2007: 13). Velvets were pile fabrics that were woven in Bursa and Istanbul. Ottoman fabrics went through the most perfect era in terms of technic and artistry during the 16th and 17th centuries (Bilgi, 2007: 12). The importance of the hand weavings as the most significant income of the Ottoman Empire stems from fact that they are Palace originated. The artisans who practiced in various arts worked at the Ottoman Palace Workshops, which were the places where exquisite cultural productions took place at the beginig of the 16th century. These workshops were brought together under the professional organization called the Ahl-i Hiref. Professionals such as silk fabric and carpet

9 weavers, muralists (designers), hood producers, tailors, Hil'at (caftan) producers served at these workshops (İnalcık, 2008: 255). Within this organization, the Muralists House (Nakkaşhane) section was of particular prominence. Muralists House of the Palace was the center of all art branches, where beautiful compositions containing styles and decorations of the period were depicted, and were are applied to different art branches according to their technical and material characteristics (Gürsu, 1988: 17). In this section, muralists prepared carpet motifs and color composition characteristics through drawing samples on the cardboards for carpet weavers. Thus, the muralist who determined the style of carpets within the Palace were as well influential in transferring these styles to the tiles and fabrics. The repertoire of motifs for all the works within the art of ornamentation were revealed through their studies. Samples and embroideries for tile designs, architectural ornaments, illuminated manuscripts, carpets and velour were prepared there. These works exhibited a unity of style and language, which peaked at the 16th century. The source of the unity of style, which was referred to as “Naturalistic Style” in world art history, was the Muralists House (Inalcık, 2008: 47). Naturalistic Style, which embellishes works of art from the mid 19th century, is the greatest success of Turkish art (Gürsu, 1988: 19). The Naturalistic Style is known as four flower style as well. In this style, which consists of rose, tulip, hyacinth and carnation, the flowers are reflected as they are in nature. Apart from the textile items that the Palace had woven as the state's export material, there existed different qualities among the fabrics the people wove for their own needs. Cotton weavings occupied a large portion of the communal weavings. Kirbas and cheesecloth (tülbent) were the cheap cotton fabrics that were used in underwear and daily items. The weavings called as cloths were thick fabrics made of linen and hemp. It is known that Kirbas was woven in Kastamonu, Amasya, Tokat, Corum, Burdur, Isparta, Konya, Karaman, Kayseri, Tire, Bergama, Denizli, Menemen, Akhisar and Nazilli. In addition, in almost every village there were “weaver” looms that performed rough weaving work (İnalcık, 2008: 15). The production place for blue and white weaves, today known as blue jeans, was Izmir. At the beginning of the 18 th century these blue textiles were exported to Spain and then to the United States (Inalcık, 2008: 15).

Yağan focused on hand weaving, one of the scant textile arts that is sustained, in his research. The research in Yağan’s work refer to the 1970’s. Accordingly, it was evident that that the raw

10 material cultivation required for hand weaving existed almost in every city of Turkey during that time. Yağan established that silk was produced in Bursa, Rize, Antalya, İçel, Amasya, Gaziantep, and Diyarbakır; woolen cotton, angora and mohair in Ankara; wool, cotton and silk in Antalya; velvet (çatma) velvet and silk damask in Balikesir and Bilecik, in Burdur; wool and cotton, in Bursa; silk, wool and hair cloth in Çanakkale; wool and cotton in Çankırı; wool and cotton in Denizli; cotton, hair cloth and wool in Edirne; woolen and cotton clothes in Elazığ; wool (dimity) and cotton in Erzurum; cotton and wool in Eskişehir; wool in Giresun; wool and cotton in Gümüşhane; wool and cotton in Yalova; linen, cotton, wool in İçel; cotton, wool, silk in İzmir; cotton and silk in Isparta; wool, cotton in Kastamonu; cotton and linen weavings in Kırklareli; cotton weavings in Konya; wool, angora, silk, linen and hemp in Malatya; cotton – wool in Mardin; angora and wool in Samsun; linen and cotton in Siirt; wool and angora in Sinop; cotton, hair cloth and linen in Sivas; wool and cotton in Tokat; wool, hair cloth and hemp in Trabzon; silk and cotton in Van; angora and wool, in Zonguldak; linen and wool weaving (Yağan, 1978, 64- 66).

There are regions where hand weaving is still sustained. The most important weaving centers are Denizli-Kızılcabölük, Buldan, Bursa, and Kastamonu. These are large-scale weaving centers and usually produce cotton fabrics. There are as well traditional forms of production on smaller scales.

EMBROIDERY Another important area that developed as a textile handcraft and was based on textile surfaces is embroidery. Once the history of Turkish embroidery is examined, a deep interaction between the Central Asian and Anatolian cultures could be observed. Barışta states that the Turks who came to Anatolia in 1071 came across the traces of an embroidery art developed by states such as Assyrian, Hittite, Phrygian, Urartu, Greek, Roman and nourished by Copts, and found a rich environment of Anatolian embroidery, sustained by the Christian culture that originated from ancient Anatolian civilizations and developed by the Byzantine and Armenian embroidery (1984: 3). Barışta states that embroidery continued after Turks came to Anatolia, Anatolia, during the Seljuk Period and Anatolian Beyliks. Although there are no examples of embroidery that belonged to these periods, it is possible to ascertain that they existed based on the remnants such

11 as the books travelers wrote, miniature albums and stone statues. However, considering the more systematic preservation and development of embroidery, it is understood that this art had an important place during the Ottoman Empire period (1453-1918) (1984: 11-17).

Picture 15: 18th century, bride bundle, SHM 12141. (Bilgi, H.- Zanbak . İ. (2012). Sadberk Hanım Müzesi Koleksiyonundan Osmanlı İşlemeleri… el emeği göz nuru, Vehbi Koç Foundation, p. 91). Görsel 16: 18th century, towel, SHM 13982, (Bilgi, H.- Zanbak . İ. (ibid)).p.. 183.)

Embroidery could be observed in the clothing and textile items that are complementary to clothing used by people (women, men and children), as well as in the decoration of a home or a space, moreover in accessories made of leather. It is possible to assert that the embroidery on clothing are elements that convey knowledge about the culture of the period and place they belong to. Embroidery carry aesthetic and ethical values that indicate style periods in terms of art history (Sürür, 1976: 6), (Sahin, 2016: 15). Besides the embroidery present in museum, collections and antique dealers, as the studies on art history and ethnography are examined, it could be observed that Turkish embroidery are applied on clothing and daily and special day items. No matter how they were classified, in tradition, embroidery made for the bride dowry have a great importance. According to the tradition, proved by the saying “the girl is in the cradle, the dowry is in the chest!", a chest is bought on the day girl is born. Until the age of marriage, embroidery made occasionally by the girl’s mother or sometimes made through orders are kept in this chest (Sahin, 2016: 31). By observing all the data, it could be stated that there are two types of embroidery among the common folk. One is the embroidery performed at the level of urbanites under the influence of the Palace, and the other is the rural folkloric embroidery, which consists of patterns that are local and naïve, and highly different from the Palace influenced examples in terms of their workmanship. The embroidery performed at the level of urbanites under the influence of the Palace, are those that exhibit different patterns and motifs that are designed in urban areas. Innovations that took place in the embroidery, due to the spread of the palace originated embroidery that were considered as “examplary”, exhibited variations in terms of requirements such as material, color and utilization. It is understood that the embroidery observed in the rural areas were performed in symbolic language, unlike those in the palace. In these examples, which narrate the rituals of life passage, there existed no elaborated composition and perfect

12 workmanship akin to the works of palace. In the embroidery made on the local cloths, techniques such as needle, yarn counting, and hemstitch are observed resembling calculations (Sahin, 2016: 23). The embroidery from the rural areas carry the traces of a traditional understanding that is entirely local and could be easily distinguished through their limited varieties and locality- specific colors. These usually do not show a perfect embroidery technique, yet could be considered unique when appraised in their own naivety. It could be noticed that in embroidery pieces, such as head scarves, closet cloths, belts, large handkerchiefs, jacket covers, often motifs that were embedded in the traditions and were influenced by beliefs such as fertility and protective elements, which were rooted in history, were used. (Sahin, 2016: 29). Embroidery used in the groom’s trouser legged underwear, which were observed at the high mountain villages of İçel-Tarsus and Burdur, and Barak Turkmens of Gaziantep, are admirable in terms of workmanship. In addition, it could be observed that the embroidery on the undershirts of girls and brides and on the trouser legged underwear exhibited the traditional motifs and compositions in Aydin, Muğla, Balıkesir, Gümüşhane and Giresun (Şahin, 2016: 23). Traditional embroidery is sustained in cities such as Gaziantep, Kahramanmaraş, Bartın, Amasra, Kütahya, Zonguldak, Bolu, Göynük, Mengen, Kastamonu, Ankara-Beypazarı and Sinop and in rural areas (Şahin, 2016: 29). There are difficulties in finding the corresponding words to technical needle names, which define the types of embroidery, in English language. Embroidery types which bear the names as “Hesap iğne”, “Türk işi”, “treillage (muşabbak)”, “susma”, “pesend”, “kesme”, “sarma”, “civankaşı”, “hemstitch (ajur)”, “darning (gözeme)”, “ciğer deldi”, “tel kırma” are all the names of the techniques. In an embroidery, more than one technique could be used depending on the pattern and composition characteristics of that embroidery. Valuable literature were published on the embroidery mentioned in this study, and for the explanation of these techniques those studies could be referred to.

CONCLUSION: Traditional Turkish Textile Art, focused on in this study, is an extremely comprehensive research area. Therefore, this study highlights the significant issues briefly. Currently, this wide range of textile handcrafts created an awareness for consideration of textile art as a cultural heritage. Whether in the form of kirkitli weavings or shuttle weavings, or felts or

13 embroidery, all reveal a widespread interest and demand. Although, examples of kirkitli weaving such as rugs, cicims, carpets, zilis, soumaks, plushes are almost non-existing today, the embroidery, particular knitting products, works of lace and local cotton textiles are both produced and demanded.

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Visual References:

1, 2: Yüksel, Bülent (2014), Kültürümüzde Keçe Var, Ümit Publish, Edited by: Özge Yüksel.

3,4: (http://turklacemuseum.blogspot.com.tr/2012/02/anadolu-dantel-kastamonu-el-dugumu.html

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