Something to Think About

Lesson 1 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Something to Think About Think about what happens during a rocket launch. The rocket is propelled into the air by combustion in the engine creating thrust. How does the creation of thrust move the rocket through the air? Let’s conduct an investigation of Newton’s third law of motion to discover the answer!

 To every action (force applied) there is an equal and opposite reaction (equal force applied in the opposite direction).

Materials  A partner  2 Spring scales measured in Newtons  Chair  Scientific notebook to record observations

Investigation 1. Each person should hold a spring scale. Hook the scales together with the s- hooks at the end. One group member will hold still while the other member pulls on the first member using the spring scale. You should observe that the scale the first member holds measures the force exerted on that person. The scale the second member holds measures the force exerted on that person. Try to stay still long enough to record the force readings on your scale.

Record the force exerted on each scale in Newtons.

Scale 1: ______N

Scale 2:______N

Which one is larger? The force on the person doing the pulling or the person being pulled on? Or, are the forces the same?

______2. Now hook one of the scales to some non-movable object. Attach the other spring scale to the first with the s-hooks. Pull on the immovable object and look at the force readings on the spring scales. The spring scale attached to the object measures the force exerted on the object. The spring scale you hold measures the force exerted on you.

Record the force exerted on each scale in Newtons.

Scale 1: ______N

Scale 2:______N

Which one is larger? The reading on the scale attached to the immovable object or the reading on the scale you pull with? Or, are they the same?

______3. Based on your observations above, would you say that an object that is not moving can exert a force? Why or why not?

______

If you answer yes, can you give another example another example of an object that is not moving, but that exerts a force on another object?

______4. Have each group member hold a spring scale again. Hook the scales together with the s-hooks. Pull on one another and move as you do this. Try to look at the force readings on each of the two scales often. The scale you hold measures the force exerted on you by the other person. The scale your group member holds measures the forces exerted on them by you. When, if ever, do the scale readings appear to be different from one another? ______5. What conclusions can you make from your observations? ______

Extension 1. Now that you have seen that there is always an opposite reaction, let’s think about what happens when forces are balanced and unbalanced. Place a chair in the middle of the floor. What forces are acting on the chair? ______2. Have one partner gently push the chair a short distance over the floor. What force caused the chair to move over the floor? ______3. Now repeat step 2, but this time, have your partner push back against you so that it doesn’t move. The chair is not moving, but are there any forces acting on the chair? ______4. Now, what conclusions can you make about the forces on the chair when the chair moves? What conclusions can you make about the forces on the chair when the chair is not moving? ______Draw the forces acting the chair when it is not moving and when it is moving.

Not moving Moving

5. Think back to the rocket, how does the thrust propel the rocket into the air? Use what you have learned about Newton’s third law of motion to explain this. ______6. Challenge: Is there anything that you can do (with the scales hooked together) that produces different forces on the two interacting objects? Explain. ______Lesson 2 Building a Simple Beam Bridge

Something to Think About Have you ever crossed a log to get to the other side of a stream? If so, you’ve crossed the simplest bridge there is-a beam bridge. How does the bridge support your weight and allow you to cross? How much weight could you put on a bridge before it fails? What forces are acting on the bridge? In this investigation you will explore a simple beam bridge.

Materials  6 Drinking straws (not bendable)  Tape  Scissors NEED PICTURE  2 Large paper clips  Paper cup  Metal washers or pennies  Ruler  Desks or chairs

Investigation 1. Cut a straw into two 3.5 cm long pieces. 2. You will make two towers. To make each tower tape two full size straws together at the top. Place the short section of straw in between the two full size straws at the bottom and then tape the three straws together. Your straws should look like a narrow triangle. 3. Tape one tower to the side of a desk or chair with the wide end down. Tape the second tower to another desk or chair that is the same height as the other chair. Separate the two towers about 16 cm apart. 4. You will make the deck of your bridge by placing another full size straw between the towers so that the ends of the straw are placed on the short pieces. 5. To see how much weight your simple beam bridge can support by making a load tester. Unbend a large paper clip into a v-shape. Put the ends of the paper clip through each side of a paper cup close to the rim. You can use the other paper clip to hang the load tester from the center of the beam of your bridge. Record how many metal washers or pennies your bridge will hold.

Number of washer/pennies ______Describe what happened to the bridge as you placed more and more weight into the load tester? What did the bridge failure look like?

______

Extension 1. Do you think placing the load tester in different position on the beam change your results? Try a couple of different locations and record your results?

______2. Draw the forces you think are acting on the beam of the bridge.

3. What could you do to improve a basic beam bridge? ______The Problem with Beam Bridges

The farther apart its supports, the weaker a beam bridge gets. It will sag in the middle of the bridge. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet.

This doesn’t mean beam bridges aren’t used to cross great distances—it only means that they must be daisy-chained together, creating what is known in the bridge world as a “continuous span.”

In fact, the world’s largest continuous span beam bridge, the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway is almost 24 miles long. The twin spans of the bridge are supported by over 9,000 concrete pilings. Hurricane Katrina damaged the bridge, but the damage was largely superficial and most damage was on an unused portion of the bridge. The structural foundations remained intact and the Causeway was a major route for recovery teams to get into New Orleans.

Although impressive, the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway underscores the drawback of continuous spans: they are not well suited for locations that require unobstructed clearance below.

LOCAL BRIDGES AND PICTURES

Lesson 3 Compression and Tension

Something to Think About Have you ever wondered how a bridge can hold up so much? Why are there so many different types of bridges? These questions are answered by investigating the forces that act upon the bridge. Most important to bridge design is how the bridge handles the forces of compression and tension. In this investigation you will explore compression forces and tension forces.  Compression is a pressing force that squeezes materials together.  Tension is a stretching force that pulls on a material.  Bending occurs when a combination of forces cause one part of a material to be in compression and another part to be in tension.

Materials  A partner  Sponge

Investigation 1. Stand face to face with a partner. Place your palms against your partner’s palms at eye level. While pushing your palms together, gradually move your feet backwards to form a triangle. 2. Once the triangle is formed are you moving? Why or why not? ______3. Describe how your arms feel when in the triangle? Did you feel a force (push or pull) when you were in the triangle? ______4. Who is exerting a force? Are they pushing or pulling? Is this a tension or a compression force? ______5. Draw the forces acting on you and your partner.

6. Again stand face to face with your partner. Link your fingers together one palm facing up and one palm facing down. 7. Slowly lean back from on another. 8. Are you moving? Why or why not? Remove ______arrows ______9. Describe how your arms felt? Did you feel a force (push or pull) when you were leaning apart? ______10. Who is exerting a force? Are they pushing or pulling? Is this a tension or a compression force? ______11. Draw the forces acting on you and your partner.

Obtain a sponge with lines drawn around. a marker and a ruler draw 5-10 lines around 5cm apart vertically on your sponge. Continue the line all the way around your sponge-onto the side onto the back of the sponge back to the top. 12. Bend the sponge into a U-shape. Record your observations of what happens with the line spacing. ______13. When the sponge is bent into the u-shape, where is the sponge in compression? Where is the sponge in tension? ______14. Push on the sponge in various ways and observe compression and tension.

Extension 1. Think of everyday household materials that exhibit compression or tension. List a few and describe which exhibits compression and which exhibits tension. ______

 In bridge construction columns and bridge piers experience compression forces. Cables in suspension bridges experience tension forces.  Bending occurs in many structures such as bridge decks or floors. Horizontal beams are used to support a bending surface.

2. Certain materials such as reinforced concrete withstand bending because of the combination of concrete and steel bars. Which do you think can better withstand compression? The concrete or the steel bars? Which material better withstands tension? Explain your reasoning.

______

______Lesson 4 Bridge Building Challenge

Something to Think About Think about all the bridges you’ve crossed…What does a bridge need to do when it is crossed? What factors does a bridge need to have to be stable? In this investigation, you will build several different beam bridges and observe how forces act on them.

Materials  16 K’NEX rods of any length from the Real Bridge Building set  16 K’NEX Connectors of any color from the Real Bridge Building set  50 g weights  100 g weights  Ruler  Scientific notebook for recording observations

Investigation 1. Construct the longest beam bridge you can make with the given K’NEX materials that does not break. a. This bridge does not need to support a load and does not need to be free standing. You can support it between books. b. Your bridge can bend but can not break. c. Work with your partners to create a plan with the given materials d. Record the length of your bridge and draw a picture of it.

Length of Bridge allowing bending ______cm Observe your bridge. Where does your bridge bend the most? How could you make a stronger beam bridge? ______

2. Now adjust your beam bridge design so that it is as long as possible but does not bend. Record the length of the bridge and draw a picture.

Length of bridge without bending ______cm

3. Now construct a beam bridge with the given material that can support a 100 g weight in its center. The bridge can sag, but it cannot break. What do you think you need to change from your original design to accomplish this task? ______

Once you have made your bridge, record the bridge length and draw a picture. Length of bridge ______cm

4. Construct another bridge that can hold a 50 g weight without bending. What changes will you need to make to your bridge to accomplish this task? ______Once you have made your bridge, record the bridge length and draw a picture. Length of bridge ______cm

5. Look at your bridge designs. What have you observed about the behavior of beam bridges? Is it important for a bridge to be rigid to hold a weight? Explain. How can you strengthen a bridge to span longer distances and still remain rigid under a weight? ______Extension 1. Compare the bridge designs of others in your classroom. Which design was most successful? Why do you think this is so? Use compression and tension force explanations in your answer. ______Lesson 5 Strength of Shapes

Something to Think About We’ve explored the strength of a simple beam bridges in the previous lesson. How can beam bridges be improved so that the beam can hold more weight? Does the shape of the bridge and its members affect the amount weight it can hold before it fails? In this investigation we will use drinking straws to examine how the shape of something affects its ability to withstand forces such as compression and tension. Before you begin, think about what you know about straws. How do straws typically bend when force is applied? How useful do you think straws are as a bridge material? Can a straw be improved as a building material if it is used differently?

 Compression is a pressing force that squeezes materials together.  Tension is a stretching force that pulls on a material.

Materials  A partner  9 drinking straws (not bendable)  18 paper clips  Scientific notebook to record observations

Investigation 1. Construct a square and triangle from your straws. To do this use papers clips to form connectors. Hook two paper clips together. Put one paper clip into the end of a straw. Then insert the other paper clip into the end of a second straw. Continue until your shape is formed. 2. Which shape do you think will be stronger and more stable? The square or the triangle when pressed as shown in the diagram below? Make a prediction and explain why you think so. ______3. Compare each shape by placing the shapes on the top of your desk and pressing down on the top of the corners. Record your observations (be sure to include how each bend and twists as well as how hard you can push down on each shape before it collapses). ______

4. Draw a diagram of the forces acting on each shape. Be sure to label the forces as compression and tension.

5. Make a conclusion bases on your observations. Which shape is stronger and more stable? What do you think made it more stable? How could this be applied to bridge construction? ______

Extension 1. Try to make the square more rigid by using up to two more straws and four more paper clips. Describe your results below. ______2. Look at your triangle and remember what happened when you pushed down on the top of it. Flip the triangle over and push down on the corners. Draw the forces on the triangle now. Be sure to label the forces at tension and compression. Did this change the shape’s strength? Explain.

______

Truss Bridges

Simple beam bridges evolved into truss bridges. Truss bridges utilize triangles in their design and therefore are much stronger and can span longer distances than beam bridges.

Lesson 6 Super Shapes

Something to Think About Through your investigations you have discovered that a triangle is a stronger shape than a square, yet many large bridges incorporate both triangles and squares within their designs. Why is this done? How are triangles used to strengthen squares? Don’t forget to take into account the various forces that a bridge must be able to withstand.

 Compression is a pressing force that squeezes materials together.  Tension is a stretching force that pulls on a material.  Shear force causes one part of a material to slide past another. Shear forces can break bolts or nails in two.  Torsion is a twisting that can result from a load. Wind pushing on a structure unevenly can also cause torsion.  Diagonal braces added to structures are called struts. Struts are used to resist compression and tension.

Materials  A partner  Deck of cards  Selection of K’NEX rods and connectors  Scientific notebook to record results

Investigation 1. You have already investigated compression and tension forces. Think back to what you know about compression and tension and record your thoughts below. ______

2. To understand shear forces place a deck of cards on your desk. Push sideways on the top of the deck. What happens to the cards? How does this demonstrate shear forces? ______3. To understand torsion you and your partner will hold onto each other’s right wrist (like a hand shake, but holding your wrists instead). Gently rotate your arms. How do your arms feel? How does this demonstrate torsion? ______

4. With your various K’NEX pieces construct 3 different size squares and 1 rectangle. How do your structures react to compression, tension, and torsion forces at their corners? Do they become deformed or produce new shapes? Does size affect the strength? ______

5. Think about how each structure you constructed could be strengthened. Brainstorm ideas to strengthen each structure using other K’NEX pieces. Record your experimental ideas in writing or on the drawings below. ______

6. How do your reinforced structures react to compression, tension, and torsion forces at their corners? Do they become deformed or produce new shapes? ______

7. Does all the structure respond to the forces in the same way? ______

8. What happens when the force is removed? ______

9. Draw you structures and label the forces of compression and tension. 10. Explain how you changed the squares and rectangle into stronger shapes. ______11. Are all triangles created equally? Is it true that all triangles produce strong structures? Look at the shapes below and predict which shape will be stronger. Why? ______

12. Using K”NEX construct the above shapes and test them for rigidity. Suggested materials:  7 speckled gray rods  10 blue rods  7 light gray semi-circular connectors  4 speckled whit 45o connectors  2 dark grey 180 o connectors

13. Record your observations. ______Extension 1. Challenge: Create another triangle frame that is stronger than the above two.

Lesson 7 Forces on 3-D Shapes

Something to Think About We’ve studied the affect of forces on two dimensional objects. How does force affect three dimensional objects? Can triangles strengthen 3-D objects?

 Compression is a pressing force that squeezes materials together.  Tension is a stretching force that pulls on a material.  Shear force causes one part of a material to slide past another. Shear forces can break bolts or nails in two.  Torsion is a twisting that can result from a load. Wind pushing on a structure unevenly can also cause torsion.

Materials  A partner  K’NEX blue rods  K’NEX blue and silver connectors  Several books  String  Scientific notebook to record observations

Investigation 1. Construct a cube using the K’NEX pieces. Place several books on the top of the cube to act as a load. This applies a vertical force on your structure. This is like pushing down and your 2-D triangle and squares you constructed in the previous lesson. Do not break your cube. A cube is a series of squares or rectangles places together. In your previous investigations you have discovered that squares are a weak structure. Did you notice a difference in the strength of a square and a cube? Explain. ______2. Compression, tension, torsion, and shearing are the main forces that act on a structure. Think of how you can demonstrate these forces on your cube and test your cube’s strength under the influence of each of these types of forces. Rate the forces as “largest effect”, “some effect” or “very little effect” in regard to how much they impact the cube.

Compression______

Tension ______

Torsion ______

Shearing ______

3. Think about how your cube responded to the forces, can you strengthen your cube against all of the forces listed above? Hint: think back to your previous investigations. Modify your cube by adding other K’NEX pieces or string. Record your rationale and your results below. ______

Extension 1. Did you have to add triangles to each face of your cube to strengthen it? Explain your answer. ______2. Think of some large structures such as bridges, towers, and cranes. How can they withstand the forces acting on them? Explain your answer. ______Lesson 8 Building Materials

Something to Think About You probably remember the story of the Three Little Pigs and the Big Bad Wolf. The first little pig built his house out of straw. Unfortunately the Big Bad Wolf blew his house down and ate him. The second little pig built his house out of sticks, which the Big Bad Wolf blew down and ate him too. The third little pig built his house out of bricks. The Big Bad Wolf tried to blow it down and failed. He then climbed down the chimney into a pot of boiling water. The third smart little pig built his structure with materials intended to withstand the “huffs and puffs” of the Big Bad Wolf. How does one choose materials that withstand potential forces that might “blow the house down”?

 Compression is a pressing force that squeezes materials together.  Tension is a stretching force that pulls on a material.  Torsion is a twisting that can result from a load. Wind pushing on a structure unevenly can also cause torsion.

Materials  A partner  String or yarn  Samples of various materials such as: o Popsicle sticks o Pipe cleaners o Clay o Sponges o Erasers o Rubber bands o Paper towel tubes o Pencils o Cardboard o Aluminum foil o Straws o Tiles o Cloth  60 cm of yarn, thread, dental floss, and fishing line  Hanging masses or a load tester such as the one constructed during the beam bridge activity  2 toilet paper tubes  Sand or salt  Masking tape  Chair Investigation 1. Pick out 6 materials to test. Look at the various materials you have chosen to investigate. Predict which materials will withstand each force the best and explain why you think that will be the case.

Compresion______

Tension______

Torsion______

2. Test you materials by pulling on it (tension), pushing it together (compression), and twisting it (torsion). Fill in the table below with the following rating scale.  1 Weak- Not much force needs to be applied for there to be a response on the material; it easily breaks or crumbles.  2 Fair-It cannot withstand much force.  3 Good- It takes a lot of force to break it.  4 Strong- It cannot be broken.

Material Tension Compression Torsion Rating Rating Rating

3. Which material was strongest at resisting each force? Were you surprised by your results? Compresion______

Tension______

Torsion______- ______4. Which material was strongest overall? ______

5. Look at the thread, yarn, dental floss, and fishing line. Each material will represent a cable. Predict which cable will be the strongest and the weakest? ______6. Test your predictions. Tie one end of your cable from a chair or desk. Make a loop at the end of the cable (make sure it has room to hand without touching the floor). Attach masses (or your load tester) to the loop of the end of the cable. Record how much mass each cable can hold. Be sure to record your observations of how the cable behaves before it breaks (such as stretching). ______7. Which cable held the most mass? Was it this thickest? Why do you think this was the strongest cable? ______8. Do you think a toilet paper tube can hold up your weight? Place a toilet paper tube on the floor and slowly step on it while holding onto the back of a sturdy chair. Rate its strength from the scale above?

Rating of strength______

9. Would the strength of the tube change if we place sand or salt in it? Tape one end of your tube completely with masking tape. Fill the tube to the top with sand or salt. Tape the open end of the tube completely with masking tape. Check for leaks. Place the improved tube on the floor and slowly step on it while holding onto the back of a sturdy chair. Rate its strength from the scale above?

Rating of strength______10. How did the strength of the two tubes compare? Explain. ______

Extension 1. What characteristics of the materials above withstood compression well? Tension? Torsion? ______2. In what kinds of situations would you think a “stretchy” cable would be good? In what kinds of situations do you think a “stretchy” cable would be bad? ______3. What types of cables would you want to use as a support for a bridge? What must the cable be able to do? ______4. In the toilet paper column you used small particles of sand or salt. Would there be a difference in strength between small particles and large particles such as marbles or small rocks? Explain your answer. (If you have time and the materials, try it out.) ______- ___ Lesson 9 Suspension Bridges

Something to Think About Some of the most beautiful and famous bridges in the world are suspension bridges. How do suspension bridges resists the forces acting on them? How much weight can a suspension bridge hold before it fails? How do the materials used to construct suspension bridges allow the bridge to span long distances? In this investigation you will explore suspension bridges.  Compression is a pressing force that squeezes materials together.  Tension is a stretching force that pulls on a material.

Materials  A group of three  6 Drinking straws (not bendable)  Tape  Scissors  2 Large paper clips  Paper cup  Metal washers or pennies  Ruler  Desks, chairs, or books (to hang bridge from)  Dental floss or thread  2 chairs  Rope (2 long pieces of rope and 3 smaller pieces of rope)  Wooden plank or books  Scientific notebook to record your observations

Investigation 1. Stretch two ropes over two chairs places back to back. 2. Each partner should hold the ends of the rope. 3. Another group member will tie the 3 shorter pieces to the two ropes stretched over the chair horizontally to form loops. Place a wood beam or a book between the loops. 4. Have another person place more books on your plank or original book and observe the number of books it will hold. Trade places with your partner that is placing the books on your bridge so they can hold to rope. 5. What did your arms feel like as more books were placed on your bridge? Why is it important to hold or anchor the ends of the rope tightly? Did this feel like compression forces or tension forces? Explain your answer. ______

6. Construct a simple beam bridge from lesson 2. . Cut a straw into two 3.5 cm long pieces. . To make each of the two towers, tape two full size straws together at the top. Place the 3.5 cm short section of straw between the bottoms of the two full size straws. Then tape the three straws together. Your straws should look like a narrow triangle. Repeat to make the second tower. . Tape one tower to the side of a desk, chair, or stack of books. So that the bottom of the tower is high enough from the surface so that you can hang your paper clip and paper cup from it. Tape the second tower to another object of the same height. Separate the two towers about 20 cm apart (or the length of the straw.) . You will make the deck of your bridge by placing another full size straw between the towers so that the ends of the straw are placed on the short pieces. . To make a load tester unbend a large paper into a v-shape. Put the ends of the paper clip through opposite side of a paper cup close to the rim. Use the other paper clip to hang the load tester from the center of the deck of your bridge. By adding small metal washers to the plastic cup you can measure the load acting on the beam. You can keep track of the number of washers or you can find the mass of a single washer and keep track of the total mass needed for failure. 7. Now you will change the beam bridge into a suspension bridge. In the center of your bridge deck (straw) tie 100 cm of dental floss or thread. Pass each end of your cable over each of the towers and down the other side. 8. Wrap each free end of the cable around a paper clip. Place the paper slip with the cable attached to it along the desk until it pulls the cable tight. Tape the paper clip tightly to the desk. 9. Attach your load tester and record the weight it can hold.

Number or mass of washer/pennies ______Compare this mass to the mass from your beam bridge. Was there a difference? Did failure look the same for a suspension bridge? Record your observations. ______5. Identify the forces acting on the suspension bridge. Are the cables under tension or compression forces? Are all parts of the cable under the same force? Label the forces and identify each as compression and tension.

______

Extension 1. Now that you have investigated beam, truss, and suspension bridges answer the following question for each bridge. What keeps the middle of the bridge from sagging under the weight of a load? Beam ______Truss ______Suspension ______

2. Challenge: Can you build a longer suspension bridge that will support the same amount of weight? Would you need to change anything about your bridge design? Suspension Bridges

The first suspension bridges constructed were made from woven material found in tropical regions…think Indiana Jones. These early suspension bridges could span long distances and the people or livestock walking across them stretched the ropes causes a tension force.

Suspension bridges today use the same principle of anchored cables stretched over towers for the span of the bridge. The weight of the decking suspended by cables and the load placed on it create tension. The towers of the bridge anchoring the cables exert a reaction force to the tension force. The result is a balance of force that keeps the bridge from collapsing,

Lesson 10 How Hard Can it Be to Build a Strong Bridge?

An exploration of factors affecting beam bridge strength

ENGAGE

You use bridges every day. We need bridges to cross obstacles like streams, rivers, other roads, and railroad tracks. Bridges make it easier to get from place to place without having to make long detours. Think of all the bridges you have crossed. What features do they have? What does a bridge need to do when you are crossing it? Imagine that you have been hired to conduct an investigation that will explore the best bridge design to cross a river in your community. Remember, you must consider many factors including distance, load and construction material when determining the design of your bridge.

EXPLORE

Any bridge design must support its own weight and any additional load put on it. You and your partners will first explore the how the material from which a beam bridge is constructed impacts the amount of additional load the beam can hold without failing. You will then explore other variables that impact bridge strength. Lastly, you will analyze your results and present your findings to the community.

GET READY

You will first need to recall what you know about the forces that act on a bridge when a load is placed on it. In addition, think about what you know regarding the various types of bridges. What are some examples of what a beam bridge might look like? What materials are best for building a beam bridge? Gather the following materials.

6 drinking straws masking tape scissors 1 piece each of paper, cardboard and balsa wood for the beam 2 large paper clips ruler paper cup metal washers or pennies

EXPERIMENT #1 – Effect of Material on the Amount of Load a Beam Can Hold

In this investigation you will be using a simple beam bridge construction to test the affect of the material a beam is made of on the amount of load the beam can hold. Described below is a method of constructing a simple beam bridge.

1. First we will construct two support towers. To do this, cut a 3.5 centimeters long piece of straw. Tape two full length straws together at the top. Place your 3.5 cm section of straw between the bottoms of the two full sized straws, then tape the three straws together at the bottom. This should look like a narrow triangle. Repeat to make the second tower. 2. Tape one tower to the side of a desk, chair or stack of books this is high enough that you can hang your paper clip and paper cup from a beam spanning the opening. Tape the second tower to another object of the same height. Position the towers about 20 centimeters apart. 3. You have various materials that you can use to make a beam bridge between these two towers. However, you are not allowed to tape your beam to the desk. Try to come up with another material not listed above that you could test as well 4. To see how much weight your simple beam bridge can support make a load tester. To do this, unbend a large paper clip into a V-shape. Put the ends of the paper clip through opposite sides of the paper cup close to the rim. (See figure above at the right). Use the other paper clip to hang the load tester from the center of your beam bridge. By adding pennies or small washers to the plastic cup, you can measure the load acting on the beam.. You can keep track of the number washers, or you can find the mass of a single washer and keep track of the total mass needed for beam failure.

Conduct Your Experiment 1. Identify the question you will investigate. 2. Predict, based on your experiences, which materials will produce the strongest and weakness beam bridge. 3. Design a procedure to collect data to answer your research question. Identify the independent and dependent variables in your experiment. Think about the parts of your experiment that should be kept constant so you can collect consistent data. 4. Write your procedure in your science notebook. Include enough detail so that you or someone else could repeat your experiment. For example, be sure to say what you consider “beam failure”. 5. Create a data table to record data related to your experiment. 6. Do your experiment and record your findings in your data table. 7. Think about the data you have collected. Do the data for each trial seem reasonable? If not, do you need to repeat any trials to correct any errors? 8. Analyze the data. 9. Interpret the data. Write your conclusions in your science notebook. 10. Compare your experimental design and results with others in your class.

Engineers often chose materials like concrete and steel to build bridges because they are strong materials. However, there are things that one can do to any given materials that will make it even stronger or weaker. For example, builders often add rebar to concrete for reinforcement.

In addition to the properties of the materials you investigated in experiment #1, what other properties do you think might influence the strength of a beam bridge?

Experiment #2 Effect of beam shape or beam mass on the amount of load a beam can hold without failing. Design and conduct an experiment to explore one of these factors (beam shape or beam mass). Keep a detailed and organized record of your experimental design, data collection and analysis in your science notebook.

1. What ideas do you have about the way in which beam mass or beam shape might affect the amount of load a beam can hold without failing? Discuss your ideas and predictions with your partners. 2. Identify the question you will investigate and the results you predict. 3. Design a procedure to collect data to answer your research question. Identify the independent and dependent variables in your experiment. Think about the parts of your experiment that should be kept constant so you can collect consistent data. 4. Write your procedure in your science notebook. Include enough detail so that you or someone else could repeat your experiment. 5. Create a data table to record data related to your experiment. 6. Do your experiment and record your findings in your data table. 7. Think about the data you have collected. Do the data for each trial seem generally consistent? If not, do you need to repeat any trials to correct any errors? 8. Analyze the data. Show your calculations in your science notebook. 9. Graph your analyzed data. Think about the most appropriate type of graph to show a relationship between two variables. 10. Interpret the data. Based on your experiment, what conclusions can you make about the effect of beam shape or mass on the amount of load a beam can hold? 11. Share and compare your results with others in your class. How were they alike? How were they different? Communicate Your Findings Use the findings from your beam mass or beam shape experiment to make recommendations regarding your community’s bridge building project. Talk with your partners about what design features involving beam shape or mass should be incorporated to maximize the amount of load the bridge can hold.

Write a Report: Write a report for your community’s planning board describing your to recommendations for maximizing the new bridge’s strength. Your report should include:  a clear statement of the problem you investigated;  a description of the experiments you carried out;  the results of your experiments (including data presented in the form of charts, tables or graphs);  your conclusions from the experiments;  comments about how experimental errors may have affected your results; and  a recommendation to the planning board about design features associated with your investigation that should be incorporated into the bridge design. Vocabulary Abutment: main support at each end of the bridge; side that supports and arch

Anchorage: place where the cables of a suspension bridge are secured into the ground

Aqueduct: an arch bridge used for transporting water

Arch bridge: a type of bridge which is a curved structure; strength comes from exerting force down and sideways, against abutments

Bascule bridge: a moveable bridge which acts like a seesaw, allowing sections of the bridge to be lifted using weights as a counterbalance

Beam bridge: simplest type of bridge; made from a straight section which rests on two supports, one at each end of the bridge

Bridge: something that connects, supports or links one thing to another

Cable: a bundle of wires used to hold up the decking of a suspension bridge

Cable-stayed bridge: a modern bridge which is a combination of the cantilever and suspension bridge designs without anchorages or many piers; support comes from cables which are strung from the central tower to the deck

Caisson: a hollow, watertight compartment used for building sections of bridges underwater

Cantilever bridge: a type of beam bridge which gets its support from counterbalances beams meeting in the middle of the bridge rather than supports at each end; two arms of a beam are called cantilevers

Compression: a force which tends to reduce or shorten something by pressure-a push on something

Covered bridge: type or truss bridge developed to slow down the wear and tear on the bridge’s structure by placing a protective cover over the decking

Dead load or Static load-permanent loads that do not change or move

Decking: surface of bridge which serves as a walkway or roadway

Draw bridge: a moveable bridge with a deck that can be raised and lowered

Elasticity: the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size when the load is removed Engineer: a skeletal arrangement of materials that gives form and support to a structure

Equilibrium: a balanced force

Framework: a skeletal arrangement of materials that gives form and support to a structure

Force: a push or a pull

Girder: a strong, horizontal, main supporting beam on a bridge

Hand or Guard rail: safety feature added to the sides of a bridge’s deck to prevent people, animals, or vehicles from falling off the bridge

Joint: a moveable corner where two parts are connected

Keystone: final wedge-shaped piece placed in the center of an arch which causes the other pieces to stay in place

Lift bridge: a moveable bridge which works like an elevator; the roadway, which is attached to two columns, raises up vertically to allow for passage underneath

Live loads or Dynamic load-loads that move and change

Load: force placed on a bridge

Mass: the amount of matter and object contains

Obstacle: something that stands in the way or acts as a barrier

Pier: upright support found underneath a bridge

Piling: long, slender column driven into the ground to support a load

Pontoon bridge: a type of moveable bridge which floats on the water; can be temporary and disassembled and transported to different locations or permanent

Pulley: a wheel which is used for hoisting or changing direction of force

Ramp: inclined section that connects the land to the deck of a bridge

Roadway: area of bridge on which traffic travels; it rests on the decking

Shearing: occurs when a material is divided by two parallel but opposing compression forces Span: distance a bridge crosses; section of bridge between two piers

Strain: the distance an object deforms under stress Stress: a force that tends to distort the shape of a structure; the amount of force placed on an object

Support: an object that holds a bridge up and serves as a foundation

Suspender: supporting cable hung vertically from the main cable of the suspension bridge which holds up the deck

Suspension bridge: type of bridge that is supported on huge steel cables anchored into the ground

Swing bridge: a type of moveable bridge with a middle section of the roadway that swings around a central pier to open up a passage for travel

Symmetry: an arrangement that is balances and equal on opposite sides of a center dividing line

Tension: a force which tends to lengthen or pull on something

Thrust lines: imaginary lines of force caused by loads transmitted through all parts of a structure to the ground

Torsion: the tendency of a material to be twisted

Tower: tall, upright support that carriers the main cables of a suspension bridge

Trestle bridge: type of truss bridge typically used for travel by heavy trains; made from a large number of trusses; built very tall and sturdy

Triangulation: building concept where triangles are made from squares in order to enhance the strength of a structure

Truss: triangular shape included in framework of a structure

Truss bridge: a type of beam bridge identified by the triangular shapes included in its framework

Viaduct: a bridge with high supporting towers or piers which carriers a road or railroad over land

Voussoir: a true arch with wedge- shaped pieces fit snugly together against abutments

Weight: the force of gravity on an object. SUPPLEMENTARY ACTIVITY Forces and Bridge Structures Capstone Task

Recently a river in your area experienced a major flood that destroyed the old beam bridge across the river. A completely new bridge must be designed and built to span the gap. As an engineer for the local civil engineering firm, your job is to design and build an appropriate bridge as well as to present a written proposal for the project. Build a 1cm equals 1 meter working scale model of your proposed bridge. In addition, write a proposal that discusses the issues of function, safety, and cost. Carefully explain ( using diagrams as applicable) how your bridge is designed to withstand the forces that act on it. Your company’s written proposal should include: 1. A design brief (blue print) of your proposed bridge. 2. Instructions for construction of your model including a materials list. 3. An explanation of how your bridge is designed to withstand the forces that act on it when a load is present. 4. A cost estimate to build the actual bridge. 5. Answers to overview questions A) How is your bridge designed, or how could it be modified, to ensure safety and stability if the bridge were built in an area prone to high winds, earth quakes or floods? B) How does your bridge compare to a simple beam bridge for this application and building site? Be sure to discuss the forces that act on the two types of bridges.

Below is a diagram that shows the site requirements and a list of additional design constraints and cost factors.

10 m Soil Soil Water 5 m

Bedrock Design Constraints  The bridge must be a truss or suspension bridge  Maximum weight limit is 15 Tons (equals one toy truck with 2.5 kg load).  Maximum truck dimensions: 20 m long, 5 m wide, 10 m tall  Maximum allowable budget is $750,000, but lower cost proposals are more competitive. Balsa wood = Steel I-Beams I-Beams cost $500/m Foam board = Concrete decking Decking costs $400/m2 String = Steel wire Wire costs $200/m Bridge Structures Task Evaluation Sheet

Bridge Design Brief (Blue Print) 4 points maximum 4 Consists of a diagram that clearly and accurately shows, with details, the characteristics of the bridge that was built. All dimensions of the bridge are labeled on the diagram.

3 Consists of a diagram that clearly and reasonably accurately shows the characteristics of the bridge. However, minor details or some dimension labeling or some accuracy is lacking.

2 Consists of a diagram but the diagram has significant weakness in one of the following areas: clarity, accuracy, details and dimension labeling. Or, there are minor weakness in more than one of these areas.

1 Consists of a diagram but the diagram has significant weakness in more than one of the following areas: clarity, accuracy, details and dimension labeling.

0 No diagram is present.

Instructions 4 points maximum 4 Instructions are clear, concise and allow another individual to replicate the bridge.

3 Instructions are clear and concise but another individual would not be able to replicate the bridge based on them.

1 Instructions are present, but are not clear and/or concise. Another individual would not be able to replicate the bridge based on them.

0 Instructions are not present.

Cost Estimate 4 points maximum 4 Complete list of all materials and a total cost to complete the bridge is present. All calculations are shown. The total cost of the bridge is within the budget. No errors.

3 Complete list of all materials and a total cost to complete the bridge is present. All calculations are shown. The total cost of the bridge is within the budget. Errors exist.

2 One of the following problems exists: the materials list is incomplete, the total cost is missing, one or more calculations is/are missing, the bridge is not within budget.

1 More than one of following problems exists: the materials list is incomplete, the total cost is missing, one or more calculations is/are missing, the bridge is not within budget, errors exist.

0 Cost estimate is not present.

Maximum score = 33 points Total this side

Your Score = /33 = % Total side 2 Grand total Explanation of Forces 10 points Maximum 10 Clear/complete explanation of forces on bridge when a load is present using correct terminology and discussion of Newton’s Laws. Includes a diagram of the bridge showing all forces (as vector–arrows) on the bridge.

9 The “full credit statement” is generally true, but there are minor errors or omissions in either the written discussion or diagram.

8 The “full credit statement” is generally true but there are minor errors or omissions in both the written discussion and diagram. Or, there are fairly significant errors or omissions in one or the other.

6 Both a written discussion and diagram are present but there are significant errors or omission in both.

5 Either the written discussion or diagram is missing. The component that is present is complete and accurate.

3 Either the written discussion or diagram is missing. The component that is present has minor errors/omissions.

2 Either the written discussion or diagram is missing. The component that is present has significant errors/omissions.

0 Neither a written discussion nor diagram is present.

Project Debrief-Load Test 2 points maximum 2 Bridge withstood load test

0 Bridge did not withstand the load test

Project Debrief- Comparison to beam bridge 5 points maximum 5 The discussion uses appropriate and correct vocabulary and terminology. The comparison includes a discussion of how the two bridges compare in regard to how they are designed to withstand the forces that act on them.

4 As above, but the discussion fails to address more than one important point or contains minor errors.

3 As above, but the discussion of forces is absent or significantly flawed.

2 The discussion of forces is absent/significantly flawed and other important aspects are missing or incorrect.

0 No comparison is included.

Project Debrief- Destructive forces discussion 4 points maximum 4 Discussion of how the bridge is designed, or could be improved, to withstand destructive forces. This discussion covers the destructive forces of high winds, floods and earthquakes. The discussions are accurate and fairly complete and uses appropriate terminology.

3 Discussion covers only two of the following: high winds, floods or earthquakes, but is fairly accurate and complete and uses appropriate terminology.

2 Discussion covers only one of the following: high winds, floods, or earthquakes, but is fairly accurate and complete and uses appropriate terminology.

1 Discussion does not cover all three topics and contains significant errors. 0 No discussion is present. Total