Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997

Milheim, W.D., & Martin, B.L. (1991) Theoretical bases for the use of learner control: three different perspectives. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18(3), 99-105.

Summary This article presents the theoretical perspectives of motivation, attribution, and information processing to provide a framework for past research in learner control and to provide guidance for future research. An overview of learner control research and of each of the above theories is presented, along with an explanation of the relationship between each theory and learner control. Increased learner control is believed to increase motivation, which in turn increases learners' expectation for success. Increased learner control also aids in the encoding process by spurring learners to actively link information to past knowledge as they "discover" new links and connections. More comprehensive encoding processes allow information processing to occur more efficiently.

Motivation theory was linked to learner control through the constructs of relevance and expectancy. Attribution theory added that learner control may be related to expectations for success, supporting the idea that relating success to controllable reasons may aid learning. Information processing hypothesizes that increased learner control may affect the choice, encoding, and storage of information based on a learner's schema.

Personal Relevance of this Article This article presents an overview of learner control as it relates to three significant theoretical considerations in the design and learning process. Learner control has important ramifications for the design of web-based courseware, as the potential audience for web instruction is broad and unknown. Providing extensive learner control for a wide audience may or may not improve instructional effectiveness since the prerequisite skill level of learners can only be assumed but cannot be known in advance unless the instruction possesses restricted access to a specific population. The effects of variations in baseline learner control within web-based instruction is a viable research topic.

Aspigilla, M. (1991). Screen design: location of information and its effects on learning. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18(3), 89-92.

Summary This article examines the effect of the screen location of information on retention. A study was conducted that investigated whether overlapping text onto relevant portions of a graphic and whether displaying information at consistent screen locations enhances learning. 60 undergraduate students used a CBT lesson with varying placements of screen elements. Results indicate that consistent screen location serves as a mediator to recall and retention by helping organize retrieval efforts.

Personal Relevance of this Article Screen location of elements (text, graphical, etc) is a basic consideration in instructional design. From what I understood in my CBT class, keeping elements in a consistent

1 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 location is a standard principle of courseware design. Perhaps design practice has evolved to incorporate this research since 1991. Maintaining design conventions for interactive multimedia courseware is relevant to my research but only as a standard procedure, not as a research area.

Rieber, L.P., & Kini, A.S. (1991) Theoretical foundations of instructional applications of computer generated animated visuals. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18(3), 83-88.

Summary This article discusses theoretical perspectives on the use of animation in CBT by overviewing both perceptual theories of motion and dual coding. The authors summarize both the research and benefits of graphics and animation in CBT, presenting animation research in two ways: using animation as a presentation strategy or as practice. The authors suggest that animation should aid recall when it illustrates highly imaginable concepts and that instructional designers should consider animation when this instructional need presents itself in the content analysis phase of design. Because animation clearly communicates motion, the authors suggest that animated graphics are better at communicating ideas which involve changes over time. Animation helps reduce abstraction of temporal or time-oriented concepts. Since dual coding is likely to occur when content is highly imaginable, animation can encourage learners to encode both visually and verbally, aiding retention, recall, and transfer.

Personal Relevance of this Article Restricting animation by accompanying it with appropriate instructional strategies enhances its use in interactive multimedia. As a design issue, animation has relevance both for web-based instruction and for the study of human factors in interactive courseware. Animation in web-based instruction may lose meaning if the contextual element of the courseware is lost on a wide audience (as may almost any other element of the program if context is built into the design). Animation may also ease the processing load required of learners by increasing encoding (via dual coding) with less visual and cognitive effort. Any strategy reducing the processing load while increasing encoding reduces learner fatigue and, possibly, course duration. Reductions in fatigue should increase learning effectiveness. The effect of increased (but appropriately applied) animation within IMI on learner fatigue, attentiveness, or time-on-task is a viable research area.

Schuerman, R.L., & Peck, K.L. (1991). Pull-down menus, menu design, and usage patterns in computer assisted instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18(3), 93-98.

Summary This article compared pull-down menus with two versions of conventional full screen menus. The hypothesis was made that the availability of pull-down menus would encourage random navigation by learners. 75 undergraduate students were studied as they used a CBT program in a content area unfamiliar to them. Results showed that the

2 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 use of pull-down menus does not encourage learners to randomly navigate a CBT program and that returning learners to a sub-menu does increase the chance that the next access point will be from that sub-menu. The study showed that learners make more sequential navigation choices within the same menus. The authors found that pull-down menus increase learner confidence since learners know that they can always get back to the point of origin if a pull-down menu is available.

Personal Relevance of this Article Menu design has progressed dramatically since the timing of this article. The development of the world wide web, hyperlinks and hypertext, browsers, and authoring systems capable of incorporating links throughout programs has significantly impacted the design, use, and placement of menus within programs. While pull-down menus may not encourage random navigation, hyperlinks certainly do. A viable research area within the topic of hypertext, hyperlinks, etc., could be whether random navigation occurs to a greater degree in a hyper environment if learner control is increased by another factor, or if learner control itself is increased by the presence of hyperlinks and the opportunity for true random navigation. An ensuing research area might involve investigating any effect on learner control or learner confidence when learners lose themselves in a hyper environment -- jumping randomly until they are orphaned or cannot get back to their point of origin. That brings up another research area involving the use of progress maps or hyper maps within a hyper environment -- providing learners with a progressive visual map displaying each step on the navigational path they have taken and allowing them to return by clicking on any spot in that path.

Tessmer, M., & Richey, R.C. (1997) The role of context in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(2), 85- 115.

Summary This article provides a definition of context, outlines its levels and types, suggests methods for conducting a contextual analysis and outlines future issues for context-based instructional design. The authors describe a new design phase called contextual analysis and provide an in-depth overview of the role of context as well as a model of contextual dimensions within instructional design. Three contextual types are discussed with a subsequent exploration of each, including phases of instructional design relating to each type. The types are orienting, instructional, and transfer context. Three contextual levels are also discussed and include the learner, the immediate environment, and the organization. The article concludes by emphasizing that each of the three context types and levels must be investigated and designed for successful instructional development, because as the authors say, we are condemned to context in all instructional settings.

Personal Relevance of this Article Even though contextual analysis is not currently a formal phase in instructional design, I believe that designers consider context when creating instruction for a specific use. If, however, designers can use contextual analysis to make more realistic scenarios and simulations within interactive instruction, then a constructivist philosophy may begin to

3 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 develop within systematic design. I would like to study learner control within interactive instruction based on the web, on intranets, or individual workstations. Increasing the contextual basis of the instruction might provide more opportunities for situated applications/activities, which in turn may increase opportunities for learners to have more control.

Park, O., & Gittelman, S.S. (1992) Selective use of animation and feedback in computer based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40(4), 27-38.

Summary This article describes a study in which the effects of two computer based instructional strategies -- animation and feedback -- were investigated. Ninety undergraduate students participated in the study. Results showed that animated visual displays were more effective when the animation was selectively used to support the learning requirements, and that mediated feedback was less effective that natural feedback that is readily available and easily understood by the learner. Natural feedback is defined by that feedback given in a simulation or system when the learner takes the wrong action and the system responds accordingly. Mediated feedback is pre-programmed by the designer and includes corrective or explanatory terminology.

Personal Relevance of this Article I agree with the conclusion of this article. Natural feedback is always more appropriate, whether in programmed instruction or real life. Learners internalize system responses more so than programmed feedback, especially when that feedback loses its originality over multiple appearances. Natural feedback brings context into play and places the system's response within the natural environment, providing customized feedback that exactly meets the learner's situation -- if the natural feedback is clear to the learner and if the learner understands how to comprehend it. Some instruction may need to be provided on understanding natural feedback before it is used. I am not sure at this point how this might work into a research idea for me.

Bush, V. (1945 ) As we may think. Atlantic Monthly, 176(1), 101-108.

Summary This article, written just after World War II ended, deals with Vannevar Bush’s vision for a worldwide information storage and retrieval system; an method in which any individual could consult a desk/jukebox-like device to pinpoint a document or book and retrieve it from among the masses in a special storage compartment. Bush emphasized the growing mountain of research and information to support his ideas for information storage and retrieval. For records to be useful, he said, they must be extended, stored, and consulted. Bush’s named the conceptual machine “Memex” that he envisioned to provide this service. He concludes the article by describing the great benefits that this type of information storage machine could provide.

4 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997

Personal Relevance of this Article This article was useful because it gave me a broader understanding of the origin of the context of hyper environments. I understand more fully how the creators of hyperlinks and the world wide web based their vision on Bush’s rudimentary (yet dramatic for his time) ideas. I also understand that Bush is considered a visionary now, and perhaps not in his time. Even though we are progressing through technological applications at lightning speed compared to Bush’s time, we still need individuals willing to dream of strange contraptions that can meet our needs. Probably the most important concepts I glean from this article are the origins of today’s hyperlinked world, and motivation to try and envision the future.

Hannafin, M.J., & Carney, B.W. (1991). Effects of elaboration strategies on learning and depth of processing during computer-based instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18(3), 77-82.

Summary This article reviewed the effects of behavioral and cognitive review strategies on both learning outcomes and depth of processing among sixty undergraduate students. The authors begin by introducing behavioral review strategies as being mathemagenic in nature, focusing on imposed methods that elicit desired responses. In contrast, cognitive instructional strategies are presumed to increase the depth at which lesson information is processed. The study conducted by the authors examined the effects of both types of review questions on student learning. The hypothesis was made that achievement would be unaffected by different review strategies, but that cognitive review strategies would increase the quantity and nature of student elaborations while behavioral strategies would yield more context-bound elaborations. Results showed that behavioral review strategies stimulated little personal elaboration but aided the learning of specific information. The cognitive review strategy required elaboration by causing students to relate current information with prior knowledge.

Personal Relevance of this Article Applying a theoretical basis to the selection of learning and review strategies is useful, particularly when research sheds light on the productivity of one type of strategy over another based on the intent of the designer. This article is very narrow in focus to a specific study, its results, and supposed impact on instructional design. Other than providing more contrast between behavioral and cognitive strategies, this article did not present any other information of personal relevance to me relating to my research interests.

5 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997

Hannafin, M.J., & Park, I. (1993). Empirically-based guidelines for the design of interactive multimedia. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 63-85.

Summary Hannafin’s and Park’s in depth article about multimedia design guidelines concentrates on providing research-based guidance for designers working with interactive multimedia. The authors present tables organizing research and theory relating to interactive multimedia according to psychological, pedagogical, and technological foundations. In addition, twenty empirically-based guidelines are provided for designers accompanied by a pertinent implication for instructional design. A detailed description of each principle and its implication are also given. The article concludes with an encouragement for designers to expand their perspective to consider existing teaching and learning models, establish new principles rooted in sound research, and identify the implications of the principles for interactive multimedia design.

Personal Relevance of this Article The guidelines presented in this article are a gold mine for designers seeking to create interactive multimedia along well-researched theoretical basis. Many of the principles are constructivist in nature, recommending heavily the benefits of prior knowledge, situated cognition, content organization, invested mental effort, knowledge flexibility, feedback, dual coding, learner differences, and loosely structured learning environments. I can relate these principles to the design of web-based interactive multimedia and especially to the human factors side of courseware; the more mental effort stimulated by the content, the deeper the processing that occurs. More mental effort means increased fatigue and possibly greater course/lesson duration. A viable research topic from this article might be the investigation of a loosely structured learning environment within a multimedia program, and its effects on learner control, fatigue, and learning effectiveness as compared to students completing a highly structured program. In this case, loosely structured would likely be defined as a program with user defined navigation, minimal structural guidance, and differences in usage context, while a highly structured environment would be the opposite.

Shlechter, T.M. (1993). Computer-based instruction and the practical aspects of memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7(2), 653-664.

Summary This article examines the relationship between basic memory research and computer- based instruction. The author proposes that basic memory research has guided the direction of computer-assisted instruction research and development, which has in turn guided the investigation of learning systems, including hypermedia and artificial tutoring systems, to facilitate improved memory outcomes. Shlechter asserts that inconclusive results have been found in memory to support the effects of computer-based instruction on memory improvement. To support this assertion, he examines research on several computer-based systems assumed to improve memory and retention during learning.

6 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 Systems examined include CAI, hypermedia, microworlds, ICAI (intelligent computer assisted instruction), simulator/simulation, and innovations in CBI. Shlechter concludes by listing reasons for the inconclusive results of CBI on memory.

Personal Relevance of this Article Shlechter’s reasons for the inconclusiveness of CBI on memory include variance irregularities, failure to study CBI interaction between students and systems, failure to study CBI in context with certain tasks, studying old or poorly designed CBI courseware, and a conclusion that perhaps CBI really doesn’t effect memory, which he states would also nullify Paivio’s dual coding theory.

I personally cannot disavow Paivio’s dual coding theory, nor can I say that computer based instruction does not effect memory. I believe that well-designed research on well- designed courseware that does consider the interaction effects of interactive multimedia will conclusively find evidence to support memory improvement. Other variables within IMI aside from levels of interactivity or design issues that may effect memory could be the amount of learner control, media complexity, feedback, performance measurement, content organization, and instructional strategies. Finding a correlation between IMI and specific memory improvement is a viable research topic.

Thurman, R. (1993) Instructional simulation from a cognitive psychology viewpoint. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(4), 75-89.

Summary This article presents guidelines derived from cognitive psychology for the design of instructional courseware containing simulations. The author begins with a rationale for the use of simulations and a definition of the meaning and application of simulations in instructional courseware. The focus of the article is on four major cognitive issues of importance to simulation design: cognitive structure, cognitive strategies, automaticity, and affect. Each issue is explored with a summary of representative research and implications for design. Cognitive structure focuses on schema and mental models; the implication is that simulation design must encourage cognitive processing and focus attention on relevant lesson information. Cognitive strategies are listed as actions that influence motivation and encoding, including acquisition, retention, and transfer. The implication is that simulations must influence students to take an active role in the learning process. Automaticity is defined by performance so routine that it no longer requires deliberate attention. The implication for simulation design is to encourage automaticity by encouraging active participation, make consistencies overt, and isolate automatic components of the simulation. Affect concerns the motivational appeal of the simulation. The implication for simulation design is to increase motivation by providing clear goals, uncertain outcomes, a motivational scoring system, and stimulate curiosity. The article ends with a summary of these issues and implications.

Personal Relevance of this Article Student participation in simulations invokes images of high levels of learner control and situated cognition. Possible research topics could include the impact of simulations on

7 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 learner confidence, learner control, and context in the learning environment — what happens when learners from a broad audience (as in web-based instruction) attempt a simulation using a metaphor or model unfamiliar to them. I am unclear on the reason for encouraging automaticity through active participation; why would designers want students to think less deliberately about an activity that requires active engagement? I would study instead the level of engagement brought about by the complexity of a simulation — perhaps through categorizing simulation levels and comparing learner engagement.

Rieber, L.P. (1992) Computer-based microworlds: a bridge between constructivism and direct instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40(1), 93-106.

Summary This article describes the efforts of constructivists to use computer-based microworlds to aid learners to experience and appropriate sophisticated ideas from specific domains. Rieber defines constructivism as the idea that learning involves individual constructions of knowledge accomplished through the process of equilibration, which in turn encompasses assimilation and accommodation. Rieber defines a microworld as a small but complete subset of reality in which one can learn about a specific domain through discovery and exploration — sort of a virtual world. He states that constructivists believe microworlds enhance connections from old knowledge to new while also building learner control, and that microworlds conform to the zone of proximal development. He identifies a microworld by two characteristics: it is the simplest domain model available, and it offers variable points of entry defined by the learner’s cognitive state. Rieber goes on to provide guidelines for the design of computer-based microworlds that fuse instructional design and constructivism. The author concludes by promoting the positive sides of both instructional design and constructivism and by recommending microworlds as a method for compromising between the two learning methodologies.

Personal Relevance of this Article I have considered the idea of providing web-based instruction with variable entry points based on a student’s learning style, readiness, or prior knowledge. Although I have never seen an actual computer-based microworld as defined in this article, I do see research potential in studying the impact of microworlds on learning effectiveness. At this point I am not interested in microworlds as a bridge between constructivism and instructional design; I am just looking for a way to research characteristics of web-based instruction that make it relevant and effective for learners of many types.

8 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997

Ipek, I. (1995) Considerations for CBI screen design with respect to text density levels in content learning from an integrated perspective. In: Imagery & Visual Literacy: Selected Readings from the 26th Annual Conference of the Visual Literacy Association.

Summary This paper examines variations of text density levels for content learning in a CBT tutorial from an integrated perspective. Questions asked were: 1. What is the text density? 2. What are the relationships among text density approaches 3. What are the contributions of text density for learning and how perceptual skills and human factors can be used for a CBI tutorial? Density levels are determined based on the amount the information content has been reduced or the percentage of information presented. The number of characters or words is used as density criteria in text. The author mentions learner control as an important option to investigate along with text density, as density levels provide attributes for organization and elaboration for different cognitive styles. Most text screen design studies have dealt with comprehension, but Ipek believes the real research concern for text screen design should be how much information is necessary for understanding and how direct and explicit the text presentation must be. The author concludes with several recommendations for future research, including developing a clear definition of text density in CBI, investigating how learners with different cognitive styles are affected by different text density display, and human-computer interface design strategies as they relate to text density.

Personal Relevance of this Article This document discusses important issues within interactive multimedia instruction. Rather than focusing on such a micro level of text density, I believe a larger and more productive research focus is the impact of screen design standards on the design of interactive multimedia. With considerations of the human-computer interface and understanding that a transparent, consistent interface that limits the amount of text per screen based on content specifications provides a better learning environment, this research could focus on how different cognitive styles are impacted by text location, presentation, density, or appearance. As in the earlier article which focused on screen location, consistency and good design will overrule arguments about location or the nature of text. My preferred focus is targeted to using conventional interface design standards and investigating the cognitive style that students bring to that interface.

Reigeluth, C.M., & Schwartz, E. (1989) An instructional theory for the design of computer-based simulations. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 16(1), 1-10.

Summary This article describes three major design aspects of simulation: scenario, underlying model, and the instructional overlay. Focusing on the instructional overlay, the authors

9 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 describe the instructional functions and features of simulations and provide a model for simulation design. The authors state that research reveals few empirically-based guidelines for simulation design. A literature review was conducted in order to answer the following questions: 1. What are the different kinds of instructional simulations? 2. When should each kind of simulation be used? 3. What characteristics should each kind of simulation have to provide optimal instruction? Within the literature review, the authors were able to identify three types of simulations: those that teach procedures, those that teach process principles, and those that teach causal principles. Three stages of learning in simulations include knowledge acquisition, application, and assessment. The proposed model for simulation design details recommendations for incorporating these learning stages into the three types of simulations. The authors conclude by expressing hope that their model will serve as a framework for conceptualizing future research studies on simulation design.

Personal Relevance of this Article With the rapid progression in simulation design technology, rapid prototyping, and simulation products, the opportunities for research in simulation theory, design, and application are wide open. A viable research topic, conducted through an updated literature and product review, is to provide an update of the Reigeluth and Schwartz model for simulation design. Other design topics open for research within simulation design include human-computer interface design, learner control, ergonomics, human factors research, interactivity levels and media complexity, virtual reality and its effects on learners (physically, physiologically, and cognitively), simulation delivery systems (CD-ROM, WWW, MID ((metafile for interactive documents)), and learning style.

Land, S.M., & Hannafin, M.J. (1996) Patterns of understanding with open- ended learning environments: a qualitative study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(3), 37-53.

Summary This qualitative study examined patterns of understanding within an open-ended learning environment created in a seventh-grade class. Data collection techniques included think- aloud protocols and interviews. Open-ended learning environments use technology to support student-centered inquiry; specifically, learners use tools to construct physical models of a concept and receive real-time dynamic feedback for their interactions with the object or system constructed. In this study, a computer-based mechanical physics program was used to construct a virtual roller coaster, creating a microworld in which students made decisions about construction parameters and activate those parameters within a computer simulation. Results showed that students perceived information from the system, derived interpretations to explain their observations, and tested those interpretations with system features. Learners also, though, perceived some information inaccurately and failed to metacognitively use system data to assess their understanding. The authors found that powerful intuitive theories resisted change throughout this process and influenced the interpretation of interaction effects within the simulation microworld.

10 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997

Personal Relevance of this Article A common denominator in simulations, microworlds, and open-ended learning environments seems to be the cognitive style and perceptual capabilities that students bring to the learning situation. I find it interesting that the student-centered constructivist methods in the open-ended environment, i.e. having students build and test their own simulated system, failed to override individual perceptual and intuitive learning styles and caused the acquisition of incorrect information. A viable research topic might be found in attempting to categorize student learning styles as they relate to simulation/microworld/OELE design and incorporating multiple tracks or entry paths into interactive learning environments, and investigating if learner control up front yields better results.

Papert, S. (1980) Computer-based microworlds as incubators for powerful ideas. In Papert, S., Mind Storms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas. New York, Basic Books.

Summary This chapter in Papert's book focuses on the concept of microworlds, which he defines as a subset of reality or constructed reality whose structure matches that of a given cognitive mechanism so as to provide an environment where the mechanism can operate effectively. Papert believes that microworlds will rehabilitate what most educators think of Piaget's contribution to education; namely, Papert hopes that new attention will be placed on Piaget's insight that intellectual development does not always require explicit teaching. Papert reviews a microworld within a learning environment that he identifies as Turtle Geometry. Ultimately, he recommends a number of principles to instill a good learning process within microworlds. Papert believes microworlds must introduce students to the laws of motion, link thinking to the learner's intuitive body knowledge, reflect an epistemological position on the microworld content, promote active learning by exploration and discovery, and hook learning to both preformal, intuitive body knowledge and formal, rigorous, mathematical knowledge. Papert concludes by encouraging the use of computers to open up natural paths by which students can drive themselves to new learning.

Personal Relevance of this Article From my reading, I understand that Papert is considered the originator of the microworld concept. I can hear him protesting that traditional education pushes students along unnatural, predetermined paths and in his protests I can read his desire for giving students more control to construct their own learning environments (with proper tools and assistance). I can see that Papert felt the burgeoning world of microcomputers was his great hope at that time for reform in teaching and learning. These articles I have been reading keep centering on a common thread of the intuitive nature of student decision- making within simulations/microworlds/open-ended learning environments. If we can design simulation environments which capture that intuitiveness and capitalize on its power, then possibly these interactive environments can affect learning in completely new ways. As I can see now, For Papert, technology wasn't necessarily the answer -- just

11 Susan Codone Annotated Bibliography December 3, 1997 the path; the real answer lies in instructional design that reaches students individually, which is that gray, undefined area where I wish my research could go -- but I still don't know how to get there. How can I create fuzzy instructional design products that responds to the user or learning conditions and not to the content?

Keep, C., & McLaughlin, T. (1995). The Electronic Labyrinth: A study of hypertext technology. Available: http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/elab/elab.html

Summary This website contains a history and timeline of hypermedia development, including short descriptions of historical and current contributors to the field and definitions of concepts and terms. A history and current update are provided on Ted Nelson and his Xanadu project. Nelson coined the term "hypertext" and envisions hypermedia that includes hypergrams (branching pictures), hypermaps (with transparent overlays), and branching movies. Nelson categorizes three types of hypertext: chunk (reference and note links), stretchtext (expansion links), and collateral (two documents viewed at once with full support for versioning). Nelson's Xanadu project, a vision for a universal instantaneous hypertext-publishing network, has not yet appeared. Since the WWW embodies many of Nelson's ideas, it is unlikely Xanadu will ever be completed.

Douglas Englebart is reviewed as the originator of the idea that forms the basis of today's computer interfaces. In the early 1960's, Englebart and his colleagues created the On- Line System, (NLS) the world's first implementation of "hypertext". Tools from NLS included outline editors, hypertext linking, teleconferencing, word processing, email, and user configurability. These tools required the development of a mouse pointing device, a windowing software environment, on-line help, and interface consistency. Englebart's work directly influenced research at Xerox's PARC, which in turn inspired Apple Computers.

Other reviews include a description of the impact of Bill Atkinson's 1987 HyperCard, packaged free with every Apple PC sold, and of Intermedia, a hypertext UNIX shell that provided a suite of applications with an event-driven windows interface. The website also provides a detailed definition of hypertext, cognitive overhead (defined as the additional effort necessary to maintain several tasks or trails at one time), disorientation (lost in hyperspace), navigation, and visual representation of nodes.

Personal Relevance of this Article This website gave me more basic information about hypertext than I found any book or article. Understanding the evolution of hypertext, user interfaces, and navigation helps me understand why human factors and ergonomics have been a slowly evolving companion to the evolution of hypermedia itself. If my research does focus on human factors within interface design, web-based delivery, or some other facet of IMI, at least I can build upon the history of the field.

12