DOCSLIB.ORG

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae) Butterflies Are Palatable to Avian Predators

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
(Lepidoptera: Pieridae) Butterflies Are Palatable to Avian Predators insects Article Evaluating an Alleged Mimic of the Monarch Butterfly: Neophasia (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) Butterflies are Palatable to Avian Predators Dale A. Halbritter 1,2,* , Johnalyn M. Gordon 3, Kandy L. Keacher 4, Michael L. Avery 4,5 and Jaret C. Daniels 2,6 1 USDA-ARS Invasive Plant Research Laboratory, 3225 College Ave, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA 2 Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, 1881 Natural Area Dr, Steinmetz Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; jdaniels@flmnh.ufl.edu 3 Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 3205 College Ave, Davie, FL 33314, USA; johnalynmgordon@ufl.edu 4 Florida Field Station, USDA-APHIS National Wildlife Research Center, 2820 E University Ave, Gainesville, FL 32641, USA; [email protected] (K.L.K.); [email protected] (M.L.A.) 5 2906 NW 14th Pl., Gainesville, FL 32605, USA 6 McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, 3215 Hull Road, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA * Correspondence: dhalb001@ufl.edu or [email protected]; Tel.: +1-661-406-8932 Received: 28 September 2018; Accepted: 22 October 2018; Published: 29 October 2018 Abstract: Some taxa have adopted the strategy of mimicry to protect themselves from predation. Butterflies are some of the best representatives used to study mimicry, with the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) a well-known model. We are the first to empirically investigate a proposed mimic of the monarch butterfly: Neophasia terlooii, the Mexican pine white butterfly (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). We used captive birds to assess the palatability of N. terlooii and its sister species, N. menapia, to determine the mimicry category that would best fit this system. The birds readily consumed both species of Neophasia and a palatable control species but refused to eat unpalatable butterflies such as D. plexippus and Heliconius charithonia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Given some evidence for mild unpalatability of Neophasia, we discuss the results considering modifications to classic mimicry theory, i.e., a palatability-based continuum between Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, with a quasi-Batesian intermediate. Understanding the ecology of Neophasia in light of contemporary and historical sympatry with D. plexippus could shed light on the biogeography of, evolution of, and predation pressure on the monarch butterfly, whose migration event has become a conservation priority. Keywords: bird; butterfly; Danaus plexippus; mimicry; Neophasia; palatability; predation 1. Introduction Mimicry within animals is evident when one species to some degree matches another in visual appearance, chemical profile, and/or behavior. Butterflies have served as excellent models to investigate mechanisms of mimicry, with emphasis on the Neotropical genus Heliconius (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) [1–7], sex-limited mimicry within Papilio spp. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) [8–11], and the well-known Limenitis-Danaus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) system [12–15]. Mimics can evade predation because they emulate a toxic, distasteful, or dangerous model that predators learn to identify and avoid. In Batesian mimicry, a mimic emulates another toxic or distasteful species, but the mimic is not toxic or distasteful. The Batesian mimic is considered deleterious to its model, especially if the Insects 2018, 9, 150; doi:10.3390/insects9040150 www.mdpi.com/journal/insects Insects 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 10 Insects 2018, 9, 150 2 of 9 deleterious to its model, especially if the mimic is comparably abundant [16–19]. In Müllerian mimicmimicry, is comparably a toxic or distasteful abundant species [16–19 visually]. In Müllerian mimics mimicry, another toxic a toxic or ordistasteful distasteful species. species Müllerian visually mimicsmimicry another complexes toxic experience or distasteful less species. predation Müllerian pressure mimicry because complexes it is easier experience for predators less to predation learn to pressureavoid one because common it is pattern. easier for Mimicry predators may to learnnot be to confined avoid one to commona strict dichotomy, pattern. Mimicry as the maylevel not of beunpalatability confined to amay strict vary dichotomy, in some asprey the levelspecies of unpalatabilityand different predator may vary species in some may prey vary species in their and differentperception predator of unpalatability species may, adding vary in complexity their perception to the ofspectrum unpalatability, between adding Batesian complexity and Müllerian to the spectrummimicry [20] between. However, Batesian there and is Müllerianoften a fine mimicry threshold [20 ].within However, the palatability there is often spectrum a fine thresholdat which withinpredators the reject palatability their prey spectrum [17], suggesting at which predators that classical reject Batesian their prey and [Müllerian17], suggesting mimicry that would classical be Batesianmost common and Müllerian [19]. Additionally, mimicry would the spectrum be most commonis likely [driven19]. Additionally, by variations the in spectrum the reactions is likely of drivendifferent by predator variations species in the when reactions they of encounter different predatorthe mimic species [17]. when they encounter the mimic [17]. OurOur studystudy isis thethe firstfirst to empirically examineexamine thethe naturenature ofof anan alleged casecase ofof mimicry inin Neophasia (Lepidoptera:(Lepidoptera: Pieridae), an unusualunusual genusgenus ofof NorthNorth AmericanAmerican butterflies.butterflies. Female NeophasiaNeophasia terlooii, thethe MexicanMexican pinepine whitewhite butterfly,butterfly, areare orangeorange withwith blackblack markings resembling the monarch butterfly, butterfly, DanausDanaus plexippusplexippus (Figure(Figure1 ).1). TheThe suggestionsuggestion thatthat femalefemale N. terlooii mimic D. plexippusplexippus waswas firstfirst publishedpublished by Poulton [21] [21] and and has has yet yet to to be be empirically empirically investigated. investigated. The The black black markings markings on on male male N. N.terlooii terlooii resembleresemble those those on on female female N.N. terlooii terlooii, but, but the the background background color color is is white white in in males males (Figure (Figure 11).). Currently,Currently, the only other other recognized recognized species species of of NeophasiaNeophasia is N.is N.menapia menapia, the, thepine pine white white butterfly, butterfly, and andboth both males males and andfemales females are arewhite white with with black black markings, markings, but buttheir their black black markings markings are are like like those those on onN. N.terlooii terlooii (Figure(Figure 1).1 ).NeophasiaNeophasia menapia menapia hashas one one summer summer brood brood and and is is found found from from southwestern BritishBritish ColumbiaColumbia toto Guadalupe Guadalupe Mountains Mountains National National Park Park in extreme in extreme southwest southwest Texas Texas [22,23 ].[22,23].Neophasia Neophasia terlooii hasterlooii a small has summera small summer brood and brood a larger and fall a larger brood andfall bro is foundod and from is thefound sky from islands the of sky southeastern islands of Arizonasoutheastern to central Arizona México to central [22,24 ].México As larvae, [22,24].Neophasia As larvae,spp. Neophasia feed on conifers spp. feed and on we conifers considered and thewe possibilityconsidered that the larvaepossibility sequester that larvae unpalatable sequester host unpalatable plant compounds, host plant retaining compounds, them through retaining the adultthem stagethrough and the potentially adult stage rendering and potentially the adults rendering unpalatable the adults to predators. unpalatable to predators. Figure 1. A visual comparison between allegedly mimetic Neophasia spp. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) and theirFigure proposed 1. A visual model, comparisonDanaus plexippusbetween (Lepidoptera:allegedly mimetic Nymphalidae). Neophasia spp. Based (Lepidoptera: on the visible Pieridae) spectrum, and femaletheir proposedN. terlooii model,are the Danaus most likely plexippus mimics (Lepidoptera: of D. plexippus Nymphalidae). Photographs. Based by author on the Dale visible A. Halbritter.spectrum, female N. terlooii are the most likely mimics of D. plexippus. Photographs by author Dale A. Halbritter. Under the assumption that Neophasia spp. mimic D. plexippus, our objective was to determine whereUnderNeophasia the assumptionspp. reside that on theNeophasia Batesian-Müllerian spp. mimic D. mimicry plexippus spectrum., our objective In a was manner to determine like that employedwhere Neophasia by Long spp. et al. reside [25], weon usedthe Batesian caged birds-Mü asllerian representatives mimicry spectrum. of visual predatorsIn a manner to determine like that theemployed butterflies’ by Long palatability. et al. [25], w Jonese used [26 caged,27] wasbirds the as representatives first to use wild of visual birds predators to assess to palatability determine andthe butterflies’ aposematism palatability in insects,. Jones and Brower[26,27] [was8,12 ,the13] first was to the use first wild to empirically birds to assess investigate palatability mimicry and mechanismsaposematism in in North insects, American and Brower butterflies [8,12,13] using was caged the birds. first Into theempirically latter studies, investigate birds learned mimicry to recognizemechanisms and in avoid North consuming American toxicbutterflies butterflies using and caged subsequently birds. In
Load more

Recommended publications
  • List of Animal Species with Ranks October 2017
    Washington Natural Heritage Program List of Animal Species with Ranks October 2017 The following list of animals known from Washington is complete for resident and transient vertebrates and several groups of invertebrates, including odonates, branchipods, tiger beetles, butterflies, gastropods, freshwater bivalves and bumble bees. Some species from other groups are included, especially where there are conservation concerns. Among these are the Palouse giant earthworm, a few moths and some of our mayflies and grasshoppers. Currently 857 vertebrate and 1,100 invertebrate taxa are included. Conservation status, in the form of range-wide, national and state ranks are assigned to each taxon. Information on species range and distribution, number of individuals, population trends and threats is collected into a ranking form, analyzed, and used to assign ranks. Ranks are updated periodically, as new information is collected. We welcome new information for any species on our list. Common Name Scientific Name Class Global Rank State Rank State Status Federal Status Northwestern Salamander Ambystoma gracile Amphibia G5 S5 Long-toed Salamander Ambystoma macrodactylum Amphibia G5 S5 Tiger Salamander Ambystoma tigrinum Amphibia G5 S3 Ensatina Ensatina eschscholtzii Amphibia G5 S5 Dunn's Salamander Plethodon dunni Amphibia G4 S3 C Larch Mountain Salamander Plethodon larselli Amphibia G3 S3 S Van Dyke's Salamander Plethodon vandykei Amphibia G3 S3 C Western Red-backed Salamander Plethodon vehiculum Amphibia G5 S5 Rough-skinned Newt Taricha granulosa
    [Show full text]
  • Monarch Butterfly, Danaus Plexippus Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae)1 Andrei Sourakov2
    EENY-442 Monarch Butterfly, Danaus plexippus Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae)1 Andrei Sourakov2 Introduction The monarchs, Danaus plexippus Linnaeus, are among the best known of the world’s butterflies due to their remark- able ability to migrate, wide distribution, and charismatic appearance. The last Pleistocene glaciations in North America instigated migration to Mexico in the east and to the Californian coast and deserts in the west. In the western U.S., the overwintering colonies are smaller and more numerous, while in Mexico, they are few but more spectacular, with billions of butterflies concentrating in one spot. Distribution Danaus plexippus is found throughout the Americas and Australia, with individuals reported in New Guinea and Western Europe. Sedentary populations that are found in Mexico, and Central and South America (including the Caribbean islands) are somewhat different from migratory Figure 1. Adult monarchs, Danaus plexippus Linnaeus, from Gainesville, populations of D. p. plexippus found in North America. Florida. Several subspecies, such as M. p. megalippe (Mexico, Credits: Andrei Sourakov, Florida Museum of Natural History southern U.S.) and M. p. menippe (South America) have Description been described. Monarchs fly from sea level up to 2,500 meters. Orange-and-black warning coloration of monarchs is noticeable, and its memorable pattern is directed at Some of the D. p. plexippus reach Cuba instead of Mexico, repelling insectivorous birds. Experiments conducted with where they mix with the resident population of D. p. captive blue jays showed that monarchs indeed are toxic megalippe, from which they noticeably differ in behavior (Brower et al. 1968). Being distasteful due to ingestion by and wing length and shape (Dockx 2007).
    [Show full text]
  • Washington Butterfly Association Common Butterflies of the Puget Sound Region and Their Food Plants
    Washington Butterfly Association [email protected] Pine White ( Neophasia menapia ) w ww.naba.org/chapters/nabaws / Identification : White with black forewing patch, black veins below. Flight Period : late June – early October, peak in August. Common Butterflies of the Puget Sound Region Favorite Nectar Plants : Goldenrod, and Their Food Plants - By David Droppers Pearly Everlasting, Asters, Thistles. Larval Host Plants : Ponderosa Pine, Western Tiger Swallowtail ( Papilio Lodgepole Pine, Douglas-Fir, among other conifers. rutulus ). Identification : Large. Yellow with black tiger stripes. Cabbage White ( Pieris rapae) Underside with some blue. Flight Identification : White, black wing tips and Period : mid April – late September, spots. Males have one spot, females two peak in June. Favorite Nectar Plants : spots. Flight Period : early March – early Mock Orange, Milkweeds, Thistles, November, peaks in May, July and large showy flowers. Larval Host September. Favorite Nectar Plants: Plants : Native Willows, Quaking Many, especially garden flowers, such as Oregano and Lavender. Aspen and other poplars, Red Alder Larval Host Plants : Garden Brassicae, especially broccoli and cabbage. Anise Swallowtail ( Papilio zelicaon) Identification : Large. Mostly black, Cedar Hairstreak ( Mitoura grynea ) centrally yellow, with row of blue dots Identification : Small. Varying brown above, below buff brown on hindwing. Flight Period : late with violet tint, variable white postmedian line, small tails on March – late September, peaks in May, hindwings. Flight Period : late March – early August, peaks in July-August. Favorite Nectar Plants : May-June. Favorite Nectar Plants : Goldenrods, Yarrow, Many flowers, mostly large and showy. Dandelion, Clovers, Red Flowering Currant. Larval Host Plants : Garden Parsley Larval Host Plants : Western Red Cedar, Incense Cedar and Dill, Angelica, Cow Parsnip, many others.
    [Show full text]
  • Danaus Plexippus)
    1. Species: Monarch (butterfly) (Danaus plexippus) 2. Status: Table 1 summarizes the current status of this species or subspecies by various ranking entity and defines the meaning of the status. Table 1. Current status of Danaus plexippus. Entity Status Status Definition NatureServe G4 Species is Apparently Secure At fairly low risk of extinction or elimination due to an extensive range and/or many populations or occurrences, but with possible cause for some concern as a result of local recent declines, threats, or other factors. CNHP S5 Species is Secure At very low risk or extinction or elimination due to a very extensive range, abundant populations or occurrences, and little to no concern from declines or threats. Colorado None N/A State List Status USDA Forest R2 Sensitive Region 2 Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species Service USDI FWSb None N/A a Colorado Natural Heritage Program. b US Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. The 2012 U.S. Forest Service Planning Rule defines Species of Conservation Concern (SCC) as “a species, other than federally recognized threatened, endangered, proposed, or candidate species, that is known to occur in the plan area and for which the regional forester has determined that the best available scientific information indicates substantial concern about the species' capability to persist over the long-term in the plan area” (36 CFR 219.9). This overview was developed to summarize information relating to this species’ consideration to be listed as a SCC on the Rio Grande National Forest, and to aid in the development of plan components and monitoring objectives.
    [Show full text]
  • Superior National Forest
    Admirals & Relatives Subfamily Limenitidinae Skippers Family Hesperiidae £ Viceroy Limenitis archippus Spread-wing Skippers Subfamily Pyrginae £ Silver-spotted Skipper Epargyreus clarus £ Dreamy Duskywing Erynnis icelus £ Juvenal’s Duskywing Erynnis juvenalis £ Northern Cloudywing Thorybes pylades Butterflies of the £ White Admiral Limenitis arthemis arthemis Superior Satyrs Subfamily Satyrinae National Forest £ Common Wood-nymph Cercyonis pegala £ Common Ringlet Coenonympha tullia £ Northern Pearly-eye Enodia anthedon Skipperlings Subfamily Heteropterinae £ Arctic Skipper Carterocephalus palaemon £ Mancinus Alpine Erebia disa mancinus R9SS £ Red-disked Alpine Erebia discoidalis R9SS £ Little Wood-satyr Megisto cymela Grass-Skippers Subfamily Hesperiinae £ Pepper & Salt Skipper Amblyscirtes hegon £ Macoun’s Arctic Oeneis macounii £ Common Roadside-Skipper Amblyscirtes vialis £ Jutta Arctic Oeneis jutta (R9SS) £ Least Skipper Ancyloxypha numitor Northern Crescent £ Eyed Brown Satyrodes eurydice £ Dun Skipper Euphyes vestris Phyciodes selenis £ Common Branded Skipper Hesperia comma £ Indian Skipper Hesperia sassacus Monarchs Subfamily Danainae £ Hobomok Skipper Poanes hobomok £ Monarch Danaus plexippus £ Long Dash Polites mystic £ Peck’s Skipper Polites peckius £ Tawny-edged Skipper Polites themistocles £ European Skipper Thymelicus lineola LINKS: http://www.naba.org/ The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/ in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national
    [Show full text]
  • Butterfly Migrations in Florida: Seasonal Patterns and Long-Term
    POPULATION ECOLOGY Butterfly Migrations in Florida: Seasonal Patterns and Long-Term Changes THOMAS J. WALKER1 Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611Ð0620 Environ. Entomol. 30(6): 1052Ð1060 (2001) ABSTRACT Flight traps at Gainesville, in north-central Florida, operating from 1984 to spring 2000, separated butterßies migrating into the Florida peninsula (SSE Ϯ 90Њ) from those migrating out of the Florida peninsula (NNW Ϯ 90Њ). Five species ßew southward in the fall and northward in the spring: Phoebis sennae (L.), Agraulis vanillae (L.), Junonia coenia (Hu¨ bner), Urbanus proteus (L.), and Eurema lisa (Boisduval & LeConte). Five species had signiÞcant northward ßights in spring but no signiÞcant migration in fall: Pieris rapae (L.), Vanessa virginiensis (Drury), Vanessa atalanta (L.), Eurytides marcellus (Cramer), and Libytheana bachmanii (Kirtland). Danaus plexippus (L.) had a southward ßight in fall but no signiÞcant migration in spring. Eurema daira (Godart) switched from a net movement northward in early fall to a net movement southward in late fall, whereas Eurema nicippe (Cramer) maintained a net movement northward throughout the fall. The major migrants differed signiÞcantly in the seasonal timing and duration of peak migration. When the numbers trapped were greatest, the proportion of those ßying in the migratory direction was greatest. The numbers of spring migrants of A. vanillae increased during the course of the study, whereas both the spring and fall migrations of J. coenia declined. The fall migrations of P. sennae and U. proteus declined sharply. In 1990Ð1999, the fall migrations of P. sennae and U. proteus averaged only 37 and 15% of what they had averaged in 1984Ð1989.
    [Show full text]
  • Schaus' Swallowtail
    Bring this image to life: Schaus’ Swallowtail see reverse side for details Heraclides aristodemus ponceanus Florida Museum 3D Butterfly Cards Inspiring people to care about life on earth The critically endangered Schaus’ Swallowtail (Heraclides aristodemus ponceanus) is a large, iconic butterfly found in South Florida. Historically, the butterfly inhabited dense upland forests called tropical hardwood hammocks from the greater Miami area south through the Florida Keys. Habitat loss and fragmentation over the past century have led to severe population declines and range reductions. Today, Schaus’ Swallowtail is restricted to only a few remaining sites in the northern Florida Keys, making it one of the rarest butterflies in the U.S. and our only federally listed swallowtail. Although small numbers occur on Key Largo, the main population resides on islands in Biscayne National Park. Because recent surveys indicate extremely small numbers of butterflies throughout its range, the risk of extinction is thought to be very high. Collaborative conservation and recovery efforts are underway for the Schaus’ Swallowtail. They include regular population monitoring, captive breeding, organism reintroduction and habitat restoration. • Download the Libraries of Life app from the iTunes or Android store and install on your device. • Launch the app and select the Florida Museum icon. • Hold your mobile device camera about 6 inches away from card image. • View specimen and click buttons to view content. Cover photo by: Jaret Daniels The Florida Museum of Natural History is a leading authority in biodiversity and cultural heritage, using its expertise to advance knowledge and solve real world problems. The Florida Museum inspires people to value the biological richness and cultural heritage of our diverse world and make a positive difference in its future.
    [Show full text]
  • Butterfly Gardening Tips & Tricks Gardening for Butterflies Is Fun, Beautiful, and Good for the Environment
    Butterfly Gardening Tips & Tricks Gardening for butterflies is fun, beautiful, and good for the environment. It is also simple and can be done in almost any location. The key guidelines are listed below: NO PESTICIDES! Caterpillars are highly susceptible to almost all pesticides so keep them away from your yard if you want butterflies to thrive. Select the right plants. You will need to provide nectar sources for adults and host plants for caterpillars. See the lists below for inspiration. Keep to native varieties as much as possible. Plants come in lots and lots of varieties and cultivars. When selecting plants, especially host plants, try to find native species as close to the natural or wild variety as possible. Provide shelter. Caterpillars need shelter from the sun and shelter from cold nights. Adults need places to roost during the night. And protected areas are needed for the chrysalis to safely undergo its transformation. The best way to provide shelter is with large clumps of tall grasses (native or ornamental) and medium to large evergreen trees and/or shrubs. Nectar Sources Top Ten Nectar Sources: Asclepias spp. (milkweed) Aster spp. Buddleia spp. (butterfly bush) Coreopsis spp. Echinacea spp. (coneflower) Eupatorium spp. (joe-pye weed) Lantana spp. Liatris spp. Pentas spp. Rudbeckia spp. (black-eyed susan) Others: Agastache spp. (hyssop), Apocynum spp. (dogbane), Ceanothus americanus (New Jersey tea), Cephalanthus occidentalis (button bush), Clethra alnifolia, Cuphea spp. (heather), Malus spp. (apple), Mentha spp. (mint), Phlox spp., Pycanthemum incanum (mountain mint), Salivs spp. (sage), Sedum spectabile (stonecrop), Stokesia laevis (cornflower), Taraxacum officinale (dandelion), Triofolium spp.
    [Show full text]
  • Mimicry - Ecology - Oxford Bibliographies 12/13/12 7:29 PM
    Mimicry - Ecology - Oxford Bibliographies 12/13/12 7:29 PM Mimicry David W. Kikuchi, David W. Pfennig Introduction Among nature’s most exquisite adaptations are examples in which natural selection has favored a species (the mimic) to resemble a second, often unrelated species (the model) because it confuses a third species (the receiver). For example, the individual members of a nontoxic species that happen to resemble a toxic species may dupe any predators by behaving as if they are also dangerous and should therefore be avoided. In this way, adaptive resemblances can evolve via natural selection. When this phenomenon—dubbed “mimicry”—was first outlined by Henry Walter Bates in the middle of the 19th century, its intuitive appeal was so great that Charles Darwin immediately seized upon it as one of the finest examples of evolution by means of natural selection. Even today, mimicry is often used as a prime example in textbooks and in the popular press as a superlative example of natural selection’s efficacy. Moreover, mimicry remains an active area of research, and studies of mimicry have helped illuminate such diverse topics as how novel, complex traits arise; how new species form; and how animals make complex decisions. General Overviews Since Henry Walter Bates first published his theories of mimicry in 1862 (see Bates 1862, cited under Historical Background), there have been periodic reviews of our knowledge in the subject area. Cott 1940 was mainly concerned with animal coloration. Subsequent reviews, such as Edmunds 1974 and Ruxton, et al. 2004, have focused on types of mimicry associated with defense from predators.
    [Show full text]
  • Somerset's Ecological Network
    Somerset’s Ecological Network Mapping the components of the ecological network in Somerset 2015 Report This report was produced by Michele Bowe, Eleanor Higginson, Jake Chant and Michelle Osbourn of Somerset Wildlife Trust, and Larry Burrows of Somerset County Council, with the support of Dr Kevin Watts of Forest Research. The BEETLE least-cost network model used to produce Somerset’s Ecological Network was developed by Forest Research (Watts et al, 2010). GIS data and mapping was produced with the support of Somerset Environmental Records Centre and First Ecology Somerset Wildlife Trust 34 Wellington Road Taunton TA1 5AW 01823 652 400 Email: [email protected] somersetwildlife.org Front Cover: Broadleaved woodland ecological network in East Mendip Contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 2. Policy and Legislative Background to Ecological Networks ............................................ 3 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 3 Government White Paper on the Natural Environment .............................................. 3 National Planning Policy Framework ......................................................................... 3 The Habitats and Birds Directives ............................................................................. 4 The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010 ..................................
    [Show full text]
  • Rapid Evolution of Mimicry Following Local Model Extinction Rsbl.Royalsocietypublishing.Org Christopher K
    Evolutionary biology Rapid evolution of mimicry following local model extinction rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org Christopher K. Akcali and David W. Pfennig Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280, USA Research Batesian mimicry evolves when individuals of a palatable species gain the selective advantage of reduced predation because they resemble a toxic Cite this article: Akcali CK, Pfennig DW. 2014 species that predators avoid. Here, we evaluated whether—and in which Rapid evolution of mimicry following local direction—Batesian mimicry has evolved in a natural population of model extinction. Biol. Lett. 10: 20140304. mimics following extirpation of their model. We specifically asked whether http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0304 the precision of coral snake mimicry has evolved among kingsnakes from a region where coral snakes recently (1960) went locally extinct. We found that these kingsnakes have evolved more precise mimicry; by contrast, no such change occurred in a sympatric non-mimetic species or in conspecifics Received: 9 April 2014 from a region where coral snakes remain abundant. Presumably, more pre- cise mimicry has continued to evolve after model extirpation, because Accepted: 22 May 2014 relatively few predator generations have passed, and the fitness costs incurred by predators that mistook a deadly coral snake for a kingsnake were historically much greater than those incurred by predators that mistook a kingsnake for a coral snake. Indeed, these results are consistent with prior Subject Areas: theoretical and empirical studies, which revealed that only the most precise evolution, ecology, behaviour mimics are favoured as their model becomes increasingly rare.
    [Show full text]
  • Pine Butterfly (Neophasia Menapia) Outbreak in the Malheur National Forest, Blue Mountains, Oregon: Examining Patterns of Defoliation
    AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Ariadne T. DeMarco for the degree of Master of Science in Sustainable Forest Management presented on March 21, 2014. Title: Pine Butterfly (Neophasia menapia) Outbreak in the Malheur National Forest, Blue Mountains, Oregon: Examining Patterns of Defoliation Abstract approved: David C. Shaw The pine butterfly (Neophasia menapia C. Felder & R. Felder) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) is a relatively host-specific defoliator of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws). From 2008 to 2012, the Malheur National Forest was subject to an outbreak of pine butterfly in ponderosa pine, peaking at ~100,000 ha of forest visibly defoliated in 2011. Silvicultural- based management guidelines have been used to manage stand resilience to other insect defoliators, but guidelines specific to the pine butterfly are currently lacking. The goal of this study is to examine pine butterfly defoliation patterns to relate stand and tree structure characteristics to inform management guidelines. I randomly sampled 25 stands within ponderosa pine forests delineated as heavily defoliated in 2011 by annual forest health aerial surveys. Within each stand I randomly located three transect plots, 10 x 40m, and measured diameter at breast height (DBH), height, and estimated defoliation for the entirety of all trees > 5cm DBH. Data was analyzed using linear mixed effects models to account for all other determinants of defoliation before measuring variables under study. Defoliation averaged 67% for all trees. Stand density index, stand structure, tree crown class, and level within a tree canopy demonstrated no meaningful effects on mean defoliation. I infer from these results that defoliation levels during pine butterfly outbreaks are not influenced by structural or crown characteristics; virtually all available foliage is consumed in these single host-species stands (though note that ~10% of trees studied showed <50% defoliation levels).
    [Show full text]