The First Humans

CHAPTER 6 THE FIRST HUMANS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter discusses the emergence of the genus Homo. It discusses the dispersal of Homo erectus beyond Africa and the emergence of anatomically modern humans.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1. Be able to identify the adaptive strategies of Homo erectus and the role they played in its expansion out of Africa and into most parts of the Old World. 2. Know what archaic Homo sapiens are and how they are related to Homo erectus and the Neandertals. 3. Know what Neandertals are, how they are related to other species of Homo, where and when they lived, and how they adapted to life in a cold region. 4. Be able to identify the advances in stone tool technologies and the advent of art. 5. Understand the role that the ice ages played in the evolution of modern humans. 6. Know what the Mesolithic is and why it is important to understand the rise of agriculture that followed it.

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Early Homo A. Finds in East Africa indicate the Homo habilis was not very different from the australopithecines in terms of body size and shape. B. The earliest Homo erectus remains indicate rapid biological change. 1. The fossil record for the transition from H. habilis to H. erectus supports the punctuated equilibrium model of evolution. 2. H. erectus was considerably taller and had a larger brain than H. habilis. C. The early Homo fossil sequence displays rapid change and therefore supports punctuated equilibrium. 1. One possible key to explaining such rapid change may lie in H. erectus’ greater reliance on cultural means of adaptation. 2. With the emergence of H. erectus there is a rapid proliferation in the number and diversity of tools being made. 3. Cultural treatment of food began to select for smaller dentition. 4. Cultural manipulation of the environment allowed erectus to exploit a wider array of environments.

1 II. Out of Africa A. Paleolithic Tools 1. Three Paleolithic Divisions a. Lower Paleolithic (Homo erectus). b. Middle Paleolithic (archaic Homo sapiens, including Neandertals). c. Upper Paleolithic (Homo sapiens sapiens, up to 15,000 years ago). 2. Technique Differentiation a. Paleolithic stone toolmaking was marked by advancing refinement of technique, recognizable groupings of which are called toolmaking traditions. b. A basic distinction is between core and flake tools. c. The primary tradition of the Lower Paleolithic is the Acheulian. B. Adaptive Strategies of Homo erectus 1. Culture/Biology Synergy a. Acheulian tools and essentially modern bipedalism aided hunting. b. Biological changes increased hunting efficiency. c. H. erectus’ average brain size (1000 cc) is double that of the australopithecines. 2. Hunting and Gathering a. H. erectus’ bipedalism, the--relative to the australopithecines--de-emphasis on chewing (smaller molars), and the emphasis on the front teeth (possibly for eating flesh) all suggest hunting and gathering as its primary adaptive strategy. b. The skeletal evidence for hunting and gathering is supported by site remains, such as those found at Terra Amata (approximately 300,000 years ago). 3. Language a. No evidence clearly supporting H. erectus’ use of language exists. b. Kottak argues that Acheulian tools and apparent, complex hunting techniques, which do exist in the fossil record, support the possibility of rudimentary speech. C. The Evolution and Expansion of Homo erectus 1. Important H. erectus Sites a. East, West Turkana, Kenya, dated 1.6 m.y.a. (Leakey). b. Upper Bed II, Olduvai, dated 1 m.y.a. c. Trinil, Java, Indonesia, dated approximately 700,000 years ago (Dubois). d. Zhoukoudian, China (a.k.a. “Peking Man”) is a massive site, dated 500,000-350,000 years ago. e. Europe has nonskeletal remains dating 700,000 years ago, and skeletal remains dated at 500,000. f. The site of Dmanisi, in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia, has produced two skulls that have been dated to 1.75-1.7 m.y.a. 2. The vast environmental differences encompassed by the H. erectus sites, and the associated lack of physical variation, attest to the success of culture as an adaptive strategy.

III. Archaic Homo sapiens A. It is likely that the Archaic Homo sapiens population was most concentrated in tropical regions, but thus far more work has been done in Europe. B. Archaic Homo sapiens (300,000-35,000 B.P.) includes Homo sapiens neandertalensis (Neandertals, 130,000-35,000 years ago). C. The range of Homo sapiens was even more extensive than that of Homo erectus.

2 IV. The Neandertals A. Cold-Adapted Neandertals 1. The combination of relatively large torso and short limbs, along with large, broad nasal passages, is evidence of adaptation to a cold climate. 2. Neandertal front teeth were extremely large and the remains of these show evidence of wear. 3. The face, particularly the large browridge, was designed to support considerable stress on the front teeth (possibly the result of chewing animal hides). 4. Neandertal cranial capacity was well within (possibly exceeding) the average for H. sapiens (1350 cc). B. Later Neandertal remains show a decrease in the robustness of the front teeth and face, suggesting the use of tools (Mousterian) replaced teeth, and suggesting selection against the larger teeth (possibly due to infections in crowded jaws). C. The Neandertals and Modern People 1. Two basic models attempt to answer the debate about Neandertals’ place in Homo sapiens sapiens ancestry. a. Neandertals were fully Homo sapiens, their differences constituting a minor sub-specific variation that disappeared as Neandertals were assimilated into the broader H. sapiens population. b. “Replacement Hypothesis”: Neandertals were the product of a split within the H. erectus population, wherein one side moved into northern Europe and became Neandertals, and the other side evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens (Anatomically Modern Humans--or AMHs) in the Middle East, Africa, or Asia and then drove Neandertals to extinction upon moving into their territories. 2. Neandertals differed from AMHs in their comparatively rugged skeletons and faces, huge front teeth, larger cranial capacity, and greater sexual dimorphism. 3. Current interpretations of the fossil evidence and dating seem to support the replacement hypothesis. D. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 1. Only the mother contributes mtDNA to an offspring, and this occurs through cloning, thus only mutation may change the pattern of mtDNA from one generation to the next. 2. Researchers from Berkeley generated a computerized model of Homo evolution, based upon the average rate of mutation in known samples of mtDNA. 3. The model describes an evolutionary tree, at the base of which is a single female, called “Eve,” in sub-Saharan Africa 200,000 B.P., from whom all modern humans have descended. V. Advances in Technology A. Toolmaking technology shifted from flaking (Mousterian) to the making of blades, which is much more efficient and allows for greater specialization and diversity. B. An increase in the distribution and number of technological remains is evidence of an overall increase in Homo’s population. C. Tool Diversity 1. Different tool shapes, in connection with other site remains, can be associated with specific tasks, thus giving evidence as to how ancient human populations fit in their ecological niches. 2. Some features of tools are not so much related to function as they are to traditions specific to a population.

3 VI. Glacial Retreat A. During the glacial period, large game hunting constituted a major feature in the adaptive strategies of most Homo populations. B. Changes Due to Glacial Retreat. 1. The continental shelf was covered with water, creating a zone for new marine life that was accessible to humans. 2. Particularly in northern regions, biodiversity increased overall, as the plains of southwestern Europe were replaced by forests. 3. Broad-spectrum revolution: as a result of the postglacial changes, human populations’ means of exploiting their environments became correspondingly more diverse, setting the stage for food production. VII. The Mesolithic A. The Mesolithic followed the Upper Paleolithic and is also marked by the trends of diversification called the broad-spectrum revolution. B. Physical Evidence. 1. Most known Mesolithic remains are the result of archaeological research done in Europe. 2. Microliths are small stone tools that are typical of Mesolithic technology: fishhooks, harpoon tips, and dart tips. 3. The technology reflects the shift from a focus on herd game hunting (since these animals had moved north with glacial retreat) to more varied and specialized activities. C. Mesolithic saw the domestication of the dog, the development of food preservation techniques, the spread of the bow and arrow, the development of wood and leather working, and actual carpentry. D. Gathering. 1. “Broad-spectrum” changes caused gathering, rather than hunting, to become the mainstay of human economies. 2. Based on what we know from comparisons of modern hunting-based societies with hunter- gatherer societies, the role of women in Mesolithic subsistence economies probably increased as gathering became more important. VIII. Box: Prehistoric Art Treasure Is Found in French Cave. A. In December 1994, near the French village of Vallon-Pont-d’Arc, more than 300 images of animals and human hands painted during the Upper Paleolithic (about 20,000 years ago) were discovered.

B. The scale of the site is on par with other major examples of Paleolithic art, such as Lascaux (France) and Altamira (Spain). C. Researchers are hopeful that the new discovery will provide insight into the evolution of human symbolism. D. Of particular interest is the fact that the depictions included nongame animals (e.g., bears, rhinos, an owl, a hyena, and a panther), unlike the massive Lascaux site. E. One prevailing hypothesis is that such caves served not as habitats, being too dark, but as ritual sites.

4 LECTURE TOPICS 1. This chapter provides a good opportunity to discuss “what is culture.” Different definitions of culture can be evaluated based on their relevance to the rise of culture. What aspect of cultural behavior developed first? When do we have clear evidence for fully developed culture? 2. The debate about the origins of Homo sapiens from Homo erectus is still quite active. In outlining the basic positions (Out of Africa/Mitochondrial Eve vs. Multiregional Evolution) you cannot only clarify the debate for the students, but also give them a case study on how explanatory models progress with the arrival of new evidence. 3. Discuss the role that both biological and cultural adaptation have played in the rise of AMHs. To what degree can the environment be used to explain patterns of behavior? Is this possible without invoking environmental determinism? What biological changes were necessary to allow for the cultural adaptations?

SUGGESTED FILMS Hunt or Be Hunted 2002 50 minutes This film uses computer enhanced imagery to depict what life might have been like for early hominids, from Homo ergaster and H. erectus through Neanderthals and the appearance of the anatomically modern humans. Part of the series Before We Ruled the Earth. A Discovery Channel Production. The Ape That Took Over the World 2001 50 minutes This film explores the variety of australopithecines that have been found in East Africa. Particular attention is given to a recent find by Meave Leakey that is just as old as “Lucy.” A BBC Production. Humans: Who Are We? The Birth of the Human Mind 1999 52 minutes This film explores the roles that climatic changes, genetic mutations, and behavioral developments played in the evolution of modern humans. The film includes interviews with Ian Tattersall, Ralph Holloway, Peter Underhill, and Richard Potts. A Discovery Channel Production. The Search for Neanderthal 23 minutes This film traces the history of research regarding the evolutionary place of Neandertals in the evolution of modern humans. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Human Story: Traces of Humankind’s Oldest Relatives 1999 51 minutes In this film, anthropologist Richard Rudgley discusses the results of his research of Neanderthals. Visiting a series of Neandertal sites, he argues that Neandertals were far from the subhuman beings that most people envision. Part of the series Secrets of the Stone Age. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Lascaux: The Prehistory of Art 2002 61 minutes This film explores the caves of Lascaux to investigate these Paleolithic paintings. Part of the series Palettes II: Great Artists, Great Art. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences. The Fate of Neanderthal Man: Life and Death in the Ice Age 2-part series 53 minutes each This series investigates what led to the demise of the Neandertals at the end of the last Ice Age. Titles in the series: The Mammoth Hunter; The Death of Neanderthal Man. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

5 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. What is punctuated equilibrium? a. The ecological conditions which selected for bipedalism among hominids. b. A variant of catastrophism, related to scientific creationism. c. The theory upon which evolutionism is historically based. d. The idea that evolution occurs mainly through short periods of quick change interspersed by longer periods of relative stability. e. The idea, as conceived by Darwin, that evolution proceeds in a gradual, orderly fashion. 2. Which of the following factors did not play a role in the development of higher intelligence among Homo erectus populations? a. neotony d. broad-spectrum revolution b. greater reliance on hunting c. more complex social environment e. bipedalism

3. The spread of Homo erectus from tropical and subtropical climates into temperate zones (such as Beijing, China) was facilitated by all of the following, except: a. the harnessing of fire b. living in rock shelters and caves c. blade-tool-making traditions d. increasingly efficient hunting methods e. the use of animal skins as clothing 4. What have researchers learned by looking at the molars and chewing muscles of Homo erectus? a. H. erectus was more dependent on tubers than earlier homids. b. H. erectus was more dependent on hunting than earlier homids. c. The chewing apparatus of H. erectus was essentially the same as that of H. habilis. d. The paucity of dental remains of H. erectus has made it difficult for researchers to say anything significant. e. H. erectus had yet to make the shift to hunting seen later on with Neandertals. 5. What species is associated with the site of Zhoukoudian? a. Homo habilis b. Homo erectus c. archaic Homo sapiens d. Neandertals e. Homo sapiens sapiens 6. Which of the following sites is not included in the probable Homo erectus range? a. Java b. China c. South Africa d. Alaska e. Palestine

6 7. Which of the following is a trend in hominid evolution since the australopithecines? a. Sexual dimorphism has disappeared. b. Molar size has decreased. c. Population numbers have remained stable. d. Bipedalism has appeared. e. The geographic range of the hominids has decreased. 8. Which of the following traits did not contribute to the increasing adaptability of Homo erectus? a. a varied tool kit that facilitated cooperative hunting b. an essentially modern postcranial skeleton, permitting long-distance stalking and endurance during a hunt c. an average brain size that was double that of the australopithecines d. microlithic stone tools e. a period of childhood dependency that exceeded that of australopithecines 9. Homo erectus is generally associated with which of the following technologies? a. Neolithic b. Oldowan c. Mousterian d. Acheulian e. Upper Paleolithic 10. Taken together, Neandertal traits exhibit a trend toward adaptation to a. the interglacial environment. b. lack of full human speech. c. extreme, dry heat. d. vegetarianism. e. the cold. 11. What is the name of the stone tool tradition associated with Neandertals? a. Oldowan b. Acheulian c. Mousterian d. blades e. microliths 12. Which of the following traits does not characterize a Neandertal skull? a. a broad face b. a large brow ridge c. huge front teeth d. huge molars e. an average cranial capacity larger than that of modern humans

7 13. What does the modern debate about Neandertals’ relation to anatomically modern humans focus on? a. whether Neandertals were human or a H. erectus hybrid b. whether Neandertals made microlithic tools c. whether Neandertals are the isolated ancestors of the Caucasian race, or more general ancestors d. whether Neandertals are the founders of the Native American population e. whether Neandertals are directly in anatomically modern humans evolutionary line, or constitute an extinct offshoot 14. Which of the following models suggests that European Neandertals were replaced by a wave of Anatomically Modern Humans? a. broad-spectrum revolution b. phyletic transformation c. Out of Africa d. multiregional evolution e. manifest destiny 15. What does the gradual transition from Mousterian to Upper Paleolithic tools suggest? a. The transition from Neandertals to modern humans may also have been gradual. b. Neandertals were gradually replaced by Homo erectus in Europe. c. There really is no difference between Mousterian and Upper Paleolithic tools. d. Neandertals were quickly wiped out by modern humans as they radiated into Europe. e. Neandertals gradually adapted to invasions of modern humans by developing a new technology. 16. According the mtDNA analyses, when did the first modern humans leave Africa? a. 2 m.y.a. b. 1 m.y.a. c. 735,000 years ago d. 535,000 years ago e. 135,000 years ago 17. What species is associated with the broad-spectrum revolution? a. robust australopithecines b. Neandertals c. Homo sapiens sapiens d. archaic Homo sapiens e. Homo erectus

18. Which of the following characterizes the Upper Paleolithic? a. hand axes b. pebble tools c. metallurgy d. plant domestication e. blade tools

8 19. What kind of stone tool tradition is the Mousterian? a. river cobbles b. hand-axes c. flakes d. blades e. microliths 20. What was the broad-spectrum revolution? a. The period when glacial retreats led to the exploitation of a greater variety of food sources and hunting-gathering techniques. b. The time when the greatest diversity of hominids lived in Africa. c. The period when Homo sapiens sapiens populations overtook Neandertal caves and began to draw animal figures. d. When primates developed the ability to see more than just the primary colors and could therefore distinguish different types of leaves. e. The period when Homo sapiens sapiens shifted from gradual evolution to punctuated equilibrium. 21. Why was the broad-spectrum revolution a significant event in human evolution? a. It consists of a massive fluorescence of colored cave paintings beginning 70,000 B.P., which suggests the evolution of color vision and a truly human-style brain organization. b. It brought about a new tool tradition based on flaked tools. c. It provided the environmental circumstances that selected for the evolution of “Mitochondrial Eve.” d. It provided new environmental circumstances that made important socio-cultural adaptations like the development plant cultivation more likely. e. It led to the extinction of the Neandertals, who had survived by eating big game animals. 22. Which of the following is not a general trend in hominid evolution? a. a greater reliance on cultural means of adaptation b. an increase in the quantity and quality of tools c. an increase in cranial capacity d. a greater reliance on biological means of adaptation e. population growth 23. Analysis of large samples of human mitochondrial DNA has led some researchers to hypothesize that all a. modern humans are descended from Neandertals from Western Europe. b. current human mitochondrial DNA comes from one woman who lived in Africa 200,000 years ago. c. modern humans are descended directly from chimpanzees and gorillas, but not orangutans. d. modern humans are not descended from robust australopithecines. e. Homo erectus populations around the world eventually evolved into populations of Homo sapiens. 24. What kinds of tools characterize the Mesolithic? a. microliths b. hand-axes c. large flaked tools d. core choppers e. early pottery

9 25. Which was the first hominid to have a range that extended beyond Africa? a. Homo erectus b. Australopithecus afarensis c. Homo sapiens d. Australopithecus africanus e. Homo sapiens neandertalensis

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the major anatomical differences between the australopithecines and Homo erectus. 2. Drawing on biological and cultural evidence, discuss the major similarities and differences in the sociocultural adaptive means employed by Australopithecus and Homo erectus. 3. Discuss the Neandertals--their form, dating, and geographic distributions. Review and evaluate the various positions that have been taken in interpreting the relationship between Neandertals and Homo sapiens sapiens.

4. Identify and discuss the significance,in terms of environmental, economic, and social changes, of the broad-spectrum revolution in southwestern Europe. 5. How do biological changes in Homo erectus reflect new cultural adaptive strategies? 6. What are the main morphological differences between Neandertals and moderns? How have these differences been interpreted? 7. What is the evidence for increasing dependence on culture during hominid evolution? 8. Are Neandertals in anatomically modern humans’ direct line of descent? What evidence points to a “yes” answer (and why)? What evidence points to a “no” answer (and why)?

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. True or False The Paleolithic tool tradition associated with Homo erectus is the Acheulian. 2. True or False The gradual model of evolution asserts that long periods of stability are interrupted abruptly by rapid periods of change. 3. True or False A greater reliance on cultural means of adaptation (e.g. tools) may explain the rapid emergence of Homo erectus. 4. True or False With the movement of Homo erectus out of Africa, Homo erectus eventually colonized Europe and Asia. 5. True or False The Acheulian tradition is characterized by cobble choppers that were made by removing flakes from one end of a cobble. 6. True or False Homo erectus infants were born immature and required extended periods of childhood dependency. 7. True or False Biological and cultural changes enabled Homo erectus to exploit a new adaptive strategy—gathering and hunting. 8. True or False Both “Peking man” and “Java man” are Neandertal specimens.

10 9. True or False Most of what is known today about archaic Homo sapiens comes from South Asia. 10. True or False In addition to their stocky bodies that conserved heat, Neandertals made clothes, developed elaborate tools, and hunted reindeer, mammoths, and woolly rhinos in order to adapt to the cold climate in Europe during the Würm glaciation. 11. True or False The stone tool tradition associated with Neandertals is called the Mousterian. 12. True or False Compared to anatomically modern humans (AMHs), Neandertals exhibit a greater degree of sexual dimorphism. 13. True or False The evidence from the Mount Carmel caves in Israel indicate the AMHs were evolving out of the archaic Homo sapiens populations in the region long before the Neandertals in Europe died out. 14. True or False Recent genetic research comparing Neandertal DNA and modern human DNA supports the theory Neandertals evolved into the European populations of AMHs. 15. True or False The stone tool traditions of the Upper Paleolithic were based primarily on blade tools which, compared to the Mousterian, are faster to make and are better at maximizing the amount of cutting edge from the same amount of stone. 16. True or False Unlike the Mousterian which had many different kinds of stone tools, the tool traditions of the Upper Paleolithic included only a few different kinds of implements. 17. True or False With the end of the Würm glaciation, human groups shifted their subsistence strategies to a more broad-spectrum of species that they exploited. 18. True or False Dugout canoes were used during the Mesolithic. 19. True or False The megalith is the characteristic tool type of the Mesolithic. 20. True or False The Mesolithic is characterized by cobble-core tool industries being used by AMHs to exploit a narrow range of wild plants and animals.