North Carolina Science Essential Standards s1

North Carolina Science Essential Standards 4.E.2 Resource Pack: Earth History Essential Standard: 4.E.2 Understand the use of fossils and changes in the surface of the Earth as evidence of the history of the Earth and its changing life forms. 4.E.2.1 Compare fossils (including molds, casts, and preserved parts of plants and animals) to one another and to living organisms. 4.E.2.2 Infer ideas about Earth’s early environments from fossils of plants and animals that lived long ago. 4.E.2.3 Give examples of how the surface of the Earth changes due to slow processes such as erosion and weathering, and rapid processes such as landslides, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes. Vertical Strand Maps: Online Atlas map http://strandmaps.dls.ucar.edu/?id=SMS-MAP-0048 http://strandmaps.dls.ucar.edu/?id=SMS-MAP-1430 http://strandmaps.dls.ucar.edu/?id=SMS-MAP-2379

North Carolina Unpacking: http://scnces.ncdpi.wikispaces.net/Race+to+the+Top+Support+Tools Teacher Content & Concept Knowledge Framework for K-12 Science Education ESS1.C: THE HISTORY OF PLANET EARTH How do people reconstruct and date events in Earth’s planetary history? Earth scientists use the structure, sequence, and properties of rocks, sediments, and fossils, as well as the locations of current and past ocean basins, lakes, and rivers, to reconstruct events in Earth’s planetary history. For example, rock layers show the sequence of geological events, and the presence and amount of radioactive elements in rocks make it possible to determine their ages. Analyses of rock formations and the fossil record are used to establish relative ages. In an undisturbed column of rock, the youngest rocks are at the top, and the oldest are at the bottom. Rock layers have sometimes been rearranged by tectonic forces; rearrangements can be seen or inferred, such as from inverted sequences of fossil types. Core samples obtained from drilling reveal that the continents’ rocks (some as old as 4 billion years or more) are much older than rocks on the ocean floor (less than 200 million years), where tectonic processes continually generate new rocks and destroy old ones. The rock record reveals that events on Earth can be catastrophic, occurring over hours to years, or gradual, occurring over thousands to millions of years. Records of fossils and other rocks also show past periods of massive extinctions and extensive volcanic activity. Although active geological processes, such as plate tectonics (link to ESS2.B) and erosion, have destroyed or altered most of the very early rock record on Earth, some other objects in the solar system, such as asteroids and meteorites, have changed little over billions of years. Studying these objects can help scientists deduce the solar system’s age and history, including the formation of planet Earth. Study of other planets and their moons, many of which exhibit such features as volcanism and meteor impacts similar to those found on Earth, also help illuminate aspects of Earth’s history and changes. The geological time scale organizes Earth’s history into the increasingly long time intervals of eras, periods, and epochs. Major historical events include the formation of mountain chains and ocean basins, volcanic activity, the evolution and extinction of living organisms, periods of massive glaciation, and development of watersheds and rivers. Because many individual plant and animal species existed during known time periods (e.g., dinosaurs), the location of certain types of fossils in the rock record can reveal the age of the rocks and help geologists decipher the history of landforms. Grade Band Endpoints for ESS1.C By the end of grade 2. Some events on Earth occur in cycles, like day and night, and others have a beginning and an end, like a volcanic eruption. Some events, like an earthquake, happen very quickly; others, such as the formation of the Grand Canyon, occur very slowly, over a time period much longer than one can observe. By the end of grade 5. Earth has changed over time. Understanding how landforms develop, are weathered (broken down into smaller pieces), and erode (get transported elsewhere) can help infer the history of the current landscape. Local, regional, and global patterns of rock formations reveal changes over time due to Earth forces, such as earthquakes. The presence and location of certain fossil types indicate the order in which rock layers were formed. Patterns of tree rings and ice cores from glaciers can help reconstruct Earth’s recent climate history. By the end of grade 8. The geological time scale interpreted from rock strata provides a way to organize Earth’s history. Major historical events include the formation of mountain chains and ocean basins, the evolution and extinction of particular living organisms, volcanic eruptions, periods of massive glaciation, and development of watersheds and rivers through glaciation and water erosion. Analyses of rock strata and the fossil record provide only relative dates, not an absolute scale. By the end of grade 12. Radioactive decay lifetimes and isotopic content in rocks provide a way of dating rock formations and thereby fixing the scale of geological time. Continental rocks, which can be older than 4 billion years, are generally much older than rocks on the ocean floor, which are less than 200 million years old. Tectonic processes continually generate new ocean seafloor at ridges and destroy old seafloor at trenches. Although active geological processes, such as plate tectonics (link to ESS2.B) and erosion, have destroyed or altered most of the very early rock record on Earth, other objects in the solar system, such as lunar rocks, asteroids, and meteorites, have changed little over billions of years. Studying these objects can provide information about Earth’s formation and early history.

LS4.A: EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTRY AND DIVERSITY What evidence shows that different species are related? Biological evolution, the process by which all living things have evolved over many generations from shared ancestors, explains both the unity and the diversity of species. The unity is illustrated by the similarities found between species; which can be explained by the inheritance of similar characteristics from related ancestors. The diversity of species is also consistent with common ancestry; it is explained by the branching and diversification of lineages as populations adapted, primarily through natural selection, to local circumstances. Evidence for common ancestry can be found in the fossil record, from comparative anatomy and embryology, from the similarities of cellular processes and structures, and from comparisons of DNA sequences between species. The understanding of evolutionary relationships has recently been greatly accelerated by using new molecular tools to study developmental biology, with researchers dissecting the genetic basis for some of the changes seen in the fossil record, as well as those that can be inferred to link living species (e.g., the armadillo) to their ancestors (e.g., glyptodonts, a kind of extinct gigantic armadillo). Grade Band Endpoints for LS4.A By the end of grade 2. Some kinds of plants and animals that once lived on Earth (e.g., dinosaurs) are no longer found anywhere, although others now living (e.g., lizards) resemble them in some ways. By the end of grade 5. Fossils provide evidence about the types of organisms (both visible and microscopic) that lived long ago and also about the nature of their environments. Fossils can be compared with one another and to living organisms according to their similarities and differences. By the end of grade 8. Fossils are mineral replacements, preserved remains, or traces of organisms that lived in the past. Thousands of layers of sedimentary rock not only provide evidence of the history of Earth itself but also of changes in organisms whose fossil remains have been found in those layers. The collection of fossils and their placement in chronological order (e.g., through the location of the sedimentary layers in which they are found or through radioactive dating) is known as the fossil record. It documents the existence, diversity, extinction, and change of many life forms throughout the history of life on Earth. Because of the conditions necessary for their preservation, not all types of organisms that existed in the past have left fossils that can be retrieved. Anatomical similarities and differences between various organisms living today and between them and organisms in the fossil record enable the reconstruction of evolutionary history and the inference of lines of evolutionary descent. Comparison of the embryological development of different species also reveals similarities that show relationships not evident in the fully formed anatomy. By the end of grade 12. Genetic information, like the fossil record, also provides evidence of evolution. DNA sequences vary among species, but there are many overlaps; in fact, the ongoing branching that produces multiple lines of descent can be inferred by comparing the DNA sequences of different organisms. Such information is also derivable from the similarities and differences in amino acid sequences and from anatomical and embryological evidence.

Science for All Americans: PROCESSES THAT SHAPE THE EARTH The interior of the earth is hot, under high pressure from the weight of overlying layers, and more dense than its rocky crust. Forces within the earth cause continual changes on its surface. The solid crust of the earth—including both the continents and ocean basins—consists of separate sections that overlie a hot, almost molten layer. The separate crustal plates move on this softer layer—as much as an inch or more per year—colliding in some places, pulling apart in others. Where the crustal plates collide, they may scrape sideways, or compress the land into folds that eventually become mountain ranges (such as the Rocky Mountains and the Himalayas); or one plate may slide under the other and sink deeper into the earth. Along the boundaries between colliding plates, earthquakes shake and break the surface, and volcanic eruptions release molten rock from below, also building up mountains. Where plates separate under continents, the land sinks to form ever-widening valleys. When separation occurs in the thin regions of plates that underlie ocean basins, molten rock wells up to create ever-wider ocean floors. Volcanic activity along these mid-ocean separations may build up undersea mountains that are far higher than those rising from the land surface—sometimes thrusting above the water's surface to create mid-ocean islands. Waves, wind, water, and ice sculpt the earth's surface to produce distinctive landforms. Rivers and glacial ice carry off soil and break down rock, eventually depositing the material in sediments or carrying it in solution to the sea. Some of these effects occur rapidly and others very slowly. For instance, many of the features of the earth's surface today can be traced to the motion of glaciers back and forth across much of the northern hemisphere over a period lasting more than a million years. By contrast, the shoreline can change almost overnight—as waves erode the shores, and wind carries off loose surface material and deposits it elsewhere. Elements such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur cycle slowly through the land, oceans, and atmosphere, changing their locations and chemical combinations. Minerals are made, dissolved, and remade—on the earth's surface, in the oceans, and in the hot, high-pressure layers beneath the crust. Sediments of sand and shells of dead organisms are gradually buried, cemented together by dissolved minerals, and eventually turned into solid rock again. Sedimentary rock buried deep enough may be changed by pressure and heat, perhaps melting and recrystallizing into different kinds of rock. Buried rock layers may be forced up again to become land surface and eventually even mountains. Thousands upon thousands of layers of sedimentary rock testify to the long history of the earth, and to the long history of changing life forms whose remains are found in successive layers of rock. Plants and animals reshape the landscape in many ways. The composition and texture of the soil, and consequently its fertility and resistance to erosion, are greatly influenced by plant roots and debris, bacteria, and fungi that add organic material to the soil, and by insects, worms, and burrowing animals that break it up. The presence of life has also altered the earth's atmosphere. Plants remove carbon dioxide from the air, use the carbon for synthesizing sugars, and release oxygen. This process is responsible for the oxygen in our air today. The landforms, climate, and resources of the earth's surface affect where and how people live and how human history has unfolded. At the same time, human activities have changed the earth's land surface, oceans, and atmosphere. For instance, reducing the amount of forest cover on the earth's surface has led to a dramatic increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which in turn may be leading to increased average temperature of the earth's atmosphere and surface. Smoke and other substances from human activity interact chemically with the atmosphere and produce undesirable effects such as smog, acid rain, and perhaps an increase in the damaging ultraviolet radiation that penetrates the atmosphere. Intensive farming has stripped land of vegetation and topsoil, creating virtual deserts in some parts of the world.

EVOLUTION OF LIFE The earth's present-day life forms appear to have evolved from common ancestors reaching back to the simplest one-cell organisms almost four billion years ago. Modern ideas of evolution provide a scientific explanation for three main sets of observable facts about life on earth: the enormous number of different life forms we see about us, the systematic similarities in anatomy and molecular chemistry we see within that diversity, and the sequence of changes in fossils found in successive layers of rock that have been formed over more than a billion years. Since the beginning of the fossil record, many new life forms have appeared, and most old forms have disappeared. The many traceable sequences of changing anatomical forms, inferred from ages of rock layers, convince scientists that the accumulation of differences from one generation to the next has led eventually to species as different from one another as bacteria are from elephants. The molecular evidence substantiates the anatomical evidence from fossils and provides additional detail about the sequence in which various lines of descent branched off from one another. Although details of the history of life on earth are still being pieced together from the combined geological, anatomical, and molecular evidence, the main features of that history are generally agreed upon. At the very beginning, simple molecules may have formed complex molecules that eventually formed into cells capable of self-replication. Life on earth has existed for three billion years. Prior to that, simple molecules may have formed complex organic molecules that eventually formed into cells capable of self-replication. During the first two billion years of life, only microorganisms existed—some of them apparently quite similar to bacteria and algae that exist today. With the development of cells with nuclei about a billion years ago, there was a great increase in the rate of evolution of increasingly complex, multicelled organisms. The rate of evolution of new species has been uneven since then, perhaps reflecting the varying rates of change in the physical environment. A central concept of the theory of evolution is natural selection, which arises from three well-established observations: (1) There is some variation in heritable characteristics within every species of organism, (2) some of these characteristics will give individuals an advantage over others in surviving to maturity and reproducing, and (3) those individuals will be likely to have more offspring, which will themselves be more likely than others to survive and reproduce. The likely result is that over successive generations, the proportion of individuals that have inherited advantage-giving characteristics will tend to increase. Selectable characteristics can include details of biochemistry, such as the molecular structure of hormones or digestive enzymes, and anatomical features that are ultimately produced in the development of the organism, such as bone size or fur length. They can also include more subtle features determined by anatomy, such as acuity of vision or pumping efficiency of the heart. By biochemical or anatomical means, selectable characteristics may also influence behavior, such as weaving a certain shape of web, preferring certain characteristics in a mate, or being disposed to care for offspring. New heritable characteristics can result from new combinations of parents' genes or from mutations of them. Except for mutation of the DNA in an organism's sex cells, the characteristics that result from occurrences during the organism's lifetime cannot be biologically passed on to the next generation. Thus, for example, changes in an individual caused by use or disuse of a structure or function, or by changes in its environment, cannot be promulgated by natural selection. By its very nature, natural selection is likely to lead to organisms with characteristics that are well adapted to survival in particular environments. Yet chance alone, especially in small populations, can result in the spread of inherited characteristics that have no inherent survival or reproductive advantage or disadvantage. Moreover, when an environment changes (in this sense, other organisms are also part of the environment), the advantage or disadvantage of characteristics can change. So natural selection does not necessarily result in long-term progress in a set direction. Evolution builds on what already exists, so the more variety that already exists, the more there can be. The continuing operation of natural selection on new characteristics and in changing environments, over and over again for millions of years, has produced a succession of diverse new species. Evolution is not a ladder in which the lower forms are all replaced by superior forms, with humans finally emerging at the top as the most advanced species. Rather, it is like a bush: Many branches emerged long ago; some of those branches have died out; some have survived with apparently little or no change over time; and some have repeatedly branched, sometimes giving rise to more complex organisms. The modern concept of evolution provides a unifying principle for understanding the history of life on earth, relationships among all living things, and the dependence of life on the physical environment. While it is still far from clear how evolution works in every detail, the concept is so well established that it provides a framework for organizing most of biological knowledge into a coherent picture.

Benchmarks for Science Literacy: Processes that shape the earth Students should learn what causes earthquakes, volcanos, and floods and how those events shape the surface of the earth. Students, however, may show more interest in the phenomena than in the role the phenomena play in sculpting the earth. So teachers should start with students' immediate interests and work toward the science. Students may find it harder to take seriously the less-obvious, less-dramatic, long-term effects of erosion by wind and water, annual deposits of sediment, the creep of continents, and the rise of mountains. Students' recognition of those effects will depend on an improving sense of long time periods and familiarity with the effect of multiplying tiny fractions by very large numbers (in this case, slow rates by long times). Students can start in the early grades with the ways in which organisms, themselves included, modify their surroundings. As people have used earth resources, they have altered some earth systems. Students can gradually come to recognize how human behavior affects the earth's capacity to sustain life. Questions of environmental policy should be pursued when students become interested in them, usually in the middle grades or later, but care should be taken not to bypass science for advocacy. Critical thinking based on scientific concepts and understanding is the primary goal for science education. K-2 Teaching geological facts about how the face of the earth changes serves little purpose in these early years. Students should start becoming familiar with all aspects of their immediate surroundings, including what things change and what seems to cause change. Perhaps "changing things" can be a category in a class portfolio of things students observe and read about. At some point, students can start thinking up and trying out safe and helpful ways to change parts of their environment. By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that  Chunks of rocks come in many sizes and shapes, from boulders to grains of sand and even smaller. 4C/P1  Change is something that happens to many things. 4C/P2  Animals and plants sometimes cause changes in their surroundings. 4C/P3 3-5 In these years, students should accumulate more information about the physical environment, becoming familiar with the details of geological features, observing and mapping locations of hills, valleys, rivers, etc., but without elaborate classification. Students should also become adept at using magnifiers to inspect a variety of rocks and soils. The point is not to classify rigorously but to notice the variety of components. Students should now observe elementary processes of the rock cycle—erosion, transport, and deposit. Water and sand boxes and rock tumblers can provide them with some firsthand examples. Later, they can connect the features to the processes and follow explanations of how the features came to be and still are changing. Students can build devices for demonstrating how wind and water shape the land and how forces on materials can make wrinkles, folds, and faults. Films of volcanic magma and ash ejection dramatize another source of buildup. By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that  Waves, wind, water, and ice shape and reshape the earth's land surface by eroding rock and soil in some areas and depositing them in other areas, sometimes in seasonal layers. 4C/E1  Rock is composed of different combinations of minerals. Smaller rocks come from the breakage and weathering of bedrock and larger rocks. Soil is made partly from weathered rock, partly from plant remains—and also contains many living organisms. 4C/E2

EVOLUTION of LIFE In the twentieth century, no scientific theory has been more difficult for people to accept than biological evolution by natural selection. It goes against some people's strongly held beliefs about when and how the world and the living things in it were created. It hints that human beings had lesser creatures as ancestors, and it flies in the face of what people can plainly see—namely that generation after generation, life forms don't change; roses stay roses, worms stay worms. New traits arising by chance alone is a strange idea, unsatisfying to many and offensive to some. And its broad applicability is not appreciated by students, most of whom know little of the vast amount of biological knowledge that evolution by natural selection attempts to explain. It is important to distinguish between evolution, the historical changes in life forms that are well substantiated and generally accepted as fact by scientists, and natural selection, the proposed mechanism for these changes. Students should first be familiar with the evidence of evolution so that they will have an informed basis for judging different explanations. This familiarity depends on knowledge from the life and physical sciences: knowledge of phenomena occurring at several different levels of biological organization and over very long time spans, and of how fossils form and how their ages are determined. Students may very well wonder why the fossil record has so many seeming holes in it. If so, the opportunity should be seized to show the value of mathematics. The probability of specimens of any species of organisms surviving is small—soft body parts are eaten or decomposed, and hard parts are crushed or dissolved. The probability of finding a specimen is small because most are buried or otherwise inexcavable. Mathematics holds that the probability of acquiring a specimen of an extinct species is extremely small—the product of the two probabilities. Before natural selection is proposed as a mechanism for evolution, students must recognize the diversity and apparent relatedness of species. Students take years to acquire sufficient knowledge of living organisms and the fossil record. Natural selection should be offered as an explanation for familiar phenomena and then revisited as new phenomena are explored. To appreciate how natural selection can account for evolution, students have to understand the important distinction between the selection of an individual with a certain trait and the changing proportions of that trait in populations. Their being able to grasp this distinction requires some understanding of the mathematics of proportions and opportunities for them to reflect on the individual-versus-population distinction in other contexts. Controversy is an important aspect of the scientific process. Students should realize that although virtually all scientists accept the general concept of evolution of species, scientists do have different opinions on how fast and by what mechanisms evolution proceeds. A separate issue altogether is how life itself began, a detailed mechanism for which has not yet emerged. K-2 Students should begin to build a knowledge base about biological diversity. Student curiosity about fossils and dinosaurs can be harnessed to consider life forms that no longer exist. But the distinction between extinct creatures and those that still live elsewhere will not be clear for some time. "Long ago" has very limited meaning at this age level. Even as students make observations of organisms in their own environments, they can extend their experiences with other environments through film. By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that  Individuals of the same kind differ in their characteristics, and sometimes the differences give individuals an advantage in surviving and reproducing. 5F/E1  Fossils can be compared to one another and to living organisms according to their similarities and differences. Some organisms that lived long ago are similar to existing organisms, but some are quite different. 5F/E2 3-5 Students can begin to look for ways in which organisms in one habitat differ from those in another and consider how some of those differences are helpful to survival. The focus should be on the consequences of different features of organisms for their survival and reproduction. The study of fossils that preserve plant and animal structures is one approach to looking at characteristics of organisms. Evidence for the similarity within diversity of existing organisms can draw upon students' expanding knowledge of anatomical similarities and differences. By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that  Individuals of the same kind differ in their characteristics, and sometimes the differences give individuals an advantage in surviving and reproducing. 5F/E1  Fossils can be compared to one another and to living organisms according to their similarities and differences. Some organisms that lived long ago are similar to existing organisms, but some are quite different. 5F/E2

Big Ideas: The surface of the Earth and the organisms that inhabit it are constantly changing. (Stability and Change) Changes in the surface of the Earth provide evidence of the history of the Earth. (Cause and Effect) Fossils provide evidence of the history of the Earth and the organisms that inhabit it. (Cause and Effect)

Essential Questions: What can we learn about the Earth and its history by studying fossils? How can we use fossils to learn about organisms that can no longer be observed alive? What does fossil evidence tell us about the way the environment around the fossil has changed over time? Where can we usually find fossils, and why are they located there? What types of events change the Earth’s surface slowly, over time? What types of events change the Earth’s surface very quickly? Enduring Understandings: Fossils provide a record of previous life and environmental conditions on Earth. Fossils can form only where the remains or other traces of living things are preserved from the normal processes of decay and disintegration. The formation of fossils is a constant, natural process. Fossils provide evidence that environments of the past were quite different from what is observed today. Many different types of events can change the Earth’s surface. Some changes are too small to see; others are of large magnitude. The surface of the Earth is being worn down and reshaped by the action of water, ice, and wind. Earth’s surface is being built up by mountain building due to volcanoes and earthquakes (faulting, tectonic motion).

Identify Misconceptions: Misconception: Fossils are pieces of dead animals and plants. Fact: Fossils are not actually pieces of dead animals and plants. They are only the impression or cast of the original living thing. The actual living parts decay away but their shape is permanently recorded in the rock as it hardens. Misconception: Fossils of tropical plants cannot be found in deserts. Fact: Fossils record ancient environments present at the time the rocks were deposited. The climate of a particular location can change because of a combination of 3 important factors: 1) Plate tectonics may cause land to move across much of the globe -- points that were once at the tropics may have moved to high latitude regions where the climate is dry. This motion can be tracked using magnetic signatures recorded in the rocks. Uplift from plate collisions can also raise areas from the bottom of the ocean up above beaches and to high mountains -- all different local climate zones; 2) The entire climate of the planet shifts. The planet has gone through wet and dry, hot and cold periods where the entire planet was different than it is now. Isotopic signatures in rocks record these changes; 3) Human accelerated climate change. Humans have impacted the local climatic conditions of small areas for several thousand years through agricultural practices. Deforestation and irrigation can cause dramatic local changes. Today, humans are causing changes through greenhouse gas emissions that may be big enough to change the entire global climate. Misconception: Fossils only represent bones and shells of extinct animals. Soft tissue can never be fossilized. Misconception: Earth’s regions are static, do not change, and are not vulnerable to change. Misconceptions about Weathering and Erosion Students may hold many misconceptions about erosion, including:  Rocks do not change.  Weathering and erosion are essentially the same thing. The two words can be used interchangeably.  Erosion happens quickly.  Erosion is always bad. Students tend to view the earth as static, stable, and unchanging. They often have difficulty believing that rocks can change or be worn down through the process of weathering. Students also tend to confuse weathering (the physical or chemical breakdown of rock) with erosion (the process of transporting sediments). Even once students understand the concepts of weathering and erosion, they tend to have difficulty conceptualizing the long time frames needed for these processes to occur. Many science lessons focus on the negative aspects of erosion (soil loss, ecosystem destruction, sediment buildup in water sources) and lead students to believe that erosion is always bad. However, teachers should stress that erosion does have positive aspects as well. Delta areas, like the Mississippi and the Nile, were created by the deposition of eroded sediments carried downriver. Without erosion, these rich, fertile farming areas would not exist. Students may have the misconception that landslides can only be caused by human impact, but this is not the case, as natural factors (earthquakes, forest fires, floods after droughts, and volcanic eruptions) can also cause landslides. Misconceptions about Volcanoes  Volcanoes are randomly located across the earth’s surface.  Volcanoes are found only on land.  Volcanoes are found only in hot climates.  All volcanoes erupt violently.  Volcanoes only erupt straight up through the top vent.  If a volcano doesn’t erupt for a hundred years, it’s extinct.  If a volcano does not produce lava, it is not dangerous. Elementary students may believe that volcanoes are randomly scattered across the earth, when the majority are located along tectonic plate boundaries. “Ring of Fire” is the name given to an area along the border of the Pacific Plate with a high concentration of volcanoes. The Pacific Northwest, Alaska’s Aleutian Islands, and Japan are all located in the Ring of Fire. Volcanoes are found on land and under the ocean’s surface, as well as in areas with cold climates (like Antarctica). Students may also believe that all volcanic eruptions are violent, but many are not. The levels of silica and dissolved gases in the magma determine whether a volcano erupts explosively or effusively. Magma and gas may escape through cracks and weak areas on the sides of the volcano in addition to the top vent. Baking soda and vinegar models, a staple of elementary school science, do not accurately model an eruption and could lead to the formation of misconceptions. Students may also not understand that volcanoes can be inactive for long periods without being considered extinct. When volcanoes no longer have a lava supply, they are extinct, but it can be quite difficult for scientists to know if and when this is the case. For example, scientists are fairly certain that volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands chain are extinct. Mount Vesuvius in Italy was believed to be extinct before erupting violently. The lifespan of a volcano can be measured in millions of years, so a volcano that has not erupted in thousands of years would most likely be classified as dormant, rather than extinct. Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park hasn’t erupted violently for approximately 640,000 years, but has had minor activity much more recently. Scientists thus do not consider Yellowstone Caldera to be extinct, but dormant. Finally, students may believe that volcanoes are only dangerous due to lava flows. In reality, pyroclastic flows, ash clouds, and mudflows can be extremely hazardous. Deadly mudflows (lahars) have occurred recently in Colombia and the Philippines, and the eruption of Mount St. Helens produced an ash cloud and landslides of ice, mud, and rock. Misconceptions about Earthquakes  Earthquakes happen randomly across the earth’s surface.  The ground opens up during an earthquake. As with volcanoes, students may believe that earthquakes happen in random locations across the earth. Most of the world’s seismic activity is associated with tectonic plate boundaries and fault lines. While shallow crevasses may form during an earthquake due to landslides or ground failures, the ground does not “open up” along a fault line. If a fault opened up, there would be no friction and no earthquake!

Instructional Resources: Fossil Unit - Beyond Penguins and Polar Bears An effective unit on fossils involves developing concepts in a logical and sequential manner. Students should first understand what a fossil is, the differences between fossils and other natural objects, and that not all plants and animals become fossilized. Next, students learn about the various types of fossils and model the process of fossilization. Finally, students can model the excavation process and use fossils to make inferences about past environments. http://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/issue/learning-from-the-polar-past/learning-about-fossils-through-hands-on- science-and-literacy Compare and Contrast Fossils Students observe and describe fossil samples. http://classroomsol.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/2/0/1120439/fossil_lesson.pdf i4c comparing fossils resources http://www.internet4classrooms.com/grade_level_help/life_science_compare_fossils_second_2nd_grade_scienc e.htm Earth’s Living History 5E lesson A 5 E unit exploring fossils. http://www.ccsoh.us/Downloads/4LS2_No%20Bones%20About%20It.pdf Fossil Formation A fun activity that illustrates how fossils are formed. http://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/fossil-formation Discovering Fossils Students will explore the process used by paleontologists. http://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/discovering-fossils Mud Fossils Students will observe real fossils in this activity. Modify this activity to address the clarifying objective by asking students to compare the fossils, adapting guiding questions accordingly. http://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/mud-fossils

Surface of the Earth Learn more about Earth’s dramatic landforms. http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/ Watch out for landslides Students learn how slope and earth materials are connected to landslides. http://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/watch-out-landslides The Slope of Land Students learn how communities control slope in land development. http://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/slope-land-your-community Coastal Erosion Poster http://water.usgs.gov/outreach/Posters/coastal_hazards/images/CoastalhazGrade_BW.jpg Rock Abrasion In this activity, students observe weathering. http://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities/rock-abrasion The Changing Earth This unit, developed in conjunction with WestEd, focuses on Earth’s continuous process of change. Some portions of it are well-aligned to the NCSCOS. http://sbsciencematters.com/lesson-units/4th-grade/4earth-the-changing-earth/ Weathering and Erosion This unit, developed in conjunction with WestEd, focuses on Earth’s continuous process of change. Some portions of it can be adapted for use. http://sbsciencematters.com/lesson-units/6th-grade/6th-earth-science-weathering-erosion/ Earthquakes and Volcanoes Parts of this unit can be adapted for use. http://sbsciencematters.com/lesson-units/6th-grade/6earth-earthquakesvolcanoes/ USGS Volcano Education http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vhp/edu_resources.html Map of Volcano Activity http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/index.html Volcanoes! Volcanoes is an interdisciplinary set of materials for grades 4-8. Through the story of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, students will answer fundamental questions about volcanoes. http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb//pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes/ Earthquakes for Kids http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/

Online Interactives: http://www.mylearning.org/fossils-game/interactive/2402/ http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/interactives/dig/dinodig.html http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/scienceforkids/dinosaurs/fossil_study.htm http://www.amnh.org/ology/features/layersoftime/ http://www.ngkids.co.uk/games/dinosaurCove http://www.e-learningforkids.org/science/lesson/exploracion-de-fosiles/ http://www.fossilsforkids.com/Cool_Links.html http://discoverykids.com/games/volcano-explorer/ http://interactivesites.weebly.com/volcanoes.html http://www.alaskamuseum.org/education/volcano http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/kidsLearningLinks.php http://www.dropcoverholdon.org/beatthequake/game/ http://www.wartgames.com/themes/science/earthquakes.html Video Resources: Mr. Mejia’s paleontology videos http://www.psd1.org/Page/4324 http://www.planet-science.com/categories/under-11s/our-world/2011/10/what-makes-fossils.aspx http://studyjams.scholastic.com/studyjams/jams/science/rocks-minerals-landforms/weathering-and-erosion.htm http://studyjams.scholastic.com/studyjams/jams/science/rocks-minerals-landforms/volcanoes.htm http://studyjams.scholastic.com/studyjams/jams/science/rocks-minerals-landforms/earthquakes.htm http://www.teachertube.com/video/how-fossils-are-formed-107671?utm_source=video- google&utm_medium=video-view&utm_term=video&utm_content=video-page&utm_campaign=video-view- page Text Resources: http://www.ducksters.com/science/earth_science/erosion.php http://www.ducksters.com/science/volcanoes.php http://www.ducksters.com/science/earthquakes.php http://www.ducksters.com/science/earth_science/fossils.php

Terminology: fossil mold fossil cast fossil imprint trace fossil organism prehistoric preserved paleontologist extinct decay resin erosion weathering avalanche uplift crust earthquake volcano shield volcano composite volcano cinder cone volcano seismology volcanology landform sedimentary metamorphic igneous

Writing Prompts: 1) Study a real fossil or a picture of a real fossil. Write about it. -What is it? Where did it come from? What can it tell us? 2) Give each student a clam or oyster shell. Ask them to imagine that scientists 10,000 years from now find a fossil of a clam or oyster. What would they learn about us from looking at the clam or oyster? 3) Imagine you have a chance to interview a scientist who studies dinosaur fossils. Write three questions you would ask. Then perform research and use your notes from the unit to answer the questions. 4) Create a pamphlet to inform people about the different types of volcanoes and volcano safety. 5) Read several of the earthquake poems found here http://hellopoetry.com/words/980/earthquake/poems/ Write a haiku devoted to the one you like the most and explain why (in the haiku).