CHP. 16- 16Th Century Painting in Northern Europe

[CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 1

Northern Renaissance The Italian renaissance eventually spread throughout Europe, emerging in a movement known as the northern renaissnance Although the orthern European artists were inspired by the Italian renaissance artists, they didn’t base their new developments on the rediscovery of Greco-Roman ideals Instead, they broke away from the gothic style by looking at nature and painting it as it appeared. In a very detailed VERY realistic. Lacking classical sculpture to teach them idealistic proportions, the northern European artists painted such as faithful likenesses of their subjects, that Charles VI of France, it’s said,, sent one of these artists to 3 differnet coursts to paint portraits of prospective brides, and based on the slection of his new wife solely on the portraits. Slide the Annunciation from the merode alterapiece Robert Campin the Master of female It was the artists from the Netherlands, painting in the Flemish mstyle who were considered the best painters of the Northern Renaissance This panel, painted by Robert Campin, exemplifies the styl and technique of those revered Northern Renaissance artists While Italian artists experimented with painting oil on canvas, th northern Renaissance artists preferred to work on wood panels, creating works ranging from small portraits to large alterpieces Sometimes, they would actually glue fine linen over gessoed wood panels as a ground fot their paintings The Merode aLAterpeice is a little over 2 feet tall and 4 feeet long when the wings are open. Rather than beign true to life according to the biblical description in his depiction of this scene, campin painted the Virgin Mary in a contemporary Flemish home, and incorporated common religious symbols as elements of the Annunicaiton imagery. For example, the lilies on the table symbolize Mary’s virginity, while hangthe hanging water pot and white towel symbolize her purity and her role as the vessel for the incarnation of Christ. Most of the paintings of the ANnuniciation portray the angel Gabriel telling Mary that she will be the mother of Christ. This one, however, shows Mary in the moment immediately following her acceptance of her destiny. Some art historiansinterpret the rush of wind in this painting, which is ruffling the pages of the books snuffing the candel, as the impregnation of Mary by the Holy Spirit. In this interpretation, God assumes human form and is represented by the tiny figure in the upper left, descending on a ray of light, and carrying a cross. For a time, it was considered that thisnext apinting was done by Robert Campin, AKA the Master of Femalle Slide: St Luke Drawing the Virgin by Roggier van der Weyden 1440 It is fascinating that Rogier van der Weyden is one of themost mysterious figures from the Northern Renaissance. We’ve pieced together a biography of this artist from various sources, but we have never foundan existing work that actually bears the name of Rogier van der Weyden. For a time, when Robert Camoin was called the Master of Femalle, it was thought that he and Rogier van der Weyden ewre oneand the same. More recently though, it is believed that van der Weyden studied under Campin, which explains the similarity of the painting styles. Another great altarpiece from the Northern Renaissance is the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grunewald. Isenheim Altar piece by Matthias Grunevald 1510-1515 Scholars and critics consider this sublime work by Grunevald on a par with the Mona Lisa and the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. Grunwald painted the panels of this altarpiece in the chapel of a hospital and monastery. The hospital was set up to treat those with St. Anthony’s Fire, or ergotism, a disease caused by the poison of a fungus that clung to rye, and was inadvertently ground into flour used to make rye bread. Ergotism causes painful eruptions accompanied by nervous spasms and convulsions. Victims often had to have limbs amputated and many who suffered from this disease died. This altrpiec played a psychological and mystical role in the treatment program at the hospital by glorifying Christ’s suffering in a trerrifying crucificxion scene, the painting offered comfort to those afflicted with the horrible, painful disease. Wedding Dance- Pieter Bruegel 1566 Pieter Bruegel is another famous Northern Renaissance artist. But unlike most others of the time, Bruegel chose peasant life life as his primarysubject matter His paintings, while insightful portraits of peasants, always had a sataric edge, often visible in the eating and drinking scenes in which peasants indulge with gluttonous absorption. Bruegel’s work is known as genre painting, which refers to the painting of scenes of everyday life. The following chart, compiles by Carol Strickland, summarizes the differences between Italian and Northern Renaissance art. Italian Renaissance Northern Renaissance Specialty Ideal Beauty Intense realism Style Simplified forms, measured Lifelike features, unflatering honesty proportions Subject Religious an mythological scenes Religious and domestic scenes Figures Heroic male nudes Prosperous citizens, peasants Portraits Formal, reserved Reveal individual personality Technique Fresco, tempera, and oil painintgs Oil paintings on wood panels Emphasis Underlying anatomical structure Visible appearance Basis of Art Theory Observation Composition Static, balanced Complex, irregular Chart compiled by Carol Strickland

Hieronymous Bosch, 1450-1516 Garden of Earthly Delights, c. 1505-10, triptych, oil on wood, 12' long (open) -Heaven on right panel, Hell on left panel -center panel is full of images about earthly pleasures -moralistic triptych, that comments on sin -fantastic, surreal images -Bosch was unique in his time

Pieter Brueghel the Elder, 1525-69 The Peasant Dance, c. 1567, oil on wood, 3'9"x 5'5" -people overindulge in the presence of religious icons -genre scene (everyday life) Hunters in the Snow

Albrecht Durer, (1471-1528) Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, c. 1497-8, woodcut, 15"x 11" -symbolic composition -linear qualities -print printmaking-is a process where an artist creates images that are transferred to another surface after they are prepared. Two kinds of printmaking are mentioned in the text: woodcut, which is the carving of a wood block and then inking the raised surface left behind, and engraving, which is the carving of metal plates in which the carved out areas become the part which holds ink and when printed.

Matthias Grunewald, (d. 1528) -did the Eisenheim Altarpiece which is characterized by the great amount of emotional and evocative painting. The exterior of the altarpiece depicts the Crucifixion of Christ and the interior the Resurrection.

Hans Holbein the Younger, (1497-1543) The Ambassadors, oil on panel -uses anamorphic projection for skull on lower section of painting. [CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 3 Northern Renaissance Began circa 1500 Included Netherlands, Germany, France, Spain, England The Italian renaissance eventually spread throughout Europe, emerging in a movement known as the northern renaissance Although the northern European artists were inspired by the Italian renaissance artists, they didn’t base their new developments on the rediscovery of Greco-Roman ideals Instead, they broke away from the gothic style by looking at nature and painting it as it appeared. In a very detailed VERY realistic. Lacking classical sculpture to teach them idealistic proportions, the northern European artists painted such as faithful likenesses of their subjects, that Charles VI of France, it’s said, sent one of these artists to 3 different courts to paint portraits of prospective brides, and based on the selection of his new wife solely on the portraits. The Netherlands “During the sixteenth century the Italian manner continued to influence the direction of northern art, though in many different ways. It was also during this period that the influence of the German painters grew, while that of the Flemish painters waned.” Most important artist:  Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450-1516) Flanders: Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569). Germany Important Artists:  Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)  Albrecht Altodorfer (1480-1538)  Matthias Grünewald (1510-1515)  Lucas Cranach the Elder  Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) Part --: Unit Exam Essay Questions (from previous Art 261 tests) (from AAT4)  Characterize the difference in styles between High Renaissance painting in Italy and 16th-century painting in Northern Europe. How do the contexts differ?  Characterize the styles of Dürer and Leonardo. How are they similar? What are the differences? To what do you attribute the similarities and differences?  Discuss the unusual iconography of the Garden of Earthly Delights. What are some of the possible sources? What is its context and message?  Cite five Netherlandish proverbs and explain how they are illustrated by Bruegel.  Describe how an engraving is made and discuss the historical development of this medium. Learning Goals (AAT4) After reading Chapter 16, you should be able to do the following:  Identify the works and define the terms featured in this chapter  Label a map of northern and central Europe in the Renaissance  Discuss the iconography of Bosch's paintings  Analyze Bruegel's integration of classical humanism and Christian moralizing  Trace the development of printmaking  Apply the myth of the mad or melancholy artist to artists in chapters 15 and 16  Compare the sixteenth-century painting styles of Germany and Italy  Discuss Martin Luther in relation to Pope Julius II Chapter Outline (AAT4) 16th-CENTURY PAINTING AND PRINTMAKING IN NORTHERN EUROPE Martin Luther's 95 Theses (1517) Satire and proverbs: Erasmus (Praise of Folly and Adages); Printmaking; the myth of the mad artist Netherlandish artists: Bosch; van Hemessen; Massys; Bruegel the Elder German artists: Dürer; Grünewald; von Hagenau; Cranach the Elder; Hans Holbein the Younger at the court of Henry VIII Van Mander: Het Schilderboeck (The Painter's Book) (1604) Summary and Study Guide Define or identify the following terms: AAT4 Key Terms burin a metal tool with a sharp point to incise designs on pottery and etching plates, for example. edition a batch of prints made from a single plate or print form. engraving (a) the process of incising an image on a hard material, such as wood, stone, or a copper plate; (b) a print or impression made by such a process. genre a category of art representing scenes of everyday life. intaglio a printmaking process in which lines are incised into the surface of a plate or print form (e.g., engraving and etching). plate (a) in engraving and etching, a flat piece of metal into which the image to be printed is cut; (b) in photography, a sheet of glass, metal, etc., coated with a light-sensitive emulsion. print a work of art produced by one of the printmaking processes—engraving, etching, and woodcut. print matrix an image-bearing surface to which ink is applied before a print is taken from it. woodcut a relief printmaking process in which an image is carved on the surface of a wooden block by cutting away those parts that are not to be printed. Chronology 1525-1569 Pieter Bruegel the Elder” “1526 Durer: The Four Apostles 1529 Altodorfer: The Battle of Issus” “1533 Holbein the Younger: The French Ambassadors” “1540 Holbein the Younger: henry VIII” “1565 Bruegel the Elder: Hunters in the Snow” “1565 Bruegel the Elder: Peasant Wedding” “1568 Bruegel the Elder: Peasant Dance” “The Gothic style that Italy would follow for only a brief time remained dominant in the north until the fifteenth century in painting and sculp¬ture and into the sixteenth century in architecture. This was in part due to the Classical heritage that the northern Europeans lacked, but that the Italians possessed and returned to in their development of later styles. Though Titian may have been instrumental in the mastery and adoption of the medium of oil paint in Italy, it was the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck who is credited with developing the medium one hundred years earlier. Whereas the colorists of the south painted with contrast¬ing values of light and dark, brash color, and a nonglazed surface to realize the structure of their subjects, the painters of the north worked with saturated colors and glazed surface while focusing their attention upon the way light affected the appearance of things.” “The innovations of the Italian Renaissance had far-reaching effects on the artistic development and evolution of the arts in the rest of Europe. In the north, the guild system exerted an even greater influence than it had in the south. The various crafts were maintained and regulated by the guilds. To gain entrance to the guilds, a requirement for practicing one's craft, one began, while still a youth, by working as an apprentice to a master. After mastering the various techniques of the craft and the style of the master, one was eligible to become a jour¬neyman, which provided the opportunity to work in a variety of settings with different masters. Finally, one could apply for membership within the guild, which would also act as agent in terms of the commissions one received.” “The Fifteenth Century” “Flanders” “Flanders, the region between western Belgium and northern France, was the home of many significant artists during this period.” [CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 5

“The van Eyck Brothers” “Among the Flanders artists was Jan van Eyck (c. 1390-1441), who with his brother Hubert van Eyck (c. 1370-1426) was responsible for one of the greatest works of the fifteenth century, the Ghent Altarpiece (1432). Trained in the art of miniature painting, the van Eycks applied all their talent in detail work and the craft of color use to their larger compositions. Though the arrangement of the panels has been changed since the time it was painted, the work remains a masterpiece. The altarpiece, which opens and closes, reflects the medieval attitude toward layers of truth and meaning that are hidden and must be sought after. When its doors are closed, the Annunciation is portrayed. Above the figures of the angel and Mary are those of Micah and the Cumaean sibyl and Zachariah and the Erythaean sibyl. Below, flanking statues of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, are figures representing the donors of the altarpiece, Jodoc Vyt and his wife. The architecture that serves as a backdrop to the angel and Mary possesses both Romanesque and Gothic qualities; the two figures, however, are out of proportion to their surroundings, reflecting the painters' lack of interest in relating the figures to their space.” “When the doors of the altarpiece are opened, the Redemption is depicted as a medieval image. On the lower level, the central panel shows a gathering of the saints, the Apostles, the minor prophets, and the Evangelists, as they move towards the altar of the Lamb. To either side, other groups representing the four cardinal virtues also converge. Above, on the upper level, God, portrayed in all his splendor, is flanked by Mary and St. John the Baptist; the far panels portray choirs of angels and Adam and Eve. The detail in these panels is exquisite, the saturation of color, captivating. Though the subject depicted is spiritual in nature,“its portrayal and representation arc realistic and natural, a contradiction that cannot but hold the attention of the viewer and inspire awe.” “Another painting that illustrates Jan van Eyck's skill in applying the art of the miniature to larger works is his Virgin with the Canon van der Paele (1436). Here again, van Eyck has differentiated the various surfaces through his use of exquisite color to create textures and contrasts. Though the color is brilliant, he is careful to keep it from overpowering the composition in terms of subject. The work also illustrates the artist's use of multiple perspective as a way to focus the viewer's attention upon the major subjects of the painting. His intent was not, like that of Italian painters, to create a sense of unified three-dimensional space but rather to arrange his figures upon a two¬dimensional surface through the use of color and shape. His subjects are rigidly poised, with little suggestion of movement or action.” “In 1434 Jan van Eyck did a portrait, Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, which is secular in subject matter but possesses the spiritual atmosphere of his other works. Additionally, as with his religious paintings, it is laden with symbolism, though here that symbolism is related to the institution of marriage. The two figures stand while holding hands, reliving their marriage vows. Their shoes, which they have taken off because their ceremony has made the room a holy place, lie on the floor; a small dog in the foreground represents the fidelity of marriage. Other symbolic images abound; the drawn curtains of the marriage bed, the bedpost where sits a statuette of the patron saint of childbirth, St. Margaret, and more.” “Rogier van der Weyden” “Rogier van der Weyden (1400-1464), known for his paintings of religious themes, did not focus upon the image as symbol, as did van Eyck, but rather upon the image as portrayer of emotion, often sorrow and anguish. His Escorial Deposition (1435) is such a painting. Here he limits the space within which the event takes place, thus concentrat¬ing the attention of the viewer on the characters.” “Petrus Christus” “It is not known whether Petrus Christus (1410-1472) actually spent time in Italy, but his depiction of space and treatment of the figure reflect the style popular in Italy during this period. Although critics have commented that he was influenced by both Jan van Eyck and Rogier” “van der Weyden, his work shows his interest in the underlying structure of his subjects rather than in their surface appearance. The three figures in Christus' painting The Legend of Saints Eligus and Godeberta (1449) illustrate this attention to form.” “Dirk Bouts and One-Point Perspective” “The first painting of this period in the north known to utilize one-point perspective in the depiction of interior space is The Last Supper (1464- 1468), the middle panel of the Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament, by Dirk Bouts (1415-1475). Here the projecting lines of the composition come together just above the head of Christ, the centrally placed figure in the painting, and the room within which the event takes place conveys a real sense of depth and volume. Unlike his predeces¬sors, Bouts also seems to have made some effort to adjust the propor¬tions of his figures to be more appropriate for the space within which he has placed them. There is little evidence to suggest that his depiction of space was based upon the Italian use of perspective; it seems likely that he developed the application on his own. The tone of Bouts' painting is rather static, which might also lead one to conclude that his intent was more to depict space in a particular fashion than to create an image that would overwhelm the viewer with its drama and emotion.” “Hieronymus Bosch” “Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450-1516) is probably best known for his triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights (1510-1515), a work whose symbolism and meaning are still debated, though it is likely that during the artist's time his visual allusions and metaphors were understood within the context of the culture. His imagery is both erotic and frighten¬ing. The panels depict a number of Old Testament and New Testament themes but in what many consider to be a rather bizarre fashion. In the left panel, Eve is portrayed as a temptress rather than as the mother of the human race. The central image depicts the foibles of humankind taking place within a surreal landscape; and the horrors of hell are graphically illustrated in the right panel.” “France” “Jean Fouquet” “In France, the work of the most prominent French painter of the” “fifteenth century, Jean Fouquet (1420-1481), was influenced by both Flemish and Italian painting, as seen in his painting Etienne Chevalier and St. Stephen (1450). Though the format of the composition is fairly standard fare for Flemish painting (the three-quarter view of the figures; the standing saint and the kneeling figure making an offering), the artist's attention to the underlying structure of the figures rather than the overt surfaces is distinctly Italian in style, as is his depiction of space through the use of architectural perspective. Another difference worth noting is the manner in which Fouquet has presented the two subjects of his painting. The distinction between saint and man is not so obvious in their manner of dress or appearance, narrowing the gap between this world and the next.” “Germany” “German painting of the fifteenth century was also influenced by the work of the Flemish painters. The integration of the Flemish style in Germany varied from the soft, ornate style of Stephan Lochner (1400¬1435), as seen in his Madonna in the Rose Garden (1430-1435), to the harsher manner of Conrad Witz's (1400-1447) The Miraculous Draught of Fish (1444).” “The Sixteenth Century” “Flanders” “During the sixteenth century the Italian manner continued to in¬fluence the direction of northern art, though in many different ways. It was also during this period that the influence of the German painters grew, while that of the Flemish painters waned.” “Pieter Bruegel the Elder” “That is not to say that there were no Flemish painters worth noting, for there were, especially Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569). Bruegel created landscapes that were more than simply places of human” “activity; they were subjects worthy of attention in their own right. This orientation may be seen in his Hunters in the Snow (1565), one of the paintings among a series he did portraying the months of the year. Here, though the attention of the viewer is upon the men returning from the hunt, their wives tending the fire, and the townspeople skating on frozen ponds, it is impossible to ignore the vast landscape.” “For his human subjects, Bruegel did not limit himself to one particular social stratum; in fact, he did many paintings of peasant life. The characters depicted in his Peasant Wedding (1565) may seem somewhat flat and unidimensional, but this plainness of treatment conveys a sense of simplicity and what life is like in the country. Though the subject is peasant life, the wedding is nonetheless treated in a solemn fashion. Similarly, his painting The Peasant Dance (1568) is alive with the energy of a country festival, while at the same time it serves as a social commentary in the way he has placed his characters (facing away from the town church), and in his placement of a picture of the Madonna (attached to a tree on the right).” “Germany” “Though some German artists, such as Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), went to Italy to study the art of the south, others were content to remain in Germany and learn of the Italian manner secondhand, incorporating into their own style those elements that appealed to them. Among the regional styles that developed in Germany was the Donaustil, or Danube, style, in which artists such as Albrecht Altodorfer (1480-1538) painted. The Donaustil represented a genre of landscape painting that emphasized 'feeling and emotion. Although the detail of Altodorfer's work tends to be similar to that of the miniaturists, his The Battle of Issus (1529) presents the viewer with an immense vista in which humans are portrayed as minute figures in the cosmos.” “Matthias Grunewald” “Mathis Niethardt, better known as Matthias Grunewald (c. 1480¬1528), represented the German equivalent of the Italian Renaissance man. During his life, he served as architect, engineer, and painter. Between 1510 and 1515 he painted the panels for the Isenheim Altar¬piece for the Monastery Church of the Order of St. Anthony at Isenheim. When the altarpiece is closed, the exposed panels depict the Crucifixion, but not in a manner that had been seen before. Grunewald's version represents one of the most unsettling versions of that subject ever created. The crucified Christ is portrayed in a dark landscape in all his agony, his body showing the effects of the abuse he has suffered. He seems to convulse in spasm, and his hands are taut, with fingers extended in torment. To the right of Christ, the Virgin Mary, St. John, and Mary Magdalen despair at the death of Christ the man, while to Christ's left, St. John the Baptist serenely points to Christ the savior.” “In contrast to the dark suffering and tragedy of The Crucifixion are the uplifting panels within the altarpiece: Annunciation, Angel Concert for the Madonna and Child, and The Resurrection. The Resurrection is especially luminous in its portrayal of Christ floating up toward heaven. Where Grunewald used color in The Crucifixion to create a dark sense of tragedy and earthly pain, he masterfully used color to create an unearthly sense of light and hope in The Resurrection.” “Albrecht Durer” [CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 7

“It is likely that when German artists began to travel to Italy to study the Renaissance style of the south, Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) was among the first to go. He was so impressed with what he found in Italy that upon returning to the north, he made it his cause to expose his contemporaries to the style of the Italian Renaissance. Though trained as a goldsmith, it is for his prints that he is especially known, and his fame as a craftsman in the art of the woodcut and engraving is as great today as it was during the sixteenth century.” “Durer's unique handling of the woodcut may be seen in his The Riders on the Four Horses from the Apocalypse (c. 1496) [see illustra¬tion 71 which was part of a series of woodcuts he did to illustrate The Revelations of Saint John, from the New Testament. His portrayal of Death trampling a church official, Famine swinging his scales, War with raised sword, and Pestilence with bow and arrow drawn was of a type very different from the traditional woodblock print, which was typically a black and white image with limited contrast. Using the woodcut, Durer was able to incorporate a range of lights and darks (chiaroscuro) that had never been achieved with this medium. By using subtle techniques adopted from the art of engraving, Durer was able to convey a visual sense of mass to his figures that otherwise would have been impossible to accomplish with woodcuts.” “7. Durer, Albrecht. The Riders on the Four Horses From the Apocalypse. (c. 1496)” “Wood Cut.” “The Metropolitan Museum of Art,” “Gift of Junius S. Morgan, 1919. (19.73. 209)” “Durer was also fascinated with the self-portrait and during his lifetime he did many of them. His Self-Portrait of 1500 is notable for its serious, intent expression and frontal pose. Durer's interest in the Italian Renaissance also led him to investigate systematically the depic¬tion of idealized proportions for the human figure. His engraving The Fall of Man (1504), also known as Adam and Eve, portrays Adam and Eve as idealized, not real- life figures. Though they do not quite seem to belong there, they are placed against the backdrop of a forest whose detail implies great attention to nature on the part of the artist. Whereas the figure of Adam is similar to the Italian conception of the perfect male form, that of Eve retains more of the German proportions. Durer has also followed the northern tradition of incorporating a number of visual symbols into his composition. For example, the cat and mouse in the foreground symbolize the tension between Adam and Eve as she offers him the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.” “Durer valued and cultivated his skill of observation, through which he felt he could gain a special kind of knowledge. His respect for nature is reflected in his watercolor The Great Piece of Turf (1503), which is as realistic as it is "true." This particular work is significant in that it is what it appears to be-a still-life-and does not incorporate elements of symbolism in order to legitimize its existence.” “Though there may have been some sense of disparity between the influences of naturalism and idealism in Durer's The Fall of Man (1504), he seems to have at least somewhat resolved the conflict by 1513, when he did the engraving Knight, Death, and Devil. Here, the horse and rider, though idealized, work together within the context of the composition.” “Durer's paintings of religious themes oftentimes carried political overtones as well. In The Four Apostles (1526), presented by Durer to the city of Nuremburg as a gift, the Apostles John and Peter are pictured in one panel, Mark and Paul in the second. Though the overt message is a religious one, the passages from the New Testament inscribed upon the panel frames warn against the actions of man being misinterpreted as the will of God, probably in reference to the friction between the Catholic church and the Protestant movement at the time.” “Hans Holbein the Younger” “Another German artist who integrated the northern manner of realism with the Italian dimension of monumentality was Hans Holbein” “the Younger (1497-1543). Holbein's skills are especially evident in his portraits. The French Ambassadors (1533) illustrates his attention to detail, as seen in the pattern of the floor tiles and the drapery. His sense of organization lends stability and strength to the work, and his use of color adds richness.” “One of Holbein's most famous portraits is of Henry VIII (1540). The pose is rigid, and it is obvious that the artist spent much time attending to the minute detail of his subject's costume. It is the king's mass, however, that has the most impact upon the viewer; it gives the impression that this is not an individual to be trifled with.” ““ “

1. The Art of Fifteenth Century Flanders

During the later Middle Ages France lost its dominating position as a result of the difficulties of the 100 Years War, however its nobility was still dedicated to the acquisition of art. Among the greatest collectors were John Duke of Berry and his brothers. Characteristics of the International Gothic style can be seen in the works commissioned by these men, a good example of which is the Tres Riches Heures painted for the Duke of Berry by the Limbourg Brothers in the early fifteenth century (Figure 184). The noble company out for a ride in the woods wear the elegant costumes, carefully delineated and lavishly decorated with gold, that characterized the aristocratic style. The northern interest in detailed realism, however, was closely interwoven with the characteristics of the International GoWc style in this magnificent book done for a noble patron. The famous calendar pages illustrate the activities of both peasants and nobles that characterized the various months of the year, and shows the fascination with the visible world that was to mark fifteenth century Netherlandish painting.

In the fifteenth century Flanders roughly comprised the area of present day Holland and Belgium. The wealth of Flanders, like that of Florence, was based on trade and banking. Like his brother John, Philip the Bold of Burgundy was a collector. A financially prudent marriage to the daughter of the Count of Flanders made him wealthy enough to pursue his interests in art.

Philip focused his artistic concerns primarily on the establishment of a funerary foundation at the Chartreuse de Champmol near Ditn in Burgundy. He hired Claus Sluter, a sculptor from Holland, to create his tomb, as well as the Well of Moses that stood in the center of the cloister of the Chartreuse (Figure 18 1). Sluter combined powerful volumes with incredible realism in these life sized figures, and he also played a part in the development of what is known as "disguised symbolism." Each of the six prophets portrayed held banderoles foretelling the death of Christ, and the figures formed the base of a huge crucifix. Just as Christ's blood is the water of life, the monument itself formed an actual well from which the monks of the cloister obtained their water. The altarpieces commissioned for the funerary foundation carried on the idea of hidden symbolism, as well as the interest in specific details of the natural world (Figure 18 2). Note particularly the detail of Joseph drinking from a water bag. Broderlam, who painted the work, was also from Holland.

Artists of the Northern Renaissance loved nature, but they looked at it as a reflection of the divine. This reflection of the divine was understood through symbols. When a medieval monk thought about a nut he didn't just think about a thing to eat. The nut was for him a symbol of the mystery of Christ's dual nature—the shell representing His human nature and the nutmeat His divine nature that was hidden in the shell of the mortal body. Symbols have long been used in art and life (a flag is a symbol for a country, a cross is a symbol for Christianity), and symbols were very important for medieval artists. The love of symbolism carried over to the artists of fifteenthcentury Flanders, but these artists added a new dimension to it; they disguised their religious symbols behind a facade of ordinary naturalistic representation, and sanctified nature in so doing.

The aristocratic aspects of the International style were gradually supplanted by the growing realism associated with the rising bourgeoisie, who themselves came to be patrons of the arts. In a work done only ten years after the Tres Riches Heures, the so-called Merode Altarpiece (Figure 185), the triumph of bourgeois realism is apparent. Like the frescoes in Giotto's Arena Chapel (Figure 15-12), the Merode Altarpiece was intended to help the donors gain salvation. In all likelihood, it was placed on an altar near their tomb, where prayers were said for their souls. The form of this altarpiece is very different from Giotto's frescoes, however. While Giotto's scenes were painted in large scale and covered all the wall surfaces of the chapel, Campin's altarpiece is quite small, with the central panel only a little over two feet square. Giotto's work is fixed to the wall, but the Merode Altarpiece is movable. It is formed from three panels. The wings, or outer panels, are hinged and can be closed to cover the inner panel. Giotto's work was done with the full forms and opaque color typical of fresco, the Me'rode Altarpiece shows the careful detailing and brilliant jeweled colors possible with the new technique of oil painting.

We can look at the Merode Altarpiece as a representation of a typical fifteenth-century Flemish house, with two people kneeling in the courtyard on one side, a carpenter working in his shop at the other, and a lady sitting reading in the interior in the center panel. The angel is an obvious symbol, but there are many other hidden symbols in the painting that extend the meaning of the work far beyond the representation of a bourgeois interior. The white lilies in the vase on the table in the central panel could be considered as just decoration, but they are in fact disguised symbols referring to the purity of the Virgin Mary. The water pot in the niche at the back and the clean white towel also refer to Mary's purity. The book she is reading symbolizes her wisdom. The two lions on the bench refer to lions which were on the throne of wise King Solomon, and thus also symbolize Mary's wisdom. The enclosed garden is a common reference to Mary, while the roses specifically refer to her as "the rose among thorns." Disguised symbolism was an important contribution of the fifteenth-century Flemish masters, and one can have a great deal of fun trying to discover the hidden symbols in their work.

Van Eyck's most important work is the great Gherzt Altarpiece. It has many panels and is called a polyptych. A triptych, as we have seen, has three panels, while a polyptych has many panels. Figure 184 shows the exterior of the altarpiece. Notice the wash basin and towel that are symbolic of the Virgin's purity. The Virgin kneels in a posture of humility as she receives the angel's salutation. His words are written in gold, as is her answer, but look at the letters of her answer. They are written upside down, for they are addressed to God, not to the spectator. The city beyond the parapet and the kneeling donors, Jodocus Vyt and his wife, are shown with incredible realism. These earnest fifteenth-century business people preferred to be shown exactly as they were. Between the donors are figures of the two saint Johns, which look like stone statues for they are painted only in tones of grey. The technique, which was often used on the exterior of altarpieces, was known as grisaille. Earlier in the Middle Ages [CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 9 a grey painted cloth was draped over the altarpiece during Lent, and out of this custom came the idea of painting the exterior of some altarpieces with tones of grey. The altarpiece was closed during the period of Lent, so the people could only see the outside.

The interior of the altarpiece (Figure 18-7) shows Mary, John, and God the Father in the upper register flanked by music making angels with Adam and Eve on the outside. Unlike the other panels, these two seem to have been done with their positioning in mind. Because of this, it is thought that they were painted last, and they certainly represent an advance in realism when compared to the angel and the Virgin from the exterior of the altarpiece. Van Eyck depicts man's moral vulnerability by means of the unprotected naked bodies of Adam and Eve. These figures are far from the glorified nudes of classical antiquity (Figure 5-58). The faces of these ancient figures showed no moral conflict. Instead Van Eyck gives us human beings aware of the dilemma of consciousness. The rest of the altarpiece provides the answer to the human awareness of sin: salvation because of God's love.

Redemption is symbolized by the mystic lamb from the central panel. Christ has become the sacrificial lamb used in earlier religion whose blood washed away the sins of the devout. The hallowed lamb stands on the altar, his blood streaming into the chalice, thus embodying the central mystery of the Mass—the Eucharist—when the wine in the chalice is transformed into the redeeming blood of Christ. The sacrificial blood is symbolized on the tapestry behind God the Father by the pelican, who, according to legend, pierced her own breast with her beak so that her blood might sustain her brood.

The painting of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Bride (Figure 18-10) not only memorialized the marriage, but in all probability it was itself a legal document. The painting represents a transition between medieval and later marriage customs. During the Middle Ages a church ceremony was not necessary. All that was required was for people to promise each other to abide by the marriage vows they exchanged. This system had certain advantages, but it also had certain obvious disadvantages. As a result the marriage contract was developed to cut down on some of the abuses. At this stage a priest was still not necessary, but the vows had to be made before witnesses. We still retain that custom, although a presiding priest or judge is now generally required, although that custom seems to be changing. The Arnolfini wedding portrait is in effect a proof of the marriage, and the presence of the two witnesses who are reflected in the mirror solemnized the marriage. Around the mirror are scenes from Christ's passion, indicating his saving grace. God's presence is symbolized by the single candle, while the shoes symbolize that the marriage takes place in a holy place. The dog symbolizes the bride's fidelity, while the broom symbolizes her wifely duties. A tiny statue of St. Margaret shown on the chair will keep her safe in childbirth.

Rogier Van der Weyden was not as interested in disguised symbolism as Van Eyck had been. The Escorial Deposition (Figure 18-12) is a good indication of his interests, for while Van Eyck excelled in painting the things he saw, Van der Weyden excelled in painting the things he felt. The sixteenth-century biographer of many of the Flemish artists, Karl Van Mander, praised him for his "characterization of emotions such as sorrow, anger, or py, as required by the subject." His mastery of depicting emotion is apparent in the work. The shining tears on the cheeks of the women symbolized what the Italians considered to be the achievement of Flemish art: pictorial brilliance and sentiment.

Hugo Van der Goes' great triptych, the Portinari Altarpiece, done in the 1470s (Figures 18-16 and 18-17) combines an interest in emotional expression with Van Eyck's interest in disguised symbolism. We see the shoe off the foot, again symbolizing holy ground. The pillar supporting the shed prefigures the pillar to which Christ will be tied. The cow who watches the scene symbolizes the Gentiles, while the donkey who ignores it all symbolizes the Jews. The small still life in the front contains many symbols. Wheat refers to Bethlehem, the House of Bread, while flowers refer to the passion or suffering of the Madonna. Irises were known as sword lilies, and the seven columbine flowers refer to the seven sorrows of the Virgin. The grapes depicted on the vase may refer to the wine, which symbolized the blood of Christ at the Eucharist, while the wheat could also refer to the communion wafer, or the body of Christ.

A strange isolation exists between the various figures, and the odd intensity of the composition is most noticeable in the three shepherds who rush in on the right. Notice the characterization of their faces. The strangeness might be explained by the fact of Hugo's emotional difficulties. Hugo became a lay brother in the monastery, and one of the brothers reports that he went through periods of deep depression. He tried to commit suicide at one time because he believed he was possessed by the devil. The huge altarpiece was commissioned by Tommaso Portinari, who was the principle agent for the Medici bank in Flanders. It was sent to Italy shortly after it was completed.

The Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine (Figure 18-18) by Hugo's contemporary Hans Mending shows some interest in symbolism, but it is not disguised. We see St. Catherine kneeling on her wheel, St. John the Evangelist with his chalice, John the Baptist with his lamb, and St. Barbara reading before a small model of her tower. Most of Memling's compositions show the same sweet faces, careful detailing, and balanced grouping. Memling's works were very popular in his own day, and he amassed a very large fortune, becoming one of the hundred richest men in the city of Bruges. Memling's sweet and pious art made him one of the most admired Flemish painters during the nineteenth century, although now most people prefer the work of Van Eyck or Van der Goes.

Suggested Images: Figures 5-58, 15-12, 18-1, 18-2, 18-5, 18-6, 18-7, 18-10, 18-12, 18-16, 18-17, 18-18

2. Bosch and Bnlegel

Both Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel are fascinating and highly individualistic artists, and the art of both of them reflects a strong pessimism. Neither seems to have believed in the power of human reason, but pointed instead to the human capacity for cruelty and folly. The most enigmatic is Hieronymus Bosch. Historical records indicate that Bosch was born in the small town of Hertogenbosch in Holland, and he was reported working there as a painter designing windows, crucifixes, and altars from 1480 to 1512. His death was reported in 1516, but apart from these facts we know little about him except what his work indicates.

The Carrying of the Cross (Figure 18 19) shows faces distorted by hatred. Bosch knew what distortions and what ugliness hatred can cause, and his paintings thus show us sides of ourselves that the idealistic painters of the Italian Renaissance could never show. This painting, as well as the famous Garden of Earthly Delights (Figure 18 20) was painted about the same time as Raphael was painting the Stanza della Segnatura and Michelangelo was at work on the Sistine ceiling. Bosch's Garden of Earthly Delights, a triptych, is the most famous of Bosch's altarpieces. The exterior of the altarpiece (Figure 18 22) shows the earth before the creation of man. The world is represented as a flat plate enclosed within the crystal sphere of the universe. The idyllic landscape represents a combination of the third and fourth days of creation: the creation of the vegetable world and the creation of the sun and moon. One has the feeling that Bosch might have preferred this state of the world, unsullied by man and his sin. Compare Bosch's conception of the creation with Michelangelo's. The three panels of the interior (Figure 18 20) illustrate the state of the world after man was created. The panel on the left represents the Garden of Eden with the creation of Eve. The central panel represents the Garden of Earthly Delights, while the panel on the right represents Hell. On the left wing Eve is represented as the beautiful seductress whose temptation of Adam resulb in the original sin, which seems not so much to have been eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge as of carnal knowledge. The landscape of the Garden of Eden is not idyllic, for even before the Fall the roots of evil are present, as is evidenced by the monsters that come from the Fountain of Life, seemingly swarming to contaminate the earth. The owl hiding in the center probably represents sorcery and witchcraft. This fountain is quite different from the pure crystal water that flowed from the Fountain of Life in Van Eyck's paradise in the Adoration of the Holy Lamb (Figure 18 7).

In the central panel the elegant figures are arranged over the surface of the painting like a tapestry. This is one of the first known representations of masses of people, and these people are doing some of the strangest things imaginable. Some ride animals, others stand on their heads, creep into eggs, hug giant owls, are crushed in giant shells, poke flowers into each other's backsides, and so forth. It is a very odd picture and it has led to much research and speculation. The most fruitful research has been based on the study of old Flemish Proverbs, medieval dream books, and most recently alchemical texts. One seventeenth century Spaniard who was fascinated by the altarpiece followed an old tradition when he said that the animals represent the souls of human beings. In the center is a pool in which women stand with crows, storks, and peacocks on their heads. The birds were considered as symbols of licentiousness, sexual pleasure, and vanity. Around this female center circles a procession of men riding on male animals. Horses, pigs, goats, and mules all symbolized lust. According to a late medieval dream book the huge fish they carry so triumphantly refers to voluptuousness, and the large cherries, strawberries, raspberries, and grapes scattered throughout the composition symbolize the sweet but fleeting pleasures of sexual enjoyment. At least some of that symbolism has survived in contemporary slang. Many of the strange forms of the background resemble alchemical apparatus and they concretely represent the alchemists' transformation of one form of life into another. The black man and white woman embracing inside the flower at the lower left of the central panel may represent the alchemical fusion of opposites, and birds were often used to symbolize the volatile spirits that result from the distillation process. The four stages of the alchemical process are conjunction, coagulation, putrefaction, and cleansing or distillation. The strange figure of the great egg man (Figure 18 21) locked in the ice of hell may represent the alchemical retort at which the process of transformation took place. The alchemists desired not only to transform base metals into gold, but also to transform themselves, and it is perhaps this latter desire that has put him into hell. Although made out of wood like the entire body, the face of this monster is a living face—perhaps representing the soul that is trapped in matter.

Others are tortured in hell as well. In the lower right is a great bird like creature with a pot on its head eating a man. He sits on a wooden throne, and the damned go through, down to hell, passing through his body. A damned soul vomib into the pit, while a monster defecates money into it. Beside this pit a beautiful nude girl is being punished for lechery through the embrace of a hideous monster. Many sins are represented on the [CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 11 panel, each with its appropriate punishment. A proud knight is devoured by his own hunting dogs. The gambler is nailed to the gaming table. Another hand, pierced by a knife, is an anti type for Christ, for its fingers are in the position of blessing. A lecherous nun turned pig embraces a man. Perhaps the most vivid is the musician's hell. Music was supposed to praise God for it reflected the harmonies of the spheres. Secular music had become increasingly important in the northern courts and these musicians are punished for they have used their God given talents for man's pleasure rather than God's glory. Each is punished on his instrument.

Pieter Bruegel was born roughly ten years after Bosch died, and yet his work has more in common with Bosch than with his contemporaries. Bruegel was not considered a great artist in his own day because he did not adopt the so called grand "Roman" style derived from the Italians that was fashionable with his contemporaries (Figures 18 43 and 18 44). He did travel to Italy, but he seems to have been more interested in the Alps than in the paintings that he saw there. He seemed to prefer landscapes to people, and when he did paint people it was as types rather than as individuals, as you can see from his portrayal of Hunters in the Snow (Figure 1846). It is one of a series of the Months and it is most likely based on the calendar illustrations from Flemish Books of Hours like the Tres Riches Heures (Figure 18 4), but Bruegel differs from the earlier works in subordinating the doing of men to the moods of nature, giving the particular atmosphere of each season. Men and animals are an integral part of the landscape and do not dominate it. The January scene of Hunters in the Snow is the most famous of the series. Notice the stark contrasts of black and white. The mountains are undoubtedly based on sketches Bruegel did of the Alps on his trip to Italy.

Bruegel's biographer Van Mander, indicated that he liked to attend peasant celebrations like the Peasant Dance shown in Figure 18 47. He used to wear their native dress in order to mix, but he was not himself a peasant. It is the city man that glorifies the rustic life, not the man who has had to work the soil. Sebastian Frank, a philosopher contemporary with Bruegel, gave the following definition of mankind: "There is one equal life on earth. All men, one man. Who sees one natural man, sees them all." These words seem to explain the mask like faces of Bruegel's figures. Bruegel avoids painting detailed descriptions of the psychology of his figures. They are not individuals, but automatons. He painted no portraits and his figures, like Bosch's, represent the anonymous mass of humanity. In one of his very last works, the Parable of the Blind, he expresses his complete pessimism regarding human destiny, for blind men lead other blind men and all tumble into oblivion. b He lu am 'Mu ~~'S 5 o 5 y 5 'S 18 22, 18 43, 1844, 18 46, 18 47

3. German Artists and Italy

During the period of the Italian High Renaissance, 1495 to 1527, Gerrnany, too, experienced a period of brilliant activity in the arts. About the same time that the High Renaissance was symbolically closed by the sack of Rome, the period of German activity and creativity was waning, for two of the most important artists, Grunewald and Durer, died in 1528 and a third, Holbein, had already made one trip to London, and was to settle there permanently three years later. Most important of all, the Protestant iconoclasts had begun their ravages: religious art works of the past were destroyed and new ones were no longer commissioned. German art from roughly 1495 to 1528 was exciting and turbulent for it reflected not only the heritage of Northern Gothic realism, but also a spiritual malaise that was to burst forth in the Reformation itself, as well as the new spirit of Italian Renaissance art that was beginning to make itself felt in Germany.

The underlying Gerrnan sense of spiritual anxiety, as well as the use of engraving, one of the graphic techniques at which the Germans excelled, can be seen in Martin Schongauer's representation of The St. Anthony Tormented by Demons (Figure 18 30). It is a visionary experience unlike anything an Italian artist would have done.

The great contrast between Germany and the south can be seen in a comparison of Matthias Grunewald's Isenheim Altarpiece (Figures 18 33 and 18 34) and Raphael frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura (Figure 17 16). These two works, which were done about the same time, illustrate not only the favorite format and media of the two countries—frescoed walls of Italy versus a complex altarpiece known as a "polyptych" painted in oil of the North; the two works also reflect the different emotional and intellectual emphasis of North and South. The Humanism implicit in Raphael's School of Athens is a different world from the intensely mystical and emotional view of the Isenheim Altarpiece. Grunewald must have been familiar with the writings of the mystics, whose visions are so far from the concerns of the Italian Humanists. The Revelations of St. Bridget of Sweden, an important fourteenth century mystic, were published in Germany in 1500, and could have served as text for Grunewald's Crucifixion. I quote her description of the dead Christ: "The ribs protruded and could be counted. After the moisture was consumed, the stomach receded to the back. The crown of thorns was impressed on his head; it covered half the forehead. The blood ran in many rills . . . Then the odor of death spread . . . After He had expired, the mouth gaped, so that the spectators could see the tongue, the teeth, and the blood in the mouth. The eyes were cast down. The knees were bent to one side; the feet were twisted around the nails as if they were on hinges . . . the cramped fingers and arms were stretched." The central section of the altarpiece opens and folds back revealing four scenes that create a mood of joy and triumph: an Annunciation; the Angel Concert; the Virgin and Child; and a representation of the Resurrected Christ (Figure 18 34). In this painting the surging figure has broken the ties that bound him to the material world; he has been completely dematerialized into light.

While the work of Grunewald stands in complete contrast to that being done in Italy, Albrecht Durer tried to integrate lessons from Italy into his own very northern style. Durer is a fascinating man, one who seems to be tortured by his struggle to make the change from medieval artisan to artist in the contemporary Italian sense of the word. A key to Durer's psyche can perhaps be found in his many self portraits, as well as those he did of others, for example the one of Hieronymus Holzschuher (Figure 18 38). Kenneth Clark believes that Durer's portraits revealed the selfconscious introspection, the spiritual uneasiness, and even the hysteria that he felt to be key ingredients in the sixteenth century German soul. His portraits show an inner intensity that is far from the serenity and graciousness of Raphael's portrait of Castiglione that can be included for contrast (Figure 17 18). It is not difficult to imagine that it was these sixteenth century Germans, rather than the Italians like Castiglione, who were the revolutionaries. Durer yearned to be like Castiglione's ideal Renaissance man, but his passionate German soul would never allow him that sense of ease that is such an important attribute of Castiglione's courtier. But out of the conflicts between German realism and expressiveness and the desire for Italian ideal form, Durer created an impressive body of work.

He constantly painted himself: as a boy, as a young dandy, and even in a rigid hieratic frontal pose usually reserved for representations of God. He was intensely moody and went through deep depressive states as well. It is commonly believed that Durer's etching of Melencolta (Figure 18 39) is a spiritual self portrait, representing the deep despondency and inactivity caused by the knowledge of the limits of one's powers. Panofsky wrote a comprehensive study of this work in which he discusses the fusion of the Neo Platonic concept of the "divine Frenzy" of an artist and the astrological belief that Melancholics were under the influence of the planet SahlrnW Geniuses were born under this perilous but powerful signs but they were often found to walk the lonely n3i of the Child of Saturn. 0

D;irer traveled to Venice twice where he reacted strongly to the culture he found there. On the first trip he was shocked at their worldly behavior. He still remembered the German preachers who prophesied that the end of the world was at hand, citing as evidence its current state of corruption. When he returned home he began work on the powerful series of woodcuts that illustrated St. John's vision of the end of the world as told in the book of Revelation. The most famous image of the series was the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Figure 18 35). One rider, carrying a bow and wearing a crown, rides a white horse; another, carrying a sword, rides a red horse; the third, with a pair of scales in his hand, rides a black horse. I will use the words of St. John to describe the fourth: "And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. And Power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth." Durer made the woodcut series for public sale, one of the first times an artist had created a work of art on speculation, not on commission. The woodcuts were tremendously popular with the public for they expressed the values of a Germany that was ripe for the Reformation. The series continues to be popular, for its Apocalyptic thinking has a contemporary relevance as well. Just as Germans of the late fourteen hundreds believed that the world was going to come to a close at about lS00, many people today predict the end of the world about the year 2000, whether it is brought on by overpopulation, pollution, corruption, or a nuclear holocaust.

In 1505 Durer returned to Venice. He was more mature, both emotionally and artistically, and was better able to appreciate the things Venice had to offer. While in Venice, Durer received commissions, and he even took dancing lessons. He was particularly impressed with the position held by artists in Italy. As he was about to leave Venice, Durer wrote his friend Willibald Pirckheimer: "Oh, how I shall freeze for the south. Here I am a gentleman, at home a parasite." Durer was also ready to learn the "rules" of Italian art, for he had come to believe that "German artists were in need of instruction for they lack all real art theory."

One of the most important things Durer learned from Italy was. the classical canon of proportions. Durer's engraving of Adam in Adam and Eve (Figure 1S36) is based on the classical Apollo Belvedere. Although the figure of Eve seems much more Germanic, he did use the classical proportions for her as well. Durer's interest in proportions continued, and at the time of his death in 1528 he was writing a treatise on human proportion and physiognomy. The careful depiction of the trees and animals in Adam and Eve reveal his northern concern for the realistic world of nature, a concern that is marvelously represented in The Great Piece of Turf (Figure 18 37).

In the painting of the Four Apostles (Figure 1840) that was done in 1525, Durer most effectively combined the Italian sense of monumental form and balance with a Northern sense of minute realism and psychological portraiture. The four figures actually represent three apostles, John, Peter, and Mark, and one evangelist— Paul. Although you might mistake the picture for an Italian example if you looked only at the poses and the monumental drapery, you would never make that mistake if you looked carefully at the faces.

While artists like Cranach adopted classical subjects like the Judgment of Parts (Figure 18 32), he did not attempt to use classical proportions. The northern artist who best understood the classical approach to art was Hans Holbein. Holbein is very different from Durer: he had none of the [CHP. 16- 16TH CENTURY PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE] P A G E | 13 latter's vision, and while Durer created symbolic characters like Melencolia, Holbein was best at portraits. While Durer was a man of passion in conflict with himself, Holbein was cool and slightly skeptical. He got into trouble with the passionate protestants in his native Basel, for he could not accept their fanaticism. He was much more at home with Erasmus, the Dutch Humanist, who gave him a letter of introduction to Sir Henry Moore in England. He painted many portraits for the Royal Court, including the elegant double portrait of the French Ambassadors (Figure 18 41). These urbane men are much different from the passionate people represented by Durer. Holbein maintains the northern love of detail, but he is able to incorporate a sense of monumentality and calm into his works. The floor tiles show a complete command of perspective, and each object is depicted with great care. The objects all make symbolic reference to one or the other of the two men, one a cleric, the other an explorer. One can interpret the strange object at the bottom by placing a mirror at an angle to it, for then it reveals itself as a strangely distorted skull, and it refers to the common Humanist device of the memento more or remember death so that one might live correctly.

Suggested Images: Figures 17 16, 17 18, 18 30, 18 32, 18 33, 18¬34, 18 35, 18 36, 18 37, 18 38, 18 39, 1840, 1841